Polysemy of Verbs

Figurative polysemy, in which a word's original meaning is extended into domains for which it did not originally apply, is a pervasive property of human language. Previous research using cross-linguistic (English/Spanish) data has shown that an important set of similarities and differences in patterns of figurative verb polysemy between counterpart verbs in two languages can be explained by detailed analysis of the event structures of each verb (McNally and Spalek, 2022). Here we treat a complementary case involving counterpart verbs in two languages which share the same basic event structures but differ in details of conceptual (or 'root') content, most importantly in the semantic restrictions on their participants. We show how, in this sort of case, the verbs will describe the same types of situations and be amenable to similar figurative extensions as long as their respective semantic restrictions can be met, but not otherwise. Teasing apart contrasts due to variation in event structural vs. conceptual content can shed light both on debates about the relation between root and grammatical content, as well as on the challenges of establishing lexical equivalences for verbs, be it for purposes of translation or for cross-linguistic comparison and the creation of lexical resources.

يتناول هذا البحث دراسة مصحف مبكر محفوظ في المكتبة الوطنية الفرنسية بباريس (Arabe 325 j) مع ورقات تابعةٍ له محفوظة بمكتبة غوتا للأبحاث بجامعة إرفورت برقم (Ms. orient. Ar 451)، ويُقدّر زمنه بحوالي القرن الثالث. يتميز المصحف باشتماله على ثلاث قراءات من القراءات السبع المشهورة. يسعى البحث إلى تحديد هذه القراءات وكيفية تدوينها في المصحف، مع تسليط الضوء على أهمية المصحف في ضوء ذلك. استند البحث إلى استقراء واستخراج القراءات من المصحف، مع مقارنتها بالقراءات السبع المشهورة المذكورة في كتاب النشر لابن الجزري، ثم تحليل النتائج لإبراز أهمية المصحف في تاريخ القراءات والمصاحف المبكرة. أظهر البحث أن المصحف ضُبط وفق طريقة النقط المدوّر، واشتمل على قراءة حمزة والكسائي الكوفيين وقراءة نافع المدني من رواية ورش المصري، واستخدمت فيه ثلاثة ألوان لتمييز القراءات في المصحف، وهي الأحمر والأخضر والأصفر. يعد هذا المصحف أقدم مصحف معروف حتى الآن مشتمل على هذا العدد من القراءات المشهورة. سلط البحث الضوء على أهمية هذا المصحف من حيث كونه شاهدًا ماديًا على دقة تدوين القراءات في المصادر، ومن حيث كونه يعزز ظاهرة الارتباط الوثيق بين قراءتي حمزة الكوفي ونافع المدني من رواية ورش المصري في العديد من المصاحف المبكرة، ويوسع آفاق البحث في المصاحف المبكرة وطرق ضبطها وفي تاريخ القراءات.

(Arabe 325 j): An early Kufic Qur'an with three readings of the seven

This research examines an early Mushaf (Arabe 325 j) preserved in the Bibliothèque nationale de France, along with its companion folios housed in the Gotha Research Library at the University of Erfurt (Ms. orient. Ar 451), estimated to date back to around the third century. This Mushaf is distinguished by its inclusion of three of the seven famous readings. The study aims to identify these readings, analyze how they were recorded in the Mushaf, and highlight its significance in this context.

The research methodology involved extrapolating and extracting the readings from the Mushaf, comparing them with the seven canonical readings documented in Ibn al-Jazari's al-Nashr, and analyzing the findings to underscore the importance of this Mushaf in the history of Qira'at and early Qur'anic manuscripts.

The study revealed that the Mushaf was vocalized using the dotted notation system and included the reading of Hamza and Al-Kisai of Kufa, as well as that of Nafi‘ of Medina as transmitted by Warsh of Egypt. Additionally, three colors—red, green, and yellow—were used to distinguish the different readings within the manuscript.

This Mushaf stands as the earliest known Qur'anic manuscript to incorporate this number of canonical readings. The research highlights its significance as a tangible witness to the precision of recording Qira'at in classical sources and as evidence of the close relationship between the readings of Hamza of Kufa and Nafi‘ of Medina as transmitted by Warsh of Egypt in many early manuscripts. Moreover, this study broadens the scope of research on early Qur'anic manuscripts, vocalization methods, and the history of Qira'at.

What makes a text literary? The literary ability confers the way of narrating and ordering events. In the Prague Circle [1], the concept of literaryness arose for the first time; R. Jakobson affirmed that the "literary thing is not in the ornaments of the text, but in the revaluation of the same, because the purpose of the author is aesthetic.

cberna en pdi ucam edu Resumen Este artículo se propone ahondar en la diferenciación y en el contraste de las estructuras sintáctica y semántico-conceptual de dos verbos sinónimos o cuasi sinónimos pertenecientes a la subclase semántica comunicación en español: contestar y responder, gracias a los datos de frecuencia y co-ocurrencia proporcionados por el corpus

This article focuses on a core linguistic issue that is the verbal polysemy. It offers a practical approach that uses western researches about three verbs: to cut, to play and to begin. The theoretical frame of this study is cognitive sciences and other new related theories: active zones theory, facets theory and computational linguistics. This study tries to approach this phenomenon from the perspective of parts of speech. It tries to draw some conclusions that deepen vision to verbal polysemy from cognitive perspective. It concludes that it would be better to view polysemy in parallel with model and lexical sides together, when studying polysemy phenomenon, in general, and verbal polysemy, in particular.

Resumen Se presenta el Diccionario contrastivo de valencias verbales español-alemán (DCVVEA) y se describe brevemente su estructura y el proceso de elaboración, ilustrándolos con una unidad de descripción lexicográfica, en este caso una acepción con un ...

Esta investigación se centra en el estudio de la estructura argumental y en los esquemas sintácticos de una clase de verbos poco estudiada del español: los verbos de cambio de postura (p. ej. levantarse, sentarse, etc.). Para lograr este objetivo, se ha estructurado este Trabajo Fin de Máster en dos partes interconectadas. En primer lugar, se ofrece una revisión de las obras especializadas en torno al objeto de estudio, con el fin de delimitar las principales clasificaciones de estos verbos. En segundo lugar, se analizan las estructuras sintáctico-semánticas de los verbos de postura-posición en ADESSE: Base de datos de Verbos, Alternancias de Diátesis y Esquemas Sintáctico-Semánticos del Español (ADESSE). Finalmente, se comprueba si los resultados del análisis a partir de los datos obtenidos son o no los esperables de acuerdo con la bibliografía consultada. Palabras clave: verbos de postura-posición, ADESSE, verbos pronominales, realizaciones valenciales, alternancia verbal.

This paper analyzes a case of Italian word-formation, in which the semantics of the derived words appears to contain mutually exclusive ambiguities. Italian productively derives verbs of removal from nouns. These verbs have the general semantic form A removes X from Y. However, there are two subtypes that differ in whether the nominal base of the derived verb is taken to be the FIGURE or the GROUND: scremare 'to skim'; (crema 'cream') is a FIGURE-verb, and stanare 'to make come out of the burrow' (tana 'burrow') is a GROUND-verb. Traditional approaches are at a loss to give a uniform account for the semantics of derivational processes of these two kinds. In this paper, a uniform analysis is proposed. It is based upon the model of lexical semantics known as two-level semantics. Two-level semantics makes a distinction between a layer of meaning which is defined by grammar, and a level of interpretation, which is based upon conceptual knowledge. We propose that the derivation of Italian denominal verbs of removal of both types starts from a single underspecified representation, which is then specified at the conceptual level; depending on the concept type of the base, the denominal verb is either a FIGURE-verb or a GROUND-verb. In general, this paper argues that the two-level approach to semantics can be fruitfully improved by combining it with the notion of underspecification. And on a more general level, it is an example of how language specific semantics may be embedded in cognitive structure. (2) GROUND-verbs stanare 'to make come out of the burrow'; cf. tana 'burrow' snidare 'to drive out' cf. nido 'nest' scarcerare 'to release (from prison)' cf. carcere 'prison' scassare 'to remove from a box' cf. cassa 'box; case' sganciare 'to unhook; to unfasten' cf. gancio 'hook' sbarcare 'to unload; to disembark' cf. barca 'boat' Both types of DVRs are causative verbs of removal of an object X from another object Y. We call the movable object FIGURE, and the unmovable one GROUND. Thus, DVRs can be assigned the general semantic structure A removes figure X from ground Y. The two subtypes differ in the way the two locative slots FIGURE and GROUND are filled by the nominal base. In FIGURE-verbs, the nominal base fills the FIGURE-slot (cf. scremare 'to remove the cream from something') and in GROUND-verbs, it fills the GROUND-slot (cf. stanare 'to remove something from the burrow'). The question is whether we can account for both types of DVRs with one derivational process, or whether we have to assume two processes. In this paper, we argue that one underspecified derivational process can account for the two subtypes. The difference between the subtypes is only spelled out at the conceptual level. This is confirmed by the observation that the concept type of the base determines to which class a DVR belongs. The paper is organized as follows: In the first part (section 1), we discuss some general assumptions which underlie this study. We give a descriptive account of Italian DVRs (section 2) and propose a rule which generates them with an underspecified semantics (sections 3 and 4). We then discuss the problem of how this underspecification is resolved (section 5) and how nouns must be represented in the lexicon in order to make the resolution possible (section 6).

This article deals with the user-friendliness of bilingual (Italian-German) dictionaries. It focuses
more specifically on the use of dictionaries by Italian-speaking learners of German and presents
two tests which consist in the translation of sentences with collocations into German (test 1) and
into Italian (test 2). These tests allow, on the one hand, to understand users’ skills, their expectations
and problems when consulting the dictionary and, on the other hand, they highlight some
of the dictionary’s limitations, thus allowing a metalexicographical analysis. Dictionary usage
research and dictionary critique can contribute to the constant improvement of dictionaries,
making them more user-friendly and more accurate in their presentation, because it is only by
observing the “user-in-actu” (Wiegand 1998: 501) that weaknesses and ambiguities in the dictionaries
can be discovered.

This study investigates the applicability and suitability of the syntactic decomposition approach to account for the causative and anticausative alternation in Kikongo (Kizombo) in terms of the structural nodes of Voice, vCAUS and Root as posited in this approach to (anti-)causativity (see Alexiadou 2010). In addition, the aspectual approach postulated by Vendler (1957) and further developed by Verkuyl (1972) and Smith (1997) is invoked for the reason that the two alternants in the causative and anticausative alternation in Kikongo (Kizombo) are associated with aspectual verb class differences. Research on the causative and anticausative alternation has long been the focus of extensive work in typological and theoretical linguistics. Two central issues revolve around the debate: first the properties of meaning that determine the alternation and the derivational relationship between the alternants, and second, the relation between the causative alternation and other transitivity alternations, e.g. passives and middles. This dissertation demonstrates that there is a wide range of acceptability judgments associated with anticausative uses of Kizombo in externally and internally caused change of state and change of location/position verbs. The verb root is the element of meaning that allows the Kizombo verbs to alternate irrespective of their verb classes, including agentive verb roots. All the causative variants of externally caused verbs are morphologically unmarked, but all the anticausative variants are morphologically marked. However, all the internally caused change of state verbs are morphologically unmarked. Both the causative and anticausative variants of change of location/position verbs are morphologically unmarked. The anticausative and passive sentences can license an external causer through an implicit argument. While the passive verb sentences can be modified by by-agent, purpose clause and agent-oriented phrases, the anticausative sentences can be modified by instrument, natural force, agent-oriented and by-self phrases. The acceptability of modifiers with anticausatives and passives presupposes a presence of a causer in both constructions. The causative form of change of location/position verbs is syntactically intransitive (i.e. in the locative-subject alternation), but its anticausative variant acquires a transitive-like form. Thus, the concept of causative is related to cause and effect of the argument participating in the process. The study considers competing approaches concerning the derivational direction of the causative and anticausative alternation. Given the data in Kizombo, it is argued that the syntactic decomposition approach is the most appropriate to account for the example sentences in the causative and anticausative constructions. The transitive approach could probably deal with the externally caused change of state verbs, as discussed in chapter 6, but would face a Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za iii challenge relating to the change of location/position verbs because none of the variants is morphologically marked.

cberna en pdi ucam edu Resumen Este artículo se propone ahondar en la diferenciación y en el contraste de las estructuras sintáctica y semántico-conceptual de dos verbos sinónimos o cuasi sinónimos pertenecientes a la subclase semántica comunicación en español: contestar y responder, gracias a los datos de frecuencia y co-ocurrencia proporcionados por el corpus

The COMREGLA XML annotation system allows detailed syntactic and semantic analysis of Latin and Ancient Greek texts, although it could be applied to any Indo-European language. It is based on a 2-layer stand-off markup depending on the linguistic unit to be analyzed.
At the word level (§ I) the words of a text are tokenized. Each of these forms is assigned a unique identification. In addition, its morphological information is detailed: the lemma to which it belongs and its morphological characteristics in a ten-position alphanumeric code.
At the predicative level (§ II), of greater complexity, texts are divided into sentences which group all the forms comprised between strong punctuation. Between sentences and words, an intermediate unit of analysis is considered, clauses, understood as structures formed by a verb and its complements. Every sentence can be composed of one (simple sentences) or several clauses (complex sentences).
Clauses are the basic and fundamental unit of linguistic analysis in the theoretical framework underlying the model presented here. It is important to note the semantic and lexical characteristics of the predications themselves and their components, as well as the syntactic and semantic relations established not only between their elements, but also between the clauses themselves in complex sentences.

Çağdaş Uygur Türkçesi, Doğu Türkistanda eski Uygur Türkçesi'nin zaman içindeki çeşitli gelişmelerine ve değişmelerine bağlı olarak şekillenmiş, 1930'lu yıllardan sonra Çağatay Türkçesi geleneğinden farklılaşarak ortaya çıkmış Türk yazı dilidir. Çağdaş Uygur Türkçesi, bugün özellikle Orta-Asyada Türkistan adını verdiğimiz çok geniş bir coğrafyada büyük bir Türk nüfusu tarafından kullanılmaktadır.Çağdaş Uygur Türkçesi'nin ve Türkiye Türkçesi'nin dil mantığı açısından günümüze kadarki gelişimini ve ses olaylarındaki değişimini göstermek ve çok az farklılıkları bulunan ortak kelimeleri fonetik ve morfolojik bakımdan incelemek konumuzun amacını teşkil etmiştir. Çalışmamızda sayısız ortak Türkçe kelime bulunmuş ve üzerinde çalışmalar yapılmıştır. Türkiye Türkçesi ve Uygur Türkçesi ile ilgili sözlükler ana kaynaklarımızı, Uygur Türkçesi ile yazılmış çeşitli eserler ise örneklendirmede başvuru kaynaklarımızı oluşturmuştur. Kelimelerin telaffuzunda doğru teşhisler koymamız için Uygur Türkçesi konuşan ve bu alanda çalışmalar yapmış kişiler en güvenilir tanıklarımızdır.Çalışmamız iki bölümden oluşmaktadır. Birinci bölüm, Uygur Türkçesi'nin ve Türkiye Türkçesi'nin ortak ses ve şekil özelliklerini içermektedir. İkinci bölümde ise ortak kelimeler açıklamalarıyla karşılıklı olarak gösterilmiştir. İkiye ayrılmış sayfa düzeninde Uygur Türkçesi ile Türkiye Türkçesin'deki bütün isimler (bitki, hayvan ve ülke isimleri dahil), fiiller, sıfatlar, edatlar, zarflar, zamirler, isim-fiiller, zarf-fiillerin kullanımları ve biçimleri tek tek ele alınmıştır.Sonuç olarak Uygur Türkçesi'nin ve Türkiye Türkçesi'nin yakın akraba dil olduğu kanısına bir kez daha ulaşılmış ve örneklerle ıspatlanmaya çalışılmıştır.Anahtar Kelimeler: Dil, morfoloji, ponetik, ses, kelimeler.

Katkısız eylemler tümce içerisinde kendi başına bulunamayan ve başka bir eylem ya da adsıl ile birlikte kullanılan eylemlerdir (Butt, 2004; Karimi-Doostan, 2005; Kearns, 2002). Çokanlamlı eylemlerin hem sözlüksel hem de katkısız eylem olarak dillerde kullanımı vardır. Derlemlerde çokanlamlı eylemlerin katkısız eylem olarak kullanımları aynı eylemlerin sözlüksel olarak kullanımlarından daha fazla olma eğilimindedir (Gilquin, 2008; Mehl, 2021; Sinclair, 1991; Werner ve Mukherjee, 2012). Bu çalışmada, çokanlamlı at- eyleminin sözlüksel ve katkısız eylem olarak kullanım sıklıkları Türkçe Ulusal Derlem (TUD) v3.0 (Aksan ve ark., 2016) üzerinden belirlenmiş ve hem derlemde en sık kullanılan sözlüksel anlamı hem de Uçar (2009)’daki anlam üretimi testinde anadili konuşucularının ilk akıllarına gelen anlam olarak verdikleri yanıtlardan yola çıkılarak
sırasıyla derlem sıklığına dayalı ve bilişsel belirginlik olarak öntiplik tanımları yapılmıştır. Eylemin katkısız eylem yapıları derlemdeki eşdizimlilik örüntülerine dayalı olarak tanımlanmıştır. Derlemde at- eyleminin katkısız eylem olarak kullanımının sözlüksel eylem olarak kullanımından daha sık olduğu belirlenmiştir.

Kavram anlambilimi ile sözcük anlambilimi; kavramların zihindeki temsili ile sözcüğün sözlükçedeki temsili arasındaki ilişki, birbirlerinden farklı ancak ayrılmaz oluşları ile özetlenebilir. Bilişsel Dilbilim yaklaşımı bu ilişkiyi, ilk sıradakilerin kapsayıcı olduğu bir içerme ilişkisi olarak görür (Dirven ve Verspoor, 2004; Evans ve Green, 2006). Sözlükçenin düzenlenişi, farklı sözcük türlerinin sözlükçede yer alışları ile açıklanabilir. Birimlerin anlamsal ve sözdizimsel davranışları ise bu düzenlenişi anlamada eşit derecede önemlidir. Sözcük Ağı veritabanı (Miller, 1995; Fellbaum, 1998) sözcüklerin bilişte yakın bulunuşlarını eşsetler (İng. synsets) üzerinden ortaya koymayı amaçlar. Bu çalışmada, Türkçede bir grup eylem temelinde şu araştırma soruları yanıtlanmaya çalışılmıştır: 1. Eylemlerin sözlük tanım metinleri çözümlendiğinde ortaya çıkan sözcük sıklıkları ile anlam ilkeli olma ve potansiyel eşset olma durumları nedir? 2. Tanımlardaki bu sözcükler ile Türkçe anadili konuşucularının eylemlere ilişkin yargıları örtüşmekte midir? Bu sorular özelinde, Türkçe sözcük ağının eylem ağı ayağı nasıldır? ve Türkçe eylem sözlükçe yapılanması nasıldır? kuramsal sorularının yanıtlanmasına katkıda bulunulması hedeflenmiştir.

The fact that the knowledge of foreign languages ??contributes to the emotions of a positive and positive business man, as well as changes his worldview, is discussed Niyu does not fall under. This article deals with the research of scientists, who, according to certain foreign languages, think differently than those who do not own them. Moreover, the level of knowledge of a foreign language does not have a meaning, the main thing is general communication in this language. According to the notes, when studying a foreign language, one should not only pay attention to the language and language skills of the language, but also try to come close to the present language of thinking about thinking. This explains the fact that the world view of foreign foreign languages ??is different. The latter are perceived by different world cultures according to ben no mo free. Scientists argue that studying foreign languages ??contributes to the basic understanding of their own culture.

The study focuses on the lexemes formed with the-sAl morpheme in academic Turkish. The-sAl morpheme included in the study is one of the most discussed morphemes in Turkish. The related discussions focus on the fact that-sAl morpheme is formed as a result of a single structure or combination with different morphemes, whether it exists in Turkish, the fact that it has emerged through copying from Latin languages, and the reasons for its use. The purpose of the study is to shed light on the frequencies of the lexemes in which the-sAl morpheme is used in academic Turkish in terms of collocations and collocation frequencies. The research data were obtained from two corpuscles of 4,458,049 lexemes in the field of social sciences and 4,121,437 lexemes in the field of science. Within the scope of the study, 54 words in social sciences and 35 in sciences, which have a frequency of more than 100 in social sciences and science corpora and were formed with-sAl morpheme, were determined together with their lexeme frequency and collocations. The subject of the study was compared with the Chi-Square Test for One Sample in terms of lexeme frequencies and collocation frequencies. The study results revealed that the lexemes formed with the-sAl morpheme was numerically, mean of frequency and sums of collocation numbers higher in social sciences, but they had no statistically significant difference between social sciences and science in terms of averages of collocation numbers.

This paper sets out to identify the semantic and syntactic context of change-of-state verbs, taking into account both their argument and syntactic structure, in order to pave the way to the establishment of robust lexicographical criteria in accordance with the particular constructions that are characteristic of such verbs. We will also illustrate the inadequacy of certain verb definitions in order to demonstrate the need to specify verbal arguments and syntactic behaviour.

A construction is any linguistic expression, no matter how concrete or abstract, that is directly associated with a particular meaning or function, and whose form or meaning cannot be compositionally derived. According to the collostructional method, it covers abstract syntactic structures like phrasal categories, argument structures, tense, aspect, mood, etc. Constructional approach viewes both lexicon and grammar as consisting of meaningful units, and hence of linguistic signs. In view of this, this study will analyse Turkish purpose constructions according to the collostruction approach (Strefanowitch and Gries, 2004). The data is derived from TUD (v3.0) and the purpose constructions –mAk icin, -mAsI icin, -mAk uzere are analysed according to the collostruction analyses approach. The analyses show that these contructions form strong correlations with the collexemes they appear with. Thus, their covarying lexemes also point that they have certain semantic tendencies. They display ...

Metaphor and metonymy have been discussed within the scope of figures of speech in literature studies and investigated at lexical level in rhetoric, semantic and hermeneutic approaches. The phenomena of metaphor, which can be defined as "giving a name of an entity to another entity", and metonymy, which can be defined as "using a word in another sense with a purpose of similarity and relation" have transcended the lexical level with the emergence of Cognitive Grammar in the late 1970's, and have been discussed with regard to conceptual constructs. While metaphors are defined as processes which match a conceptual field with another conceptual field in Cognitive Grammar, metonymies are defined as matchings between concepts which are in the same conceptual field. The idea that metaphor and metonymy could have an interaction has started to be expressed and argued that these two conceptual phenomena formed a conceptual complex which he called "metaphtonymy". This study aims at investigating this conceptual complex, which we coined as "düzeğretilemece" in Turkish using a database comprising of idioms which include words denoting body parts. The study argues that there is an interaction between metaphor and metonymy in Turkish and the conceptual complex of metaphtonymy is present in Turkish as proposed by and Ruiz de Mendoza and Galera-Masegosa (2011).

iyelik evrensel bir anlambilim alanıdır, yani dillerin iyelik kavramı için değişik anlatırnlarının olması beklenir. Ancak iyelik anlatırnlarının çeşitli anlam içerikleri vardır. Bu anlam içerikleri iyelik kavramı için değişik tanırnlar yapılmasına neden olmuştur. Kimi yazarlar iyeliği iki varlık arasındaki soyut ilişki yani bir varlığın diğeriyle kurduğu anlıksal temas (mental contact) olarak tanırolarken (Langacker, 1993), kimileri de kavramsal bir ilişki örüntüsu olarak açıklar. Yani, iyelik kişi ile yakınları, beden bölümleri, eşyaları, kültürel ve zihinsel ürünleri arasındaki ilişkidir (Seiler, 1983) (Heine 1997 içinde: 84). Diller arasında iyelik anlatımında gözlenen temel ayrım devredilebilir iyelik (alienable possession) ve devredilernez iyelik (inalienable possession) arasındadır.

Bu çalışmada, Türkçe ve İngilizce açıklayıcı anlatım biçimli yazılı metinlerde kullanılan sözdizimsel yapıların, sözdizimsel girişimine neden olabilecek kültür-bağımlı özellikler gösterip göstermediğini araştırmayı amaçladık. Diğer bir deyişle, açıklayıcı anlatım biçimli Türkçe ve İngilizce metinlerin retorik düzenlemelerinde kullanılan tümce türlerinin dağılımını saptamaya çalıştık.

The purpose of the present paper is to describe basic facts about relative clause constructions in two related languages spoken at the northern edge of theCameroonianGrassfields,MungbamandMundabli. Though the two languages are notmutually intelligible, there is considerable contact between their speakers, and basic as well as non-trivial formal properties relevant to relative clause constructions are to a large extent isomorphic in the two languages. We therefore find it profitable to present relative clause constructions in the two languages as variations on a single basic system.

Geleneksel Mantık temelli ulamlaştırmanın ulamların üyelik yapılarını ele alış biçiminin zihnin çalışma ilkeleriyle uyuşmadığı, Zadeh'in kuramsal, Rosch'un ise deneysel çalışmalarıyla ispatlanmıştı. Konuyu ilk defa dilsel çerçevede ele alan Lakoff, ulamların üyelik yapılarını düzenleyerek zayıf, ortalama ve tipik üyeleri dilsel olarak kodlama işlevine sahip geniş bir dilbilgisel sınıfın varlığına dikkat çekmiştir. Derecelendiriciler (hedges), ulamın üyelik yapısındaki hiyerarşinin vurgulanması, ulam sınırlarının kesinleştirilmesi veya esnetilmesinde rol oynayan dilsel araçlardır. Deneysel nitelikteki bu çalışmada, ulamların üyelik yapılarını; üyelerin ulamı temsil yeteneklerini ve derecelendirici ifadelerin Türkçedeki görünümlerini gözlemlemek amacıyla anadili Türkçe olan lisans ve yüksek lisans öğrencilerinden oluşan araştırma grubuna bir sormaca uygulanmıştır. Sormacada, 10 adet ulam ve ulamların her biri için 5'er üye önerilerek üyelerin ilgili ulamları temsil düzeylerini belirten kısa tümceler yazmaları istenmiştir. Bulgular, katılımcıların sormaca ulamlarının üyelik yapılarını dereceli; üyelerin ulamı temsil yeteneklerini ise birbirinden farklı olarak gördüğünü göstermiştir. Bulgularda, "bulanık üye" olarak adlandırılan ve birden fazla ulamın sınırları içinde görülebilen üyelere de rastlanmıştır. Bulgular Türkçede derecelendirmenin pek çok dilsel araçla yapıldığını göstermiştir. Bunların arasında belirteç, sıfat, ilgeç, bağlaç gibi sözcük sınıarı ve soru, kiplik, edilgen çatı gibi dilbilgisel kategoriler öne çıkmaktadır. Bunlara ek olarak, daha çok konuşma diline has ünlem, vurgu ve ezgilendirmenin de derecelendirme işleviyle kullanıldığı tespit edilmiştir. The fact that the way Traditional Logic deals with the internal structure of the categories in terms of membership do not conform to the working principles of the human mind had been proved by theoretical studies of Zadeh and experimental studies of Rosch. It was Lakoff who discussed the issue under the term "hedges" within the linguistic framework for the rst time, drawing attention to presence of a broad grammatical class of expressions which encode the weak, moderate and good members of categories. Hedges are purely linguistic tools for intensifying, extending the boundaries of a category or identifying the typical member of it. In this experimental research, a questionnaire was carried out with a research group of Turkish undergraduate and graduate students in order to observe the categorical membership structure, representative abilities of the members and the hedges in Turkish. In the questionnaire form, 10 superordinate categories were employed and 5 members for each of them were presented. Participants were asked to write short sentences indicating to what degree each member represent the category. Findings showed that the participants saw the category structures graded. The members did not have equal status and some members were cited as members of more than one category. It was seen that hedging could be made linguistically in various ways in Turkish. Among them, the use of grammatical categories like adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions and grammatical categories like modality, interrogation, passive voice could be named. In addition to these, prosodical devices peculiar to the spoken language such as exclamation, stress and intonation were found to function as hedges.

Los objetivos del presente trabajo consisten en estudiar las estructuras posibilitadas por un grupo de verbos que, obligadamente, deben combinarse bien con un complemento de lugar. El estudio de estructuras semanticas tan parecidas condujo a los autores a constatar importantes distinciones sintaticas

La alternancia entre forma preposicional y forma no preposicional del régimen directo es una de las particularidades más llamativas del español. La denominación tradicional «acusativo personal» sólo se justifica en la medida que el referente es animado y determinado. Pero refleja una visión particular de la gramática y de las relaciones gramaticales. Implica, en efecto, que no hay más que una sola construcción transitiva, susceptible de realizarse de dos maneras con arreglo a principios de categorización semántica que operan al nivel del propio régimen. Al considerar como redundante la presencia de la preposición, esta concepción carece, obviamente, de poder explicativo. Además, tampoco es sostenible empíricamente. Dentro del espacio aquí impartido me es, desafortunadamente, imposible detenerme en la insuficiencia de la aproximación tradicional. En cambio, centraré la atención en el planteamiento anunciado por el título, reuniendo una primera serie de indicios que apuntan hacia la e...

The hypothesis is (i) that answering predicates cannot be assimilated to communication predicates, and (ii) that responder and contestar do not have the same meaning. Even where there seems to be some overlap, (i) answering predicates have a proper conceptual structure, and (ii) the individual verbs instantiate a different framing. The meaning structure of the verbs emerges through generalization and specification processes and various mechanisms of metaphorical and metonymical extension. The network metaphor captures the dynamic nature of the semantic categories as well as the relations between them. The variety of constructions brings to the fore the relational dimensions that can be alternately profiled. In order to deal with questions left unaccounted for by exclusively lexicalist or constructionist approaches, the focus is on semantic role fluctuations and on the interaction between constructional meaning and lexical semantics.

The hypothesis is (i) that answering predicates cannot be assimilated to communication predicates, and (ii) that responder and contestar do not have the same meaning. Even where there seems to be some overlap, (i) answering predicates have a proper conceptual structure, and (ii) the individual verbs instantiate a different framing. The meaning structure of the verbs emerges through generalization and specification processes and various mechanisms of metaphorical and metonymical extension. The network metaphor captures the dynamic nature of the semantic categories as well as the relations between them. The variety of constructions brings to the fore the relational dimensions that can be alternately profiled. In order to deal with questions left unaccounted for by exclusively lexicalist or constructionist approaches, the focus is on semantic role fluctuations and on the interaction between constructional meaning and lexical semantics.

En los últimos años han aparecido numerosas investigaciones que han puesto de relieve la importancia que tiene la consideración de la frecuencia en los diversos componentes lingüísticos. El presente trabajo, que se inscribe en la misma dirección, pretende poner de relieve los ajustes conceptuales necesarios para que su aplicación al componente gramatical resulte adecuada. Se propone aquí utilizar como marco genérico la distinción entre frecuencia de inventario y frecuencia de uso, cuya utilidad se muestra al aplicarla a varios fenómenos gramaticales con perspectiva sincrónica y diacrónica.

Following Kennedy and Levin (2001), I will use the term predicate of gradual change to mean almost all accomplishments and all activities, excluding a class of cases describing abrupt transitions like those in (1), discussed in Rothstein (2004): One can separate work on the aspectual nature of gradual change into two broad classes, mereological and degree-based, exemplified in papers like Krifka (1989) and Hay et al. (1999). The degree-based work seeks to explain aspectual properties in terms of degree scales with the same structure as those of adjectives; the mereological work assumes a different, arguably more general, partial order structure, which is also taken to be play a role in the semantics of mass terms. This paper argues that both kinds of structure are necessary for verbs of gradual change and proposes a unified formulation, as well as a diagnostic for separating the cases. I will argue that for a class of problematic predicates lying in a boundary region, and for processes like deverbal adjective creation, a coercion operation mapping from one structure to the other is also necessary. A mereological account is most naturally motivated through the examples of incremental themes (Dowty 1991). The unifying property of these verbs was succinctly stated in Krifka (1989): If an incremental theme verb expresses a relation R and R holds in event e and Θ(e) is the incremental theme, then in any sub-event of e in which R holds a portion or part of Θ(e) stands in the relation R. Incremental theme predicates include eat, learn, write, mow, perform, and read. Degree achievements, in contrast, provide the point of departure for a degree based analysis (Hay et al. 1999, Zucchi 1998, Kennedy and McNally 1999, Kratzer 2000), because they offer a rich stock of cases in which telicity is determined with no reference at all to parts. For example, a suitcase closing (Filip 1999) does not progress by having more and more of the suitcase closed, but by having the suitcase more and more closed. Hay et al. (1999) (HKL) explicitly argue for extending a degree account to the class of incremental theme verbs, suggesting for example, that for a verb like eat, telicity is directly linked to the size or volume of the theme and Kennedy and Levin (2001) (KL) argue for extending it to all verbs of gradual change. They point out, correctly, that while a degree-based acount like theirs can be formulated to explain the aspectual properties Following KL, I shall assume that predicates of gradual change are quantizable properties of events. That is, I assume every degreeable verb α has a change function ∆ e for which it is sensible to write (2). Following HKL, I will refer to q as the difference argument. Mereological accounts may be unified with degree accounts by assuming change functions for them as well, with parts ordered by the part-whole relation as their range. Somewhat surprisingly, the HKL analysis is then completely compatible with a mereological account. The key to their analysis is the INCREASE operator, which requires a domain for which a notion of difference is coherent. I will show that what Krifka calls the Remainder Principle, often found among mereological axiomatizations (Krifka 1998), is sufficient to define differences: The Remainder Principle requires that for any two ordered elements, x < y, there exists a remainder r which does not overlap x and which can be summed with x to give y. In a word, r is the difference between x and y. For any partially ordered domain with differences, quantizing those difference arguments will allow the definition of INCREASE; the entire HKL account of telicity follows.

This paper analyzes a case of Italian word-formation, in which the semantics of the derived words appears to contain mutually exclusive ambiguities. Italian productively derives verbs of removal from nouns. These verbs have the general semantic form A removes X from Y. However, there are two subtypes that differ in whether the nominal base of the derived verb is taken to be the FIGURE or the GROUND: scremare 'to skim'; (crema 'cream') is a FIGURE-verb, and stanare 'to make come out of the burrow' (tana 'burrow') is a GROUND-verb. Traditional approaches are at a loss to give a uniform account for the semantics of derivational processes of these two kinds. In this paper, a uniform analysis is proposed. It is based upon the model of lexical semantics known as two-level semantics. Two-level semantics makes a distinction between a layer of meaning which is defined by grammar, and a level of interpretation, which is based upon conceptual knowledge. We propose that the derivation of Italian denominal verbs of removal of both types starts from a single underspecified representation, which is then specified at the conceptual level; depending on the concept type of the base, the denominal verb is either a FIGURE-verb or a GROUND-verb. In general, this paper argues that the two-level approach to semantics can be fruitfully improved by combining it with the notion of underspecification. And on a more general level, it is an example of how language specific semantics may be embedded in cognitive structure. (2) GROUND-verbs stanare 'to make come out of the burrow'; cf. tana 'burrow' snidare 'to drive out' cf. nido 'nest' scarcerare 'to release (from prison)' cf. carcere 'prison' scassare 'to remove from a box' cf. cassa 'box; case' sganciare 'to unhook; to unfasten' cf. gancio 'hook' sbarcare 'to unload; to disembark' cf. barca 'boat' Both types of DVRs are causative verbs of removal of an object X from another object Y. We call the movable object FIGURE, and the unmovable one GROUND. Thus, DVRs can be assigned the general semantic structure A removes figure X from ground Y. The two subtypes differ in the way the two locative slots FIGURE and GROUND are filled by the nominal base. In FIGURE-verbs, the nominal base fills the FIGURE-slot (cf. scremare 'to remove the cream from something') and in GROUND-verbs, it fills the GROUND-slot (cf. stanare 'to remove something from the burrow'). The question is whether we can account for both types of DVRs with one derivational process, or whether we have to assume two processes. In this paper, we argue that one underspecified derivational process can account for the two subtypes. The difference between the subtypes is only spelled out at the conceptual level. This is confirmed by the observation that the concept type of the base determines to which class a DVR belongs. The paper is organized as follows: In the first part (section 1), we discuss some general assumptions which underlie this study. We give a descriptive account of Italian DVRs (section 2) and propose a rule which generates them with an underspecified semantics (sections 3 and 4). We then discuss the problem of how this underspecification is resolved (section 5) and how nouns must be represented in the lexicon in order to make the resolution possible (section 6).

cberna en pdi ucam edu Resumen Este artículo se propone ahondar en la diferenciación y en el contraste de las estructuras sintáctica y semántico-conceptual de dos verbos sinónimos o cuasi sinónimos pertenecientes a la subclase semántica comunicación en español: contestar y responder, gracias a los datos de frecuencia y co-ocurrencia proporcionados por el corpus

As a human-specific trait, language offers a unique window on human cognition. Grammatical constraints on the ways we speak about events, for instance, have long been thought to reveal the representational formats that our minds impose on the ways that we think about events. In recent research, verbs that name events of death have stood out as key counterexamples to standard theories of the grammatical constraints on possible verbs. The special status of these thanatological verbs raises two important questions: why, given the vast number of verbs in any language, is it that verbs of death hold this special status, and what do they tell us about the restrictions on the representational format for possible verbs? This paper reexamines the evidence coming from verbs of death, confirming that they are counterexamples to standard theories, but that their behaviour suggests a more revealing constraint on our mental representations-that our minds impose strict restrictions on the format o...

Languages do not always use specific perception words to refer to specific senses. A word from one sense can metaphorically express another physical perception meaning. For Kirundi, findings from a corpus-based analysis revealed a cross-modal polysemy and a bidirectional hierarchy between higher and lower senses. The attested multisensory expression of auditory verb kwûmva ‘hear’ allows us to reduce sense modalities to two –vision and audition. Moreover, the auditory experience verb kwûmva ‘hear’ shows that lower senses can extend to higher senses through the use of synaesthetic metaphor (e.g. kwûmva akamōto ‘lit:hear a smell’/ururírīmbo ruryōshé ‘lit: a tasty song’/ururirimbo ruhimbâye ‘lit: a pleasant song). However, in collocations involving emotion words, it connects perception to emotion (e.g.; kwûmva inzara ‘lit: hear hunger’, kwûmva umunêzēro ‘lit: hear happiness’). This association indicates that perception in Kirundi gets information from both internal and external stimuli. Thus, considering feelings as part of the perception system.

Metaphor is the use of a word to refer to something other than its denotative meaning to suggest some resemblance or make a connection between the two things. Lakoff & Johnson (2003) argue that metaphors, a cultural phenomenon, dominate our conceptual system which controls our thoughts, perceptions and actions and explain this case within the framework of 'Conceptual Metaphor Theory' and classify metaphors in three types, i.e. structural, orientational and ontological. Metaphor is a type figurative language used frequently in short stories (Shaw, 2014); however it has not been studied under the theory of 'Conceptual Metaphor' (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003). Thus, in order to find out how the theory works in short stories, metaphor is studied in two different short stories on the relationship of human beings and nature and aimed to reveal how the relationship between human beings and nature is encoded via metaphors. To this end, Carnations and Tomato Juice (Sait Faik Abasıyanık) and The Story of a Forest (Sabahattin Ali) have been selected. The findings of the analysis of the stories in our database show that the most frequently preferred type of metaphor is ontological whereas the least is structural one. However, there is a difference in both the frequency of the type of the metaphor used. In The Story of a Forest other than preference to use the ontological metaphor of personification of all the type of conceptual metaphors, the most salient difference is in the conceptualization of nature. In Carnations and Tomato Juice, via the concept of NATURE IS IN CONFLICT WITH HUMAN, the fight between the human and nature and in The Story of a Forest however, with NATURE IS HUMAN conceptual metaphor the connection between them is constructed. In line with these findings, it can be argued that the theory of Conceptual Metaphor is a powerful tool to reveal the message to be conveyed in the story.

En los últimos años han aparecido numerosas investigaciones que han puesto de relieve la importancia que tiene la consideración de la frecuencia en los diversos componentes lingüísticos. El presente trabajo, que se inscribe en la misma dirección, pretende poner de relieve los ajustes conceptuales necesarios para que su aplicación al componente gramatical resulte adecuada. Se propone aquí utilizar como marco genérico la distinción entre frecuencia de inventario y frecuencia de uso, cuya utilidad se muestra al aplicarla a varios fenómenos gramaticales con perspectiva sincrónica y diacrónica.

Önceki bölümde konuşmanın anlamsız (non-sensical) olması sebebiyle bazı durumlarda paylaşılan bir anlam olmayabileceğini tartıştık. Bu bölümde ise çok fazla anlam olan ama paylaşılan bir anlam olmayan durumları tartışacağız. Konuşma taraflarının bir sözcüğün sahip olması gereken anlamının ne olduğu konusunda anlaşmadığı durumlar üzerine odaklanacağız. Bunlar anlam yokluğu yüzünden değil, çok fazla aday anlam olduğu ve hangisinin kabul edileceği üzerine bir fikir birliği olmaması sebebiyle Bölüm 1'deki idealleştirilmiş resimden ayrılan konuşma bağlamlarıdır. Bazı felsefeciler anlam üzerine bu kavgaların kamusal ve kuramsal söylem için merkezi olduğunu düşünürler. Kimi örneklerle başlayacağız ve daha sonra temel kuramları daha detaylı inceleyeceğiz.

Dilin asıl fonksiyonu, anlamı aktarıp iletişimi sağlamaktır. Dil ile gerçekleştirilen her eylemin temelinde "anlam" olgusu yatmaktadır. Dil ile gerçekleştirilen bu anlam olgusu, sözlü ve yazılı olarak aktarılmaktadır. Sözlü dilde anlam olgusu veya iletişim, sadece seslerle yapılmaz aynı zamanda bu seslere katılan veya seslerden bağımsız olarak bulunan hareketlerle, sembollerle ve göstergelerle de yapılır. Yazı dili de dilin sembollere/simgelere/işaretlere bürünmüş hali ile anlamı/iletişimi sağlar. Dilbilim dilin bilimsel araştırılması; dilbilimin bir alt bölümü olan anlambilim ise dildeki sözcüklerin, tümcelerin ve sözcelerin anlamının incelenmesidir. Anlambilimde esas olan göstergenin içerik ya da gösterilen yanını ele alabildiği gibi, gösteren ile gösterilen arasındaki münasebeti, gösterilendeki değişim ve farklılıkları, dilsel yapıların anlamsal yönden ortaya koyduğu türlü anlam olgularını ele almaktır. Anlambilim, metin içerisinde sözcüklerin, sözcelerin ve cümlelerin anlamıyla ilgilenir, gösteren ile gösterilen arasındaki ilişkileri ve anlam değişimlerini konu edinir. Anlambilimde, anlam denince söylenilen değil kastedilen (gösterilen) anlaşılır, göstergenin gösterilen bölümü artzamanlı ve eşzamanlı olarak incelenir. Bu çalışmada İstanbul öykücüsü olarak bilinen Türk öykü, roman yazarı ve şair Sait Faik'in "Hişt Hişt" adlı öyküsü incelenmiştir. Metin bağlamında ele alınan bu eser anlambilimden hareketle düz anlam, yan anlam, örtmece, karşıt anlamlılık, alttan anlamlılık, eş adlılık gibi anlam alanları üzerinde durulmuştur. Ayrıca metin düzeyinde öykünün kişi ve zaman unsurları da belirtilmiştir.

Özet: Anlam insan için geçmişten gùnùmùze ônemli gôrùlmùştùr. İnsanoğlu için anlam sadece bu dùnya ile sınırlandırılmamıştır. İnsanlık kôkleriyle geçmişe hayalleriyle geleceğe bağlı yaşamaktadır. İnsanın bedeni şekil, ruhu anlam olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Bedensiz ruh, ruhsuz beden olamayacağı dùşùnùlmektedir. Dilde de anlam ruhla eş değer tutulmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, dilde anlam ve bağlamın ne ifade ettiği değerlendirilecek, anlam-bağlam ilişkisi incelenerek, bağlamın çeviriye ve dil ôğretimine etkisi ùzerinde durulacaktır.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Dil, dilbilim, anlam, anlambilim, bağlam, kùltùr, çeviri, dil ôğretimi.