Surface Processes

Sediment yield in the San Pedro Lake watershed, inferred from sedimentation in the lake, can be related to land use changes shown on aerial photographs taken during the period 1943-1994. In this watershed, which covers 4Á5 km 2 of mountainous terrain in San Pedro County, central Chile, the area of native forest species decreased from 70 per cent in 1943 to 13 per cent in 1994. During this same period, the area of pine plantations increased from 4 to 46 per cent. To study effects of these changes, we took a core from the centre of the lake and estimated sedimentation rates by 210 Pb dating, which we checked with 137 Cs and pine pollen. The results show that sedimentation rate ranged from 5 mg cm À2 a À1 in the late 1800s to 60 mg cm À2 a À1 in the late 1960s. These rates, together with assumptions about the production and delivery of the sediment, give corresponding figures for sediment yields with maximum values close to 1 t ha À1 a À1 . Sediment yield between 1955 and 1994 closely tracks the total land use change that can be detected, irrespective of land use type, on sets of aerial photographs taken four to 18 years apart. However, this measure of land use change, while convenient and successful as a predictor of historical erosion, may be unreliable because it probably excludes many changes that occurred in long intervals between successive photographs.

Regarding to the landslides of remarkable extension that interested the zone of Sarno (Italy) in the spring of '98, it was necessary to collect in short times the necessary information for planning the ingegneristic works of consolidation and for the study of the phenomenon. Among the demanded data figure the volumes of movemented material, the shape and the dimension of the flows. In order to describe the morphology before and after the event and to estimate the volume of landslide, a number of digital elevation models has been generated. In the first period, input data comes from a survey executed with traditional techniques (post-event) and from digitization of the existing cartography (ante-event). Currently, being available the photograms of the same zone before and after the event the calculation of the volumes using the digital photogrammetric technique is in course. In this paper the result of the comparison between data set relative to different ages and techniques are performed, in order to validate the input data and the procedure of DEM acquisition. RÉSUMÉ Considérant aux éboulements de l'extension remarquable qui ont intéressé la zone de Sarno (Italie) au printemps de '98, il était nécessaire de rassembler en périodes courtes l'information nécessaire pour projeter les travaux ingegneristic de la fusion et pour l'étude du phénomène. Parmi les données exigées figurez que les volumes de movimented le matériel, la forme et la dimension des écoulements. Afin de décrire la morphologie avant et apres l'événement et estimer le volume de l'éboulement, un certain nombre de modèles digitaux d'altitude a été produit. Dans la première période, les données d'entrée viennent d'une étude exécutée avec des techniques traditionnelles (post-événement) et de la numérotisation de la cartographie existante (anté-événement). Actuel, étant disponible les photograms de la même zone before et apres l'événement le calcul des volumes utilisant la technique photogrammétrique digitale est dans le cours. En cet article le résultat de la comparaison entre âges de Modem à à différents et techniques relatifs sont exécutés, afin de valider les données d'entrée et le procédé de la saisie de DEM.

The European Parliament Directive 2007/60/EC on the assessment and management of flood risks defines that the states shall prepare flood hazard maps at the most appropriate scale, for the areas with potential significant flood risks. Flood modelling requires several types of input data like topographic data and friction coefficient values. These are considered to be the key data sets for flow drainage and flood modelling in urban areas. The Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) or LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) is one technique used to obtain the topographic data of flood areas and cross sections of a river. This data source can be used to produce highresolution Digital Terrain Model (DTM). The integration of DTM generated from laser scanning altimetry into flood modelling is yet a research topic, because the LiDAR data require a considerable pre-processing effort before their use within hydraulic modelling. Furthermore, it is also necessary to determine the optimal spatial resolution ...

Prompt location of areas exposed to high erosion is of the utmost importance for soil and water conservation planning. Erosion models can be useful tools to locate sources of sediment and areas of deposition within a catchment, but the reliability of model predictions of spatial patterns of erosion at catchment scale has seldom been validated against observations. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of a simple empirical model (Morgan, Morgan and Finney model, MMF) in predicting spatial patterns of erosion at two small catchments in the East African Highlands: Kwalei (Tanzania) and Gikuuri (Kenya). Erosion maps predicted by the MMF model were compared with erosion maps obtained by direct survey. In Kwalei, erosion features were especially frequent in fields of annual crops. In Gikuuri, slope was the critical erosion factor, with estimated erosion rates >10 kg m−2 a−1 on slopes >18 per cent. Predicted erosion rates were mainly transport‐limited and ranged from <0·01...

Climate change due to anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHG) is expected to have important impacts on water resources, with a variety of societal impacts. Recent research has shown that applying different methodologies to assess hydrologic impacts can lead to widely diverging projections of water resources. The authors classify methods of projecting hydrologic impacts of climate change into those that estimate potential evapotranspiration (PET) based on air temperature and those that estimate PET based on components of the surface energy budget. In general, air temperature–based methods more frequently show reductions in measures of water resources (e.g., water yield or soil moisture) and greater sensitivity than those using energy budget–based methods. There are significant trade-offs between these two methods in terms of ease of use, input data required, applicability to specific locales, and adherence to fundamental physical constraints: namely, conservation of energy at the surfac...

Exposed surfaces of limestones on marine coastlines are characterized by a tremendous range of rock textures and structures. Many of them are features limited to coastal areas and are morphologically and genetically distinct from inland analogs. This distinction is due to idiosyncrasies of both coastal environments and coastal limestones. Processes operating in coastal settings are not limited to dissolution by fresh water and involve profound chemical and physical action of sea water and marine biota. In addition, these processes act upon rocks that are frequently younger and diagenetically less mature than inland limestones that have undergone deep burial and accompanying changes. The outcomes are distinct types of karren sculpturing, bioerosional markings, deposited and precipitated fabrics, bioconstructions, and compound structures that are unique to coastal karst. Many are limited to particular microenvironmental settings and certain elevations with respect to the sea level and can, therefore, be used as powerful paleoenvironmental and past sea level indicators.

Erosion and deposition redistribute mass as a continental rift evolves, which modifies crustal loads and influences subsequent deformation. Surface processes therefore impact both the architecture and the evolution of passive margins. Here we use coupled numerical models to explore the interactions between the surface, crust, and lithosphere. This interaction is primarily sensitive to the efficiency of the surface processes in transporting mass from source to sink. If transport is efficient, there are two possible outcomes: (1) Faulting within the zone of extension is longer lived and has larger offsets. This implies a reduction of the number of faults and the width of the proximal domain. (2) Efficient transport of sediment leads to significant deposition and hence thermal blanketing. This will induce a switch from brittle to ductile deformation of the upper crust in the distal domains. The feedbacks between these two outcomes depend on the extension history, the underlying lithosp...

High-resolution soil moisture/temperature (SM/ST) are critical components of the growing demand for fine-scale products over the Indian monsoon region (IMR) which has diverse land-surface characteristics. This demand is fueled by findings that improved representation of land-state help improve rainfall/flood prediction. Here we report on the development of a high-resolution (4 km and 3 hourly) SM/ST product for 2001–2014 during Indian monsoon seasons (June–September). First, the quality of atmospheric fields from five reanalysis sources was examined to identify realistic forcing to a land data assimilation system (LDAS). The evaluation of developed SM/ST against observations highlighted the importance of quality forcing fields. There is a significant relation between the forcing error and the errors in the SM/ST. A combination of forcing fields was used to develop 14-years of SM/ST data. This dataset captured inter-annual, intra-seasonal, and diurnal variations under different monso...

Coves are complex littoral geoforms, worked upon by the convergence of numerous processes that interact in a variety of ways. Karst processes, driven by the dissolution of limestone and responsible for the formation of most coves, is one of the most prominent.

2.1. INTRODUCTION 2.2 MATERIAL AND METHOD 2.2.1 EXPERIMENTAL SITE 2.2.2 PLOT CHARACTERISTICS 2.2.3 MEASUREMENTS 2.2.3 DATA ANALYSIS 2.3. RESULTS 2.3.1 ANNUAL AND MONTHLY DATA ANALYSIS 2.3.2 EVENT DATA ANALYSIS 2.3.3 INTRA-RAINFALL EVENT ANALYSIS 2.4. DISCUSSION 2.4.1 ANNUAL RUNOFF AND SOIL LOSS 2.4.2 SEASONAL AND INTER-EVENT DYNAMICS OF RUNOFF AND SOIL LOSS 2.4.3 INTRA-RAINFALL EVENT DYNAMICS OF RUNOFF AND SOIL LOSS 2.5. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 3. RUNOFF AND SOIL LOSS UNDER FOUR COFFEE MANAGEMENTS ON STEEP LAND (ULTISOL) AND TROPICAL CONDITIONS, COSTA RICA 4 ABSTRACT 3.1. INTRODUCTION 3.2. MATERIAL AND METHODS 3.2.1 PLOTS AND TREATMENTS DESCRIPTION 3.2.2 MEASUREMENTS 3.2.3 STATISTICAL APPROACH:

We quantified the sediment volume transported by a major debris flow event in the Halltal, Austrian Alps, using a combination of terrestrial (TLS) and airborne laser scanning (ALS) which has rarely been carried out before. A digital terrain model (DTM) derived from ALS data (pre-event surface) was combined with a DTM derived from TLS data (post-event surface). Both datasets were aligned and compared in a cut and fill analysis estimating differential volumes. The main focus lay on the evaluation and accuracy assessment of the applied method. Tie-point based registration of both datasets proved to be insufficient; additional alignment by Multi Station Adjustment was necessary to minimise the averaged height error between both datasets, amounting for a volumetric error of less than 10% which is comparable to pure ALS-campaigns. Larger errors were estimated for complex terrain with low scanning resolutions. A particular problem in data processing was the low and dense shrub vegetation in the study area which required a specifically adapted filter algorithm. An insufficient ground representation was observed for the ALS-data overestimating ground heights for averaged 70 cm. Despite these limitations, the approach proved to be suitable for accurate extreme event quantification. The starting zones of the debris flows lie at the bedrock-debris interface where runoff is concentrated. Volumes of 5000 to 12,000 m 3 were assessed. Volume estimation worked better for the erosional than for the depositional features; this is because the erosional gullies are relatively deep and the calculation is not affected by pre-event vegetation. While erosion and sedimentation are balanced for one of the three catchments investigated, the deposited volumes are higher than the detected eroded volumes for the other two. The reasons are not fully understood. The magnitude of the flows was determined by catchment size, topographical characteristics and deforestation by a major wildfire in 1946.

The process and dynamics of rock fragmentation during the collapse of rockfalls and rock avalanches is a poorly developed topic. The most severe fragmentation often leads to the formation of a rock dust that rises to form a cloud suspended in the air. The understanding of fragmentation processes is hampered by the environmental disturbances that alter the dust cloud deposit shortly after deposition. Here, we study the fragmentation of the October 2017 Pousset rockfall, detached from a NNE facing steep bedrock wall in the permafrost zone, that involved 8,300m3 of metamorphic rock and fell about 800 m. The collapse generated large boulders which rolled downslope and a thick and large dust cloud. The source and deposit were investigated, and dust cloud material was sampled at different locations to reconstruct an exponential thickness distribution and perform grain size characterization. The fragmentation energy was estimated by integrating the spectrum of the grains assuming that the ...

Slow-moving landslides are often the dominant process that shapes hillslopes and delivers sediment to channels in weak lithologies. Understanding what controls their velocities is therefore essential for deciphering their role in landscape evolution and estimating hazards. In this study, we used four sequential airborne lidar data sets to derive the three-dimensional (3D), 1-m spatial resolution surface velocity field of the Mill Gulch earthflow, northern California, for three periods of time spanning a decade. Phase correlation, an image processing technique, applied to the precisely aligned lidar digital elevation models confidently resolved horizontal velocities from 0.2 to 5 m year −1. The velocity field defined three distinct kinematic zones of the landslide with different sensitivities to precipitation, such that the head moved slowly at 0.3-0.5 m year −1 , the transport zone moved fastest at 2-5 m year −1 , and a forked toe moved intermittently at 0-4 m year −1. Inverting the 3D surface velocity field to infer landslide thickness suggested that the head was underlain by a 6-m-deep, concave-up slip surface, while the transport zone likely had a 1-2.5-m-deep translational slip surface. We hypothesized that velocity in the head was least sensitive to changing precipitation because of its greater inferred depth, which likely dampened the amplitude of pore pressure fluctuations. A lack of major head scarp retrogressions also may have contributed to the relatively steady velocity in the head, while buttressing and debuttressing interactions between the landslide's toes and the creek running in Mill Gulch may have contributed to the more dramatic changes in velocity in the transport zone and toes. Although predicting landslide velocity from precipitation data alone may therefore be challenging, producing detailed 3D deformation fields from repeat topographic data can be an important tool for deciphering interactions between internal controls, such as changes to landslide geometry, and external controls, such as climate, on landslide motion.

Understanding all watershed systems and their interactions is a complex, but critical, undertaking when developing practices designed to reduce topsoil loss and chemical/nutrient transport from agricultural fields. The presence of riparian buffer vegetation in agricultural landscapes can modify the characteristics of overland flow promoting sediment deposition and nutrient filtering. Watershed simulation tools, such as the USDA-Annualized Agricultural Non-Point Source (AnnAGNPS) pollution model, typically require detailed information for each riparian buffer zone throughout the watershed describing the location, width, vegetation type, topography, and possible presence of concentrated flow paths through the riparian buffer zone. Research was conducted to develop GIS-based technology designed to spatially characterize riparian buffers and estimate buffer efficiency in reducing sediment loads in a semi-automated fashion at watershed scale. The methodology combines modeling technology at different scales, at individual concentrated flow paths passing through the riparian zone and at watershed scales. At the concentrated flow path scale, vegetative filter strip models can be applied to estimate the sediment trapping efficiency for each individual flow path, which are aggregated based on the watershed subdivision and used in the determination of the overall impact of the riparian vegetation at the watershed scale. This GIS-based technology is combined with AnnAGNPS to demonstrate the effect of riparian vegetation on sediment loadings from sheet and rill and ephemeral gully sources. The AnnAGNPS riparian buffer component represents an important step in understanding and accounting for the effect of riparian vegetation, existing and/or managed, in reducing sediment loads at the watershed scale.

The paper includes data derived from airborne laser scanning (LiDAR) to develop a 2-D hydrodynamic model of water flow in the middle reach of the Warta River between Nowe Miasto nad Wartą and Solec. Particular attention was paid to problems associated with the conversion of a digital terrain model (DTM) for the purpose of hydraulic modelling. LIDAR data were also used in the development process of a numerical roughness model by means of the so-called vegetation stratification. The results of model calculations in the form of maximum water surface elevations of the river were compared with water surface elevations derived from levelling carried out in the field. On this basis the verification of the model results was performed. The possibilities of using data from airborne laser scanning to develop a model and assess roughness coefficients of the floodplains were also examined.

Rockfalls are one of the most common natural hazards in mountainous areas that pose high risk to people and their activities. Rockfall risk assessment is commonly performed with the use of models that can simulate the potential rockfall source, propagation and runout areas. The quality of the models can be improved by collecting data on past rockfall events. Mobile crowdsourcing is becoming a common approach for collecting field data by using smartphones, the main advantages of which are the use of a harmonised protocol, and the possibility of creating large datasets due to the simultaneous use by multiple users. This paper presents a new methodology for collecting past rockfall events with a mobile application, where the locations and attributes of rockfall source areas and rockfall deposits are collected, and the data are stored in an online database which can be accessed via the WebGIS platform. The methodology also presents an approach for calculating an actual source location based on viewshed analysis which greatly reduces the problem of field mapping of inaccessible source areas. Additionally, we present a rockfall database in the Alpine Space that has been created by the presented methodology, and an application of collected data for the calibration and validation of two rockfall models (CONEFALL and Rockyfor3D).

Cross-section of rivers vary by time due to the dynamic structure of hydraulic geometry. The hydraulic geometry parameters of rivers including the width, depth and velocity are related to its discharge as simple power functions at a given cross-section. The characteristics of a river can be determined by using the hydraulic geometry parameters. The aim of this study is to determine the downstream and at-a-station hydraulic geometry parameters of Seyhan River. The hydraulic geometry parameters are estimated by employing the daily discharge values and the cross-sectional data of seven flow measurement stations located on the main river and its tributaries. The results of the analyses show that both the summation of the exponents and the multiplication of the coefficients are almost unity. These outcomes are expected to be helpful in developing water resources projects the basin.

This study was carried out to investigate local scour around curved groynes under different conditions including flow condition, average values of radius of curvature, spacing between groynes, width of groynes, number of groynes, and shapes of groynes. Laboratory works were achieved with 300 runs for elliptic and semi-parabolic groynes models. Three different widths of groynes were adopted as (7, 10, and 13 cm), as well as, using three different number of groyne, single, double and triple. Four different spacing between groynes of (1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5) times of width of groyne were used in the study. The average values of radius of curvature for all adopted shapes used was computed as an additional significant parameters. Dimensional analysis techniques and (MATLAB V.13) program were used to detect the two dimensionless formulas of maximum scour depth for elliptic and semiparabolic groynes. The results gave good determination coefficient of (99) % for both formulas. Generally, the elliptic groyne is the best case of all groynes because gives minimum scour depth, minimum volume of scour and transition of sediments.

The Serras of Queixa-Invernadoiro and Gerês-Xurés in the NW of the Iberian Peninsula are two small mountain massifs located at low altitude that were glaciated in the Pleistocene. The prevailing granitic lithology was a problem for mapping glacial forms (in many cases interpreted as banal granite forms) and for the identification of the tills (misunderstood as remains of regolith). A combination of geomorphological techniques (genetic mapping of granite forms and deposits), the micromorphological study of till thin sections and the morphoscopy of quartz grains at the SEM enabled to establish a model of the geomorphological evolution complemented with the chronology by cosmogenic nuclides (21Ne and 10Be) of both glacial systems. The obtained results represent the glacial evolution of the area from circa 250 ka B.P.

Nous indiquons des vitesses de sédimentation récentes dans plusieurs lacs d'une haute vallée des Andes Boliviennes. Les mesures de 210Pb et de 137Cs indiquent que plusieurs de ces sites pourraient servir à la reconstitution des pollutions atmosphériques.

Interaction between surface processes and deep tectonic processes plays a key role in the structural evolution, kinematics and exhumation of rocks in orogenic wedges. The deformation patterns observed in analogue models applied to natural cases of present active or ancient mountain belts reflect several first order processes that result of these interactions. Internal strain partitioning due to mechanical behaviour of a thrust wedge has a strong impact on the vertical component of displacement of tectonic units that in return favour erosion in domains of important uplift. Such strain partitioning is first controlled by tectonic processes, but surface processes exert a strong feed back on wedge dynamics. Indeed, material transfer in thrust wedges not only depends on its internal dynamics, it is also influenced by climate controlled surface processes involving erosion and sedimentation. Effects of erosion are multiple: they allow long term localization of deformed domains, they favour important exhumation above areas of deep underplating and combined with sedimen tation in the foreland they contribute to maintain the wedge in a critical state for long time periods. The sim ple models illustrate well how mountain belts structure, kinematics of tectonic units and exhumation are determined by these complex interactions.

Interaction between surface processes and deep tectonic processes plays a key role in the structural evolution, kinematics and exhumation of rocks in orogenic wedges. The deformation patterns observed in analogue models applied to natural cases of present active or ancient mountain belts reflect several first order processes that result of these interactions. Internal strain partitioning due to mechanical behaviour of a thrust wedge has a strong impact on the vertical component of displacement of tectonic units that in return favour erosion in domains of important uplift. Such strain partitioning is first controlled by tectonic processes, but surface processes exert a strong feed back on wedge dynamics. Indeed, material transfer in thrust wedges not only depends on its internal dynamics, it is also influenced by climate controlled surface processes involving erosion and sedimentation. Effects of erosion are multiple: they allow long term localization of deformed domains, they favour important exhumation above areas of deep underplating and combined with sedimen tation in the foreland they contribute to maintain the wedge in a critical state for long time periods. The sim ple models illustrate well how mountain belts structure, kinematics of tectonic units and exhumation are determined by these complex interactions.

The study presents a GIS-based approach aiming at the identification of rockfall propagation areas considering the protective effects of forests in the Province of Styria, Austria. An empirical approach was selected to identify potential rockfall source zones. Based on a Digital Terrain Model derived from LiDAR data, threshold slope values for potential release areas were attributed to geotechnical units. The run-out distances were estimated by velocity calculation based on a one parameter friction model. The method was applied for the first time in such large study area. Friction coefficients were attributed to forestal units based on the detailed characterisation of relevant forest parameters derived from laserscanning data. Finally, two scenarios based on different friction coefficients were modelled: one considering the current forest cover and one assuming no forest cover. The results demonstrate the strong protective effect of the forest cover. Furthermore, an indicative hazar...

This study aims to assess the spatial and visible/near-infrared (VNIR) colour/ spectral capabilities of the 4-band Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS) aboard the ExoMars 2016 Trace Grace Orbiter (TGO). The instrument response functions ExoMars-16 Edited by Håkan Svedhem and Christopher T. Russell All simulated CaSSIS data products, including a database and shapfiles providing ancillary information on them, are available for download at https://data.sci.uwo.ca/Simulated_TGO_CaSSIS Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article

Digital Terrain Models (DTM) generalization results of great potential for cartographic and photogrammetric aplications, as well as for analysis processes in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) where the spread of DTM acquires greatest significance, due to the variation of scale when viewing, changes of resolution as well as the use of different cartographic databases, multimedia cartography, cartography on demand etc; for both consulting analysis as well as showing results. dependence of the filtering in the indicated order is decisive to obtain a correct evaluation of the elements and should be particularly considered when including new parameters.

In this paper we examine data generated using high-resolution three-dimensional laser scanning monitoring of coastal rock cliffs. These data are used to identify spatial and temporal patterns in rockfall activity behavior prior to slope failure. Analysis of the data suggests that given sufficient measurement precision precursory behavior, here manifest as the rate of rockfall activity prior to failure, can be detected, measured, and monitored. Environmental conditions appear to have a diminishing influence on the occurrence of increasingly large slope failures. The monitoring data implies a time-dependent sequence in the occurrence of smaller rockfalls in the period leading to the largest failures recorded. This behavior is attributed to the mechanisms of strain accumulation in the rock mass resulting from brittle failure of the slope. The implication is that combining these data with models of failure mechanisms may allow failure time to be forecast from wide-area monitoring of precursory behavior. These findings have implications for the management of potentially unstable slopes, the understanding of slope failure mechanisms, and the generation of a new type of slope failure warning systems.

I NTRODUCTION Permafrost is highly sensitive to changes of the climatic conditions. During the last summers, increasing intensities and higher frequencies of both rock fall and debris flow processes in high alpine areas have been observed throughout the Alps. In 2005, the authorities responsible for natural hazards and risk management in the Autonomous Province of Bolzano started a project which aims at monitoring the impact of environmental changes on mountain permafrost areas and gains to develop an information basis for the assessment of natural hazards related to the degradation of permafrost zones. METHODS In this project, different methods of permafrost detection and mapping were combined. For the whole territory an inventory of rockglaciers was compiled on the basis of information derived from orthophotos, stereo pairs of aerial photos, the laserscan DEM and recent field mapping for the geological map of the Autonomous Province of Bolzano at 1:10.000 scale (project “CARG”). A...

Cobalt aluminum phosphate with AFI zeolitic structure (Co-APO-5) catalyzes light-driven water oxidation (WO) when both the ruthenium complex [Ru(bpy) 3 ] 2+ , as photosensitizer, and persulfate species S 2 O 8 2− , as sacrificial electron acceptor, are present. Measurements have been run in a flow reactor, allowing the amount of oxygen evolved to be evaluated and, in particular, the initial rate of WO reaction to be measured. The latter has been studied as a function of chemical composition, and some kinetic features have been established. Competitive reactions occur extensively, causing the oxidation of the Ru complex to the detriment of oxygen production. The initial rate of WO increases with the amount of catalyst until turbidity of the suspension sets in. A reaction order close to −1 with respect to persulfate was found, which indicates the occurrence of surface processes involving Co centers at the outer layer of Co-APO-5 particles (accessed by the bulky [Ru(bpy) 3 ] 2+ species, at variance with Co species in the core), for the adsorption onto which competition takes place between the Ru complex and persulfate species. A less pronounced negative order (ca. −0.4) for the sensitizer was also observed, for which an interpretation is proposed.

ILLUSTRATIONS 5. Stream channels illustrating range of channel characteristics at measured cross sections _________________ Facing 8. ltelation between width-depth ratio and weighted mean percent silt-clay (M) _____________________________ _ 9. ltelation between channel width and weighted mean percent silt-clay (M) ________________________________ _ 10. ltelation of width-depth ratio to weighted mean percent silt-clay (M) for unstable cross sections __________. ___ _ 11. ltelation between width-depth ratio and weighted mean percent silt-clay (M) for cross sections with channel floor covered by more than 40 percent gravel, cobbles

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Abstract—We propose a multidimensional framework for characterization of land surface dynamics based on time series of elevation data acquired by LiDAR technology. The proposed methods integrate line feature, surface and volume analysis. A novel, least cost path approach for coastal dune ridge and dune toe extraction is presented to support automated feature evolution analysis. Per-cell statistics is applied to DEM time series to extract the stable landscape core and map the extent of land surface dynamics. Voxel ...

In situ atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to investigate surface evolution during the growth of single crystals of turnip yellow mosaic virus (TYMV), cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) and glucose isomerase. Growth of these crystals proceeded by two-dimensional (2D) nucleation. For glucose isomerase, from supersaturation dependencies of tangential step rates and critical step length, the kinetic coefficients of the steps and the surface free energy of the step edge were calculated for different crystallographic directions. The molecular structure of the step edges, the adsorption of individual virus particles and their aggregates, and the initial stages of formation of 2D nuclei on the surfaces of TYMV and CMV crystals were recorded. The surfaces of individual TYMV virions within crystals were visualized, and hexameric and pentameric capsomers of the T ¼ 3 capsids were clearly resolved. This, so far as we are aware, is the first direct visualization of the capsomere structure of a virus by AFM. In the course of recording the in situ development of the TYMV crystals, a profound restructuring of the surface arrangement was observed. This transformation was highly cooperative in nature, but the transitions were unambiguous and readily explicable in terms of an organized loss of classes of virus particles from specific lattice positions.

In the Mediterranean region, the long history of cultivation is associated with significant changes in the original landscape. Agricultural intensification and subsequent land abandonment and reforestation have significantly affected the hydrological behaviour and connectivity patterns of hydrological systems. Thus, information on the spatial distribution of land use/cover is essential for monitoring the runoff response to interpret catchment hydrology. A medium-size catchment of the central part of the Ebro Basin (NE Spain), representative of Mediterranean mountain agroecosystems, was selected to assess the effect of land use/cover changes during the last few decades on the hydrological network of the catchment. To this end, a topography-based index, the "index of connectivity" (IC), was applied to assess the effects of land use changes from 1957-2010. The sediment connectivity was estimated using a geomorphometric approach to simulate how connectivity changes due to the different land covers. To improve this index, we used a combination of C-factor, rugosity index and the novel application of a total aerial biomass equation (TAB) over pine reforested areas as a weight factor. A highresolution (1 x 1 m) DEM (Digital Elevation Model) was created by filtering and applying a multiscale curvature classification algorithm. The connectivity values show a decrease directly related to the ~71% decrease of agricultural land. Understanding landscape patterns, changes and interactions of human activities is essential for land management in Mediterranean agroecosystems.

Recent acceleration of rock glaciers is well recognized in the European Alps, but similar behavior is hardly documented elsewhere. Also, the controlling factors are not fully understood. Here we provide evidence for acceleration of a rock glacier complex in northern Norway, from 62 years of remote sensing data. Average annual horizontal velocity measured by aerial feature tracking increased from~0.5 myr À1 (1954-1977) to~3.6 myr À1 (2006-2014). Measured by satellite synthetic aperture radar offset-tracking, averages increased from~4.9 to~9.8 myr À1 (2009-2016) and maximum velocities from~12 to~69 myr À1. Kinematic analysis reveals different spatial-temporal trends in the upper and the lower parts of the rock glacier complex, suggesting progressive detachment of the faster front. We suggest that permafrost warming, topographic controls, and increased water access to deeper permafrost layers and internal shear zones can explain the kinematic behavior. Plain Language Summary Using remote sensing data we document unusual high surface displacement and accelerations on a rock glacier complex in a mountain hillside in northern Norway. Increasing creep rates have been reported from the European Alps, but an acceleration of this order has not been documented in Scandinavia before. Rock glaciers are permafrost landforms consisting of a mix of ice and debris. Using aerial photos, we document an acceleration from~0.5 m per year (1954-1977) to~3.6 m per year (2006-2014) for the lower parts of the rock glacier complex. For the same area, we observe an increase from~4.9 to~9.8 m per year, measured by satellite-based radar between 2009 and 2016. Maximum velocities increased from~12 to~69 m per year. Results suggest that the fast lower part is detaching from the slower upper part. Radar data delineate areas with subsidence and uplift, compression, and extension. Increase in temperature and precipitation during the 62-year period indicates possible permafrost degradation. Our work demonstrates the value of combining remote sensing data sources in documenting permafrost landforms in the Arctic. Important work still remains to document and understand their evolution and the effects of climate change.

The effects of grass strips on runoff interception, sediment trapping and soil loss were studied during two agricultural seasons. Field studies, conducted on loamy soil susceptible to sealing, allowed the comparison of three situations corresponding to buffer strip widths of 0, 3 and 6 m located at the downslope end of a winter wheat field. In 1997-98 the 6-m grass strips led to an average increase in infiltration of 87% with a coefficient of variation of 16% in comparison with a situation where no grass strip was present. The 3-m grass strip showed a slightly lower and more variable efficiency (average: 80%, coefficient of variation: 19% in 97/98). Maximum grass strip infiltrability was estimated at about 50 mm/h. Grass strips reduced the event mean sediment concentration by a factor of four on average. Sediments deposited in the grass strip were enriched in sand and coarse silt, whereas exported sediments contained twice as much clay and fine silt as the soil surface horizon. Net soil loss from the field was decreased by 76% in 96/97 and by 98% in 97/98 for the 6-m grass strip.

In the Mediterranean region, the long history of cultivation is associated with significant changes in the original landscape. Agricultural intensification and subsequent land abandonment and reforestation have significantly affected the hydrological behaviour and connectivity patterns of hydrological systems. Thus, information on the spatial distribution of land use/cover is essential for monitoring the runoff response to interpret catchment hydrology. A medium-size catchment of the central part of the Ebro Basin (NE Spain), representative of Mediterranean mountain agroecosystems, was selected to assess the effect of land use/cover changes during the last few decades on the hydrological network of the catchment. To this end, a topography-based index, the "index of connectivity" (IC), was applied to assess the effects of land use changes from 1957-2010. The sediment connectivity was estimated using a geomorphometric approach to simulate how connectivity changes due to the different land covers. To improve this index, we used a combination of C-factor, rugosity index and the novel application of a total aerial biomass equation (TAB) over pine reforested areas as a weight factor. A highresolution (1 x 1 m) DEM (Digital Elevation Model) was created by filtering and applying a multiscale curvature classification algorithm. The connectivity values show a decrease directly related to the ~71% decrease of agricultural land. Understanding landscape patterns, changes and interactions of human activities is essential for land management in Mediterranean agroecosystems.

High-resolution soil moisture/temperature (SM/ST) are critical components of the growing demand for fine-scale products over the Indian monsoon region (IMR) which has diverse land-surface characteristics. This demand is fueled by findings that improved representation of land-state help improve rainfall/flood prediction. Here we report on the development of a high-resolution (4 km and 3 hourly) SM/ST product for 2001–2014 during Indian monsoon seasons (June–September). First, the quality of atmospheric fields from five reanalysis sources was examined to identify realistic forcing to a land data assimilation system (LDAS). The evaluation of developed SM/ST against observations highlighted the importance of quality forcing fields. There is a significant relation between the forcing error and the errors in the SM/ST. A combination of forcing fields was used to develop 14-years of SM/ST data. This dataset captured inter-annual, intra-seasonal, and diurnal variations under different monso...

Digital Terrain Models (DTM) generalization results of great potential for cartographic and photogrammetric aplications, as well as for analysis processes in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) where the spread of DTM acquires greatest significance, due to the variation of scale when viewing, changes of resolution as well as the use of different cartographic databases, multimedia cartography, cartography on demand etc; for both consulting analysis as well as showing results. dependence of the filtering in the indicated order is decisive to obtain a correct evaluation of the elements and should be particularly considered when including new parameters.

This report with map shows the areas of highest rock-fall hazard in four selected parts of Yosemite Valley, California, defined by the National Park Service. Two specific levels of hazard are recognized and identified from rock falls ranging in size from individual boulders to moderatesized events with volumes of 100,000 m3. These different levels of hazard are associated with areas within the base of the talus (red line in Plate 1) and those normally beyond the base of the talus which we refer to as the rock-fall shadow (yellow line in Plate 1). Rock falls of even greater size, exceeding 100,000 m3, referred to as rock avalanches, are a potential hazard, but the extent of this hazard is not easily defined. Rock avalanches are considered to be much less likely to occur because of the relatively few prehistoric rock-fall avalanche deposits that have been recognized in the Yosemite Valley. With the configuration of the steep valley walls and the relatively narrow valley, it should be noted that there are no absolutely safe or zero probability areas from large rock avalanches. This study has shown in map form where rock-fall hazard exists and has given general indication of the expected frequency of these events; however, the study does not quantify the probability at any specific location, nor evaluate the risk to people or facilities to such events.

In the Mediterranean region, the long history of cultivation is associated with significant changes in the original landscape. Agricultural intensification and subsequent land abandonment and reforestation have significantly affected the hydrological behaviour and connectivity patterns of hydrological systems. Thus, information on the spatial distribution of land use/cover is essential for monitoring the runoff response to interpret catchment hydrology. A medium-size catchment of the central part of the Ebro Basin (NE Spain), representative of Mediterranean mountain agroecosystems, was selected to assess the effect of land use/cover changes during the last few decades on the hydrological network of the catchment. To this end, a topography-based index, the "index of connectivity" (IC), was applied to assess the effects of land use changes from 1957-2010. The sediment connectivity was estimated using a geomorphometric approach to simulate how connectivity changes due to the different land covers. To improve this index, we used a combination of C-factor, rugosity index and the novel application of a total aerial biomass equation (TAB) over pine reforested areas as a weight factor. A highresolution (1 x 1 m) DEM (Digital Elevation Model) was created by filtering and applying a multiscale curvature classification algorithm. The connectivity values show a decrease directly related to the ~71% decrease of agricultural land. Understanding landscape patterns, changes and interactions of human activities is essential for land management in Mediterranean agroecosystems.

This study focuses on the adoption of a modern, widely-used Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) application to investigate volcanic rock slopes in Ribeira de João Gomes valley (Funchal, Madeira island). The TLS data acquisition in May and December 2008 provided information for a characterization of the volcanic environment, detailed structural analysis and detection of potentially unstable rock masses on a slope. Using this information, it was possible to determine specific parameters for numerical rockfall simulations such as average block size, shape or potential sources. By including additional data, such as surface roughness, the results from numerical rockfall simulations allowed us to classify different hazardous areas based on run-out distances, frequency of impacts and related kinetic energy. Afterwards, a monitoring of hazardous areas can be performed in order to establish a rockfall inventory.

This contribution describes the development of a model suitable for regional scale delineation of zones potentially affected by gravitational mass movement processes (avalanches, rockfall). The model is subsequently used for the identification of forest areas with direct protective function against these processes. With respect to the practical application of the model over larger areas and the accompanying challenges (assessment of input-data, model calibration, computational time) a simple empirical, raster-based process model with limited input requirements is proposed. The model provides the functionality to identify objects in the process area and automatically discards parts of the process areas, which do not affect any objects (e.g. parts of avalanche tracks downslope of objects). Following this method, an intersection of the obtained process areas and a layer representing the forest coverage returns forest patches with a direct protection function against the modeled process. First applications of the developed model approach yield promising results. However, potential for optimization regarding the computational efficiency of the current model prototype and the development and integration of further approaches for runout length estimation and process propagation is identified.

Widespread flooding of the Australian continent during the Early Cretaceous, referred to as the Eromanga Sea, deposited extensive shallow marine sediments throughout the Great Artesian Basin (GAB). This event had been considered 'out of sync' with eustatic sea level and was instead solely attributed to dynamic subsidence associated with Australia's passage over eastern Gondwanan subducted material. However, mantle convection models previously used to explain this event have since been shown to overestimate dynamic topography amplitude by a factor of two compared with residual topography estimates. Previous models were also based on a Cretaceous eustatic sea level peak at ca. 90 Ma in conventional eustatic sea level curves; however, more recent estimates of global sea level from ocean basin volume (OBV) suggest this peak may have occurred earlier at ca. 120 Ma. Our work links timedependent erosion and deposition with dynamic topography and eustasy to test their contribution to basin development using the landscape evolution code pyBadlands. Our results show that the lower amplitude estimates of dynamic topography derived from pseudo-compressible mantle flow models better reflect the Cretaceous vertical motions of the Australian continent (ca. 100 m) compared with their incompressible counterparts (ca. 200-400 m). Additionally, our models include the Neogene northeastward tilting of Australia, elusive in most previously published geodynamic models. In conjunction with an OBV-derived sea level curve, our preferred landscape evolution model broadly matches the Cretaceous inundation patterns and first-order sedimentary sequences in the GAB. The results highlight that the Early Cretaceous inundation of the Australian continent is likely a combination of high global sea levels and the regional effects of dynamic subsidence. Our work provides a framework for a new generation of evolving paleogeographic models at continental scales, while also providing key insights into the viability of existing sea level curves and dynamic topography estimates for reproducing topographic and basin evolution.