Star Carr

Since its publication in 1954 Star Carr has held an iconic status in British Mesolithic archaeology. The original excavations at the site recorded a large assemblage of bone and antler tools from a sequence of peat deposits at the edge of the Lake Flixton. Over 60 years later this remains the largest assemblage of bone and antler artefacts of its date in Britain and has been an invaluable source of information for life in the early Mesolithic. However, the interpretation of this material has been the subject of intense debate, and the assemblage has been variously described as the remains of an in situ settlement, a refuse dump, and the result of culturally prescribed acts of deposition. Fundamentally, these very different ideas of the nature of the site depend on differing interpretations of the environmental context into which the majority of the organic artefacts were deposited. This paper presents the results of recent work at Star Carr that helps to resolve the debate surroundi...

Figure 8. The currency of Early Mesolithic assemblage types. Figure 9. Probability distributions of radiocarbon dates associated with long blade assemblages according to the alternative model described in the text. The format is identical to Fig. 3.

This contribution directly relates to the paper published by Wheeler in 1978 entitled 'Why were there no fish remains at Star Carr?'. Star Carr is arguably the richest, most studied and re-interpreted Mesolithic site in Europe but the lack of fish remains has continued to vex scholars. Judging from other materials, the preservation conditions at the site in the late 1940s/early 1950s should have been good enough to permit the survival of fish remains, and particularly dentaries of the northern pike (Esox lucius L., 1758) as found on other European sites of this age. The lack of evidence has therefore been attributed to a paucity of fish in the lake. However, new research has provided multiple lines of evidence, which not only demonstrate the presence of fish, but also provide evidence for the species present, data on how and where fish were being processed on site, and interpretations for the fishing methods that might have been used. This study demonstrates that an integrated approach using a range of methods at landscape, site and microscopic scales of analysis can elucidate such questions. In addition, it demonstrates that in future studies, even in cases where physical remains are lacking, forensic techniques hold significant potential.

New radiometric dates from seven cave bear sites in Germany were achieved during the last two years. The dates were obtained for four sites from bone samples, for one site from two stalagmites and from another site from charcoal and bones. The bones and the charcoal have been dated with the AMS 14 C-method and the stalagmites with the TIMS-U/Th-method. Sites are briefly described and all dates with their analytic values are presented and discussed in methodological and paleoclimatic context. Radiocarbon ages were calibrated using calPal2004 (www.calPal.de) and paleoclimatic interpretation was made by correlation with the GISP2 ice core δ 18 O-curve , GI = Greenland Interstadial of the GIPS2 ice core. De nouvelles dates radiométriques ont été obtenues pour sept gisements d'Allemagne au cours des deux dernières années. Pour quatre sites, les dates ont été obtenues sur ossements, pour un site sur deux stalagmites et pour un dernier sur charbons de bois et os. Les ossements et les charbons de bois ont été datés par AMS C 14 et les stalagmites par TIMS-U/Th. Les gisements sont brièvement décrits et l'ensemble des dates et leurs valeurs brutes sont discutés dans une perspective méthodologique et paléoclimatique. Les âges radiocarbones ont été calibrés avec calPal2004 (www.calPal.de) et les interprétations paléoclimatiques ont été corrélées avec la courbe δ 18 O de la séquence glaciaire GISP2 . GI = Greenland Interstadial de cette carotte glaciaire.

This contribution directly relates to the paper published by Wheeler in 1978 entitled 'Why were there no fish remains at Star Carr?'. Star Carr is arguably the richest, most studied and re-interpreted Mesolithic site in Europe but the lack of fish remains has continued to vex scholars. Judging from other materials, the preservation conditions at the site in the late 1940s/early 1950s should have been good enough to permit the survival of fish remains, and particularly dentaries of the northern pike (Esox lucius L., 1758) as found on other European sites of this age. The lack of evidence has therefore been attributed to a paucity of fish in the lake. However, new research has provided multiple lines of evidence, which not only demonstrate the presence of fish, but also provide evidence for the species present, data on how and where fish were being processed on site, and interpretations for the fishing methods that might have been used. This study demonstrates that an integrated approach using a range of methods at landscape, site and microscopic scales of analysis can elucidate such questions. In addition, it demonstrates that in future studies, even in cases where physical remains are lacking, forensic techniques hold significant potential.

Gerade im Jubiläumsjahr -80 Jahre Auffindung der "Venus von Willendorf"kam es zu einem bedeutenden Neufund einer menschlichen Statuette, die wegen der Besonderheit der Darstellung und ihres hohen Alters im folgenden kurz vorgestellt werden soll4. Die Anhöhe des Galgenberges (374 m Seehöhe) erhebt sich nördlich entlang der Verbin dungsstraße Gneixendorf-Krems-Rehberg/Imbach. In West-Ost-Richtung führt ein Weg quer über die Anhöhe, der die Grenze zwischen den Katastralgemeinden Stratzing (im Norden) und Rehberg (im Süden) bildet (Abb. 1,1). Da nach den neueren Untersuchungen die fundführenden Schichten auch südlich über den Weg und damit in die KG. Rehberg reichen, muß der Fundortnahme auf Stratzing/ Krems-Rehberg erweitert werden. Der Galgenberg selbst ist heute nur in seinem nordwestli chen Teil stärker bewaldet, diese Flanke wird durch den Stratzingbach begrenzt, der in Rehberg in die Krems mündet. Seine Südhänge, die Anhöhe, aber auch Teile des Nordhanges werden bis auf wenige Ausnahmen vollständig für den Weinbau genutzt. Während der östliche Teil der Anhöhe mit Löß bedeckt ist, treten im Westen tertiäre Schotter an die Oberfläche, deren Bedeutung als Rohmaterialquelle für den paläolithischen Menschen betont werden muß.

The site of Kammern-Grubgraben in Lower Austria preserved one of the largest assemblages of stone constructions, lithic and organic artefacts, personal ornaments, and faunal remains of the Last Glacial Maximum (ca. 24-20 ka cal BP) in Europe. Conspicuously, the faunal remains attest to an occupation only during winter and are strongly dominated by reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), indicating a rather selective and narrow hunting focus despite the curated, long-term character of the site. This narrow focus contrasts with findings from older sites in the region, such as the Gravettian sites Krems-Hundssteig, Krems-Wachtberg, and Langenlois A, dated to between 33 and 29 ka cal BP, which show a main focus on mammoth. In this paper, we present new results on the age and sex distribution of reindeer at Kammern-Grubgraben. We argue that winter-hunting of reindeer, in addition to its role in providing energy-rich nutrition and raw material for organic tools, is also indicative of a focus on obtaining high-quality raw material for clothing. The fur of reindeer in winter is particularly valuable and convenient for the production of clothing for cold environments. Together with the recovered large number of eyed needles, a tool for tight and regular seams, our findings suggest that the production of clothing and other goods made of fur and skin was an important activity at Kammern-Grubgraben.

Since its publication in 1954 Star Carr has held an iconic status in British Mesolithic archaeology. The original excavations at the site recorded a large assemblage of bone and antler tools from a sequence of peat deposits at the edge of the Lake Flixton. Over 60 years later this remains the largest assemblage of bone and antler artefacts of its date in Britain and has been an invaluable source of information for life in the early Mesolithic. However, the interpretation of this material has been the subject of intense debate, and the assemblage has been variously described as the remains of an in situ settlement, a refuse dump, and the result of culturally prescribed acts of deposition. Fundamentally, these very different ideas of the nature of the site depend on differing interpretations of the environmental context into which the majority of the organic artefacts were deposited. This paper presents the results of recent work at Star Carr that helps to resolve the debate surroundi...

Common crane Grus grus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 ? White Stork Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Red-breasted merganser Mergus serrator (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Red-throated diver Colymbus stellatus (Pontoppidan, 1763) 1 Great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Little grebe Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas, 1764) 1 Lapwing Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Buzzard Buteo buteo (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Duck (size of pintail) Anas acuta (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Wolf Canis lupus (Linnaeus, 1758) 2 Fox Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758) 2 Pine marten Martes martes (Linnaeus, 1758) 2 Badger Meles meles (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Pig [sic] Sus scrofa (Linnaeus, 1758) 5 Elk Alces alces (Linnaeus, 1758) 11 Red deer Cervus elaphus (Linnaeus, 1758) 80 Roe deer Capreolus capreolus (Linnaeus, 1758) 33 Aurochs Bos primigenius (Bojanus, 1827) 9 Hare Lepus cf. europaeus (Pallas, 1778) 1 Beaver Castor fiber (Linnaeus, 1758) 7 bone midshaft only, and he revised this identification to 'indeterminate' (Harrison 1987, 141). There were several other identifications which Harrison changed: the common buzzard (Buteo buteo) humerus midshaft was re-identified as Brent goose (Branta bernicla); the pintail (Anas acuta) carpometacarpus was reassigned to red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator) and the lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) ulna was reassigned to common scoter (Melanitta nigra). There has been much discussion about whether wolf or domesticated dog was found at Star Carr. Fraser and King (1954, 72) reported wolf; however, Degerbøl's (1961) and Benecke's (1987) analyses make it clear that they are domestic dogs, and a further dog right femur was found in the collection by Rick Schulting (Schulting and Richards 2009, 499). A further notable addition to the record is brown bear (Ursus arctos). An upper left canine was found from this species by Tot Lord, who visited the excavations before Clark's trenches were backfilled (Dark et al. 2006, 191). In particular, he searched the deposits next to the birch trees in cutting II and found items by pushing his hands into the soft sediment at the base of the sections. In doing this he felt a skull but could not retrieve it; however, he was able to extract a tooth from it (Edwards et al. 2014). During our excavations we expected to find this skull; however, despite excavating all around cutting II there was no sign of it and the conclusion is that it has either demineralised (if it was on the east side-SC24 only contained two pieces of jellybone) or that it was retrieved by someone else. Two other brown bear bones have since been identified: as already noted, a broken mandible previously identified as wild boar (Legge and Rowley-Conwy 1988, 10) and an axis vertebra (Noe-Nygaard 1983). It has been suggested that the brown bear skull, mandible and axis vertebra possibly belong to the same animal (Dark et al. 2006).

The physical remoteness of the site and its extreme unattractiveness, compounded by mud, ooze, rising water, and all too attentive clegs (small horseflies), only served to enhance the morale of the party. Under such conditions concentration on the job was the only way out. '

This contribution directly relates to the paper published by Wheeler in 1978 entitled 'Why were there no fish remains at Star Carr?'. Star Carr is arguably the richest, most studied and re-interpreted Mesolithic site in Europe but the lack of fish remains has continued to vex scholars. Judging from other materials, the preservation conditions at the site in the late 1940s/early 1950s should have been good enough to permit the survival of fish remains, and particularly dentaries of the northern pike (Esox lucius L., 1758) as found on other European sites of this age. The lack of evidence has therefore been attributed to a paucity of fish in the lake. However, new research has provided multiple lines of evidence, which not only demonstrate the presence of fish, but also provide evidence for the species present, data on how and where fish were being processed on site, and interpretations for the fishing methods that might have been used. This study demonstrates that an integrated approach using a range of methods at landscape, site and microscopic scales of analysis can elucidate such questions. In addition, it demonstrates that in future studies, even in cases where physical remains are lacking, forensic techniques hold significant potential.

Was Neanderthal capable of memorising and reproducing an animal form? The answer is still to come, and is to be found in these artistic representations, which may or may not be dated, and in which the identification of the species is not strictly in line with palaeontological data.

Serangeli J., Altamura F., Conard N.J., 2020. Animal and hominin fossil footprints on the ancient shores of the 300 ka paleolake of Schöningen, in Abstracts of Reports and Posters, Alpha and Omega. The emergence and disappearance of Middle Palaeolithic lifeways. 65th Conference of the Hugo Obermaier Society, 2nd-6th of April 2022, Weimar, p. 104. ISBN 978-3-946387-56-5

The use of resinous substances, certainly one of the earliest technologies developed by humans, was well-known by Holocene hunter-gatherers at the onset of the Neolithisation process across Europe. Recent research has revealed the use of birch bark tar in the central Mediterranean far from this taxon's endemic regions both in the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods and shows that the first farmers from the Fertile Crescent hafted lithic tools and waterproofed artefacts using bitumen. The generalised absence of these natural products in southwestern Europe may have thus forced a reformulation of Early Neolithic technologies by exploring and benefitting from existing knowledge in local European hunter-gatherer societies. However, information on resin use from the western Mediterranean is still scarce. Here, we report on the analysis of organic residues from 168 pottery sherds by gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry from 10 archaeological sites in this region dating from the second half of the VI th millennium to the first half of the V th millennium cal BC. In a limited number of samples, minor amounts of several diterpenoids diagnostic of aged Pinaceae resins were detected as mixtures with fats. The presence of pine in the palynological and carpological record supports the human exploitation of this taxon, but its minimal incidence in the anthracological record suggests that other species were selected as fuelwood. This supports the hypothesis that Pinaceae resins were used in association with pottery sporadically but ubiquitously either as its contents, or as post-firing treatments to waterproof the vessels. This demonstrates the development of adhesive technologies and resin-involved labour processes specific to Early Neolithic societies.

In this work, we present a new project that seeks to characterize lithic raw materials and the first results from a macroscopic and microscopic study of the archaeological material from sub-unit IIIb of Teixoneres Cave (NE Iberian Peninsula). During the late Middle Palaeolithic (MIS 3), multidisciplinary research has defined this site underwent short-term occupations by Neanderthals interspersed with visits from carnivores. The project aims to determine the procurement areas of the archaeological lithic materials discovered into the site, exploring the Neanderthals’ use of the territory. In the near future, this information will be plotted on a lithological map, along with possible procurement areas, with the aim of developing a graphic and dynamic model that will make it possible to establish routes of displacement to the site, the outcrops, and the Neanderthals’ mobility in the territory.  

Raman microscopy has become a very useful tool to identify in situ micro-residues on prehistoric stone artefacts. The advantage of visually identifying material on a rock surface through a microscope objective, and then switching from white light to a laser beam focussed by the same objective to achieve sub-micron spatial resolution, makes it possible to obtain chemical and optical information from the same spot. Large numbers of spectra have to be collected to obtain representative data for each artefact, however, resulting in a large variety of possible residues. Not all of these residues are related to the original use of a stone tool. Here we report a key to assist in classifying residues identified by Raman spectroscopy with respect to their origin, including tool use and various sources of contamination (e.g., from the surrounding sediment or in the laboratory). We developed the key based on our experiences of using Raman spectroscopy as a primary investigative method to analyse stone tools from Liang Bua (Flores, Indonesia) and Denisova Cave (Altai Mountains, Russia), incorporating the stringent guidelines set by researchers using optical microscopy to identify residues related to tool use-namely micro-residue abundance and meaningful distribution in relation to visible traces of use-wear. We illustrate use of the key with archaeological and experimental tools. This strategy avoids any bias that targets preferentially larger residues or residues present only on polished edges and surfaces, with the focus

SummaryIn July 1970, the complete skeleton of a male elk (Alces alcesL.) was discovered at Poulton-le-Fylde in a series of aquatic deposits. Uncontrolled excavation recovered most of the skeleton and part of a barbed bone or antler point of ‘Star Carr’ Proto-Maglemosian appearance. Subsequent investigation recovered the remainder of the skeleton and part of a second barbed point, allin situ. These lay in an organic detritus mud which pollen analysis has shown to belong to Zone II of the conventional NW European sequence, assigned to the Allerød Interstadial. The date is therefore likely to lie between 1000 and 2500 years earlier than that of Star Carr.Study of the bones showed at least 17 lesions, of which 3 were probably made some weeks before the animal died. The remainder were probably approximately coincident with death. These lesions were of types which implied the existence of sharp, hard-pointed projectiles (? flint-tipped arrows) and chopping blades (? axes). They were almos...

In this work, we present a new project that seeks to characterize lithic raw materials and the first results from a macroscopic and microscopic study of the archaeological material from sub-unit IIIb of Teixoneres Cave (NE Iberian Peninsula). During the late Middle Palaeolithic (MIS 3), multidisciplinary research has defined this site underwent short-term occupations by Neanderthals interspersed with visits from carnivores. The project aims to determine the procurement areas of the archaeological lithic materials discovered into the site, exploring the Neanderthals’ use of the territory. In the near future, this information will be plotted on a lithological map, along with possible procurement areas, with the aim of developing a graphic and dynamic model that will make it possible to establish routes of displacement to the site, the outcrops, and the Neanderthals’ mobility in the territory.  

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Common crane Grus grus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 ? White Stork Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Red-breasted merganser Mergus serrator (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Red-throated diver Colymbus stellatus (Pontoppidan, 1763) 1 Great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Little grebe Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas, 1764) 1 Lapwing Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Buzzard Buteo buteo (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Duck (size of pintail) Anas acuta (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Wolf Canis lupus (Linnaeus, 1758) 2 Fox Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758) 2 Pine marten Martes martes (Linnaeus, 1758) 2 Badger Meles meles (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Pig [sic] Sus scrofa (Linnaeus, 1758) 5 Elk Alces alces (Linnaeus, 1758) 11 Red deer Cervus elaphus (Linnaeus, 1758) 80 Roe deer Capreolus capreolus (Linnaeus, 1758) 33 Aurochs Bos primigenius (Bojanus, 1827) 9 Hare Lepus cf. europaeus (Pallas, 1778) 1 Beaver Castor fiber (Linnaeus, 1758) 7 bone midshaft only, and he revised this identification to 'indeterminate' (Harrison 1987, 141). There were several other identifications which Harrison changed: the common buzzard (Buteo buteo) humerus midshaft was re-identified as Brent goose (Branta bernicla); the pintail (Anas acuta) carpometacarpus was reassigned to red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator) and the lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) ulna was reassigned to common scoter (Melanitta nigra). There has been much discussion about whether wolf or domesticated dog was found at Star Carr. Fraser and King (1954, 72) reported wolf; however, Degerbøl's (1961) and Benecke's (1987) analyses make it clear that they are domestic dogs, and a further dog right femur was found in the collection by Rick Schulting (Schulting and Richards 2009, 499). A further notable addition to the record is brown bear (Ursus arctos). An upper left canine was found from this species by Tot Lord, who visited the excavations before Clark's trenches were backfilled (Dark et al. 2006, 191). In particular, he searched the deposits next to the birch trees in cutting II and found items by pushing his hands into the soft sediment at the base of the sections. In doing this he felt a skull but could not retrieve it; however, he was able to extract a tooth from it (Edwards et al. 2014). During our excavations we expected to find this skull; however, despite excavating all around cutting II there was no sign of it and the conclusion is that it has either demineralised (if it was on the east side-SC24 only contained two pieces of jellybone) or that it was retrieved by someone else. Two other brown bear bones have since been identified: as already noted, a broken mandible previously identified as wild boar (Legge and Rowley-Conwy 1988, 10) and an axis vertebra (Noe-Nygaard 1983). It has been suggested that the brown bear skull, mandible and axis vertebra possibly belong to the same animal (Dark et al. 2006).

Since its publication in 1954 Star Carr has held an iconic status in British Mesolithic archaeology. The original excavations at the site recorded a large assemblage of bone and antler tools from a sequence of peat deposits at the edge of the Lake Flixton. Over 60 years later this remains the largest assemblage of bone and antler artefacts of its date in Britain and has been an invaluable source of information for life in the early Mesolithic. However, the interpretation of this material has been the subject of intense debate, and the assemblage has been variously described as the remains of an in situ settlement, a refuse dump, and the result of culturally prescribed acts of deposition. Fundamentally, these very different ideas of the nature of the site depend on differing interpretations of the environmental context into which the majority of the organic artefacts were deposited. This paper presents the results of recent work at Star Carr that helps to resolve the debate surrounding both the context of the assemblage and the motivations that lay behind its deposition.

The British Mesolithic Context 277 England, moving into landscapes that were empty of people; however, the rarity of sites in the south suggest a short-lived incursion only. Deepcar type assemblages first appeared in 9460-8705 cal BC (95% probability; start Deepcar-type; see Conneller et al. 2016 figure 5), probably in 9090-8775 cal BC (68% probability). Deepcar type assemblages disappeared in 8200-7240 cal BC (95% probability; end Deepcar-type; Conneller et al. 2016, figure 5), probably in 8075-7620 cal BC (68% probability). It is 95% probable that Deepcar type assemblages first appeared after the first Star Carr type assemblages but it is 100% probable that their use overlapped in time. Deepcar assemblages probably appeared around half a millennium after the first Star Carr type assemblages (Conneller et al. 2016, figure 8). Deepcar assemblages represent both initial pioneer and subsequent residential occupation in the south (see Housley et al. 1997). In the north, the presence of a few Deepcar style microliths at Star Carr in the latest context of the site might suggest a more gradual adoption of these forms by groups residing in this area. Finally, our models suggest basally modified microlith type assemblages first appeared in 9280-8305 cal BC (95% probability; start basal modified; Conneller et al. 2016, figure 6), probably in 8690-8335 cal BC (68% probability). Basally modified microlith type assemblages disappeared in 7030-5845 cal BC (95% probability; end basal modified type; Conneller et al. 2016, figure 6), probably in 6960-6460 cal BC (68% probability). These assemblages certainly overlapped with the use of Star Carr type assemblages and Deepcar type assemblages (100% probable), at least in certain areas of the country. The appearance of basally modified forms coincides with a diversification and regionalisation of the Mesolithic with new areas of Britain occupied; a shift made by all Mesolithic groups in Britain, independent of the microlith forms they favoured. Based on these models, the following review will include discussion of all Star Carr type sites on the basis that these are broadly contemporary with Star Carr itself, with the exception of the southern Welsh Star Carr type sites that are likely to postdate its occupation. Deepcar type sites will also be included in the discussion as these overlap with Star Carr's occupation. However, because many Deepcar type sites are likely to postdate Star Carr, those that have late radiocarbon dates or typologically fit the profile of late Deepcar sites (see Jacobi 1981) will be excluded from the discussion. The following account focuses on excavated sites and is based on a combination of analysis of the original artefactual and faunal material by the two authors, site archives, the Jacobi archive and review of published literature.

The physical remoteness of the site and its extreme unattractiveness, compounded by mud, ooze, rising water, and all too attentive clegs (small horseflies), only served to enhance the morale of the party. Under such conditions concentration on the job was the only way out. '

The flint, on the working of which the whole technology of the Star Carr people depended, was mainly derived from the local drift, which could also have produced chert, stone pebbles of various kinds and iron pyrites-the latter doubtless used in conjunction with flint and tinder for producing fire. '

This contribution directly relates to the paper published by Wheeler in 1978 entitled 'Why were there no fish remains at Star Carr?'. Star Carr is arguably the richest, most studied and re-interpreted Mesolithic site in Europe but the lack of fish remains has continued to vex scholars. Judging from other materials, the preservation conditions at the site in the late 1940s/early 1950s should have been good enough to permit the survival of fish remains, and particularly dentaries of the northern pike (Esox lucius L., 1758) as found on other European sites of this age. The lack of evidence has therefore been attributed to a paucity of fish in the lake. However, new research has provided multiple lines of evidence, which not only demonstrate the presence of fish, but also provide evidence for the species present, data on how and where fish were being processed on site, and interpretations for the fishing methods that might have been used. This study demonstrates that an integrated approach using a range of methods at landscape, site and microscopic scales of analysis can elucidate such questions. In addition, it demonstrates that in future studies, even in cases where physical remains are lacking, forensic techniques hold significant potential.

Ancient trace residues left on stone artefacts by people represent a source of potentially fruitful data about diet, technology, and behaviour, but their investigation is not problem-free. Rather, correct identification of degraded residues and determination of their natural or anthropogenic origin remains at the heart of current methodological development in lithic residue analysis. It is increasingly becoming clear that reflected visible light microscopy (VLM) is insufficient to make secure identifications of ambiguous residues. Confocal Raman microspectroscopy (micro-Raman) is a non-destructive technique that can identify the specific molecular nature of microscopic residues with high spatial resolution. Here, the identification of artefact residues as anthropogenic by visual inspection alone was found to be incorrect in all cases tested. Micro-Raman provided the key source of information to unambiguously determine the chemical nature of residues and hence their origin.

The study catalogues all currently known finds of bone and antler harpoons and points associated with Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Protoneolithic culture in the southern Baltic zone, between the mouths of the Oder and Niemen rivers. It undertakes an analysis of the category in typological, chronological and cultural terms, taking into consideration results of recent paleogeographic investigations and research on the Stone Age in this region. An important element of this study are drawn plates of nearly all of the discussed objects as well as distribution maps. The author gives a critical analysis of the classic harpoon and point typology presented by J.G.D. Clark (1936) in the context of a broader source base, encompassing finds from the entire Baltic zone. A detailed morphological classification of harpoon barbs is one of the most important tools essential to this end.

This paper offers a critical consideration of current approaches to the modelling of Mesolithic settlement patterns in Britain. It questions the automatic retention of traditional ideas on seasonality and variation in site functions that are based on a too ready acceptance of models derived from a simplistic understanding of ethnographic evidence. It also suggests that our desires to force the available archaeological data into a unified 'Mesolithic settlement pattern' may have led to potential settlement variation going un-noticed. In the final section the author questions the role of what are termed 'ethno-facts' and 'ethno-fictions'.

Since its publication in 1954 Star Carr has held an iconic status in British Mesolithic archaeology. The original excavations at the site recorded a large assemblage of bone and antler tools from a sequence of peat deposits at the edge of the Lake Flixton. Over 60 years later this remains the largest assemblage of bone and antler artefacts of its date in Britain and has been an invaluable source of information for life in the early Mesolithic. However, the interpretation of this material has been the subject of intense debate, and the assemblage has been variously described as the remains of an in situ settlement, a refuse dump, and the result of culturally prescribed acts of deposition. Fundamentally, these very different ideas of the nature of the site depend on differing interpretations of the environmental context into which the majority of the organic artefacts were deposited. This paper presents the results of recent work at Star Carr that helps to resolve the debate surroundi...

This paper presents the results of an investigation into the preservation status of pollen and other microfossils in the organic sediments at the wetland Mesolithic site of Star Carr. This study assesses the degradation of the pollen record in a profile at the edge of the archaeological site, adjacent to previous pollen work carried out from 1989 to 1991 and using it as a benchmark for comparison. There has been a severe degradation of pollen grains since the earlier work, with the upper peat devoid of pollen and the lower part of the organic profile badly affected. Only the very basal sediments retain well preserved pollen. Comparisons with hydrological and geo-chemical data obtained by other workers during the assessment of the Star Carr site suggest that oxidation caused by drainage and dessication of the organic sediments, perhaps originating in fissures in the drying peat, is a primary cause of the observed severe deterioration of the pollen record. Non-pollen palynomorphs (primarily fungal and algal spores) appear to be better preserved than pollen in the present bio-stratigraphic record, showing little surface degeneration, but are not recorded in the earlier work. The pollen archive in organic sediments at the Star Carr site is now badly damaged. Any further pollen work there should be undertaken urgently but is probably not justifiable.

The basal topography and sediments recording the Last Glacial Interglacial Transition (LGIT) from Palaeolake Flixton, North Yorkshire have been reinvestigated through a detailed, systematic auger and borehole survey. The data presented in this paper, from the area to the north of Flixton Island and the River Hertford suggests that the basal topography of Palaeolake Flixton is irregular with a series of deep and areally small basins interspersed within a gravel surface of around 21m OD. At its shallowest the gravel surface is ca. 2m below current land surface and the deeper, steep-sided basins are up to 9m in depth. Examination of the sediment sequences indicates the deeper basins accumulate sediments from the Dimlington Stadial (DS), Windermere Interstadial (WI), Loch Lomond Stadial (LLS) and the Holocene, whilst the shallower sequences only record the Holocene. The configuration of the deposits in the basins suggest that lake levels declined during the WI from 24 mOD to 23mOD and then fell further during the LLS to ca. 20.90mOD. The lake water levels then rose slowly during the Holocene to a height of between 23-24mOD. These fluctuations in lake water level at the transition from the LLS to Holocene perhaps indicate that the configuration of the water body during the resettlement of the area in the Mesolithic was radically different than previously thought, with lower water levels and therefore a greater area of land exposed for habitation. This highlights the potential for additional preservation of archaeological assemblages in the area of the former lake. Moreover the complex basal stratigraphy suggests that a systematic analyses of the Palaeolake Flixton

is a world renowned site first excavated in the late 1940s by Grahame Clark. These excavations revealed organic remains which are incredibly rare, though there are some parallels with sites in Germany and Denmark. The evidence from Star Carr has been debated over the decades, but in 2004 new excavations commenced with the aim of answering some of the questions which had been posed about this important Mesolithic site. One of the alarming discoveries was that the site had deteriorated badly. However, some organic materials remained, though in a very fragile condition. Some of the most spectacular of these are large wooden platforms which had been constructed on what would have been the margins of the lake. In addition, 'house' structures were discovered for the first time on the dry land. With a scientific programme including Bayesian modelling and environmental sampling it has been possible for the first time to construct a picture of life in the Mesolithic at Star Carr through time (Milner et al. 2018a; b).

This contribution directly relates to the paper published by Wheeler in 1978 entitled 'Why were there no fish remains at Star Carr?'. Star Carr is arguably the richest, most studied and re-interpreted Mesolithic site in Europe but the lack of fish remains has continued to vex scholars. Judging from other materials, the preservation conditions at the site in the late 1940s/early 1950s should have been good enough to permit the survival of fish remains, and particularly dentaries of the northern pike (Esox lucius L., 1758) as found on other European sites of this age. The lack of evidence has therefore been attributed to a paucity of fish in the lake. However, new research has provided multiple lines of evidence, which not only demonstrate the presence of fish, but also provide evidence for the species present, data on how and where fish were being processed on site, and interpretations for the fishing methods that might have been used. This study demonstrates that an integrated approach using a range of methods at landscape, site and microscopic scales of analysis can elucidate such questions. In addition, it demonstrates that in future studies, even in cases where physical remains are lacking, forensic techniques hold significant potential.

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The basal topography and sediments recording the Last Glacial Interglacial Transition (LGIT) from Palaeolake Flixton, North Yorkshire have been reinvestigated through a detailed, systematic auger and borehole survey. The data presented in this paper, from the area to the north of Flixton Island and the River Hertford suggests that the basal topography of Palaeolake Flixton is irregular with a series of deep and areally small basins interspersed within a gravel surface of around 21m OD. At its shallowest the gravel surface is ca. 2m below current land surface and the deeper, steep-sided basins are up to 9m in depth. Examination of the sediment sequences indicates the deeper basins accumulate sediments from the Dimlington Stadial (DS), Windermere Interstadial (WI), Loch Lomond Stadial (LLS) and the Holocene, whilst the shallower sequences only record the Holocene. The configuration of the deposits in the basins suggest that lake levels declined during the WI from 24 mOD to 23mOD and then fell further during the LLS to ca. 20.90mOD. The lake water levels then rose slowly during the Holocene to a height of between 23-24mOD. These fluctuations in lake water level at the transition from the LLS to Holocene perhaps indicate that the configuration of the water body during the resettlement of the area in the Mesolithic was radically different than previously thought, with lower water levels and therefore a greater area of land exposed for habitation. This highlights the potential for additional preservation of archaeological assemblages in the area of the former lake. Moreover the complex basal stratigraphy suggests that a systematic analyses of the Palaeolake Flixton

This contribution directly relates to the paper published by Wheeler in 1978 entitled 'Why were there no fish remains at Star Carr?'. Star Carr is arguably the richest, most studied and re-interpreted Mesolithic site in Europe but the lack of fish remains has continued to vex scholars. Judging from other materials, the preservation conditions at the site in the late 1940s/early 1950s should have been good enough to permit the survival of fish remains, and particularly dentaries of the northern pike (Esox lucius L., 1758) as found on other European sites of this age. The lack of evidence has therefore been attributed to a paucity of fish in the lake. However, new research has provided multiple lines of evidence, which not only demonstrate the presence of fish, but also provide evidence for the species present, data on how and where fish were being processed on site, and interpretations for the fishing methods that might have been used. This study demonstrates that an integrated approach using a range of methods at landscape, site and microscopic scales of analysis can elucidate such questions. In addition, it demonstrates that in future studies, even in cases where physical remains are lacking, forensic techniques hold significant potential.

Figure 29.2: Wooden artefacts by technological type (Copyright Star Carr Project, CC BY-NC 4.0). The Wooden Artefacts 371 Ten items were selected for analysis, including six dowels and four pieces of utilised roundwood with a range of different suggested original functions. The results of this analysis are set out in the section on the artefacts. Molecular analyses were performed on extracted lipids by André Colonese and Alexandre Lucquin from two of the wooden artefacts from Star Carr, bow <113300> and radial dowel <113778>, in the hope of identifying residual traces of plant resins and tar that may have been used as an adhesive. Samples were collected from the extremities and the middle of these artefacts and lipids were extracted using established protocols in archaeology (Craig et al. 2013; Little et al. 2016; Regert et al. 2003). Lipids were also extracted from soil samples recovered from the artefacts for comparison. Analyses by Gas Chromatography (GC) and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) demonstrated the presence of lipids; however, those that were present were consistent with the local soil chemistry (e.g. alkanes, long-chain fatty acids). No evidence for plant resins or other adhesives, for example birch bark tar, were identified.

The physical remoteness of the site and its extreme unattractiveness, compounded by mud, ooze, rising water, and all too attentive clegs (small horseflies), only served to enhance the morale of the party. Under such conditions concentration on the job was the only way out. '