Outer Space Law

Forty years after Lord Cockfield’s White Paper, this article revisits the pivotal role of the completion of the Single Market in reviving the European project according to Delors vision. It also analyzes its developments, transformations, and limitations. From its origins in the aftermath of the 1970s crisis, through to the reshaping of European economic
governance, the structural tension between competition and industrial policy is brought to the fore. Present challenge is twofold: to complete the Single Market in its still fragmented areas (taxation, services, finance) and to rethink it as a strategic lever for a new season of sustainable, coordinated and transition-oriented European industrial policies.

Розглядаються спеціальні принципи міжнародного екологічного права, виявлено взаємозалежність загальних принципів міжнародного права, спеціальних принципів міжнародного екологічного права та принципів міжнародного економічного права.Рассматриваются специальные принципы международного экологического права, выявлено взаимозависимость общих принципов международного права, специальных принципов международного экологического права и принципов международного экономического права.Special principles of international environmental law are considered, the interdependence of general principles of international law, special principles of international environmental law and principles of international economic law is revealed

This article provides a concise overview of space insurance, with a focus on satellite first-party property coverage. It touches upon the three main phases of the lifecycle of a satellite (pre-launch, launch, and in-orbit) and examines the core structure and substance of a typical space insurance policy. This article also considers the types of losses that a satellite may suffer in outer space and offers a holistic analysis of how space insurance claims are handled. While space law often tends to attract academic analysis, this article seeks to clarify the practical aspects of space insurance, particularly for those less familiar with this specialized field.

This paper was presented in a National Conference on Environmental Law and Policy on 23 July 2022 at Green University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. This paper identifies Outer Space and its legal character and determines the environmental issues in outer space. It also ascertains the interrelationship of Outer space with International Environmental law and discovers international efforts to protect the outer space Environment. This article looks for relevant national laws and policies in Bangladesh and recommends for future perspectives.

Islam encourages the pursuit of knowledge and exploration, including outer space, as a means of appreciating Allah’s creation and advancing human progress. However, as space technology rapidly evolves, the increasing militarisation of outer space, through intelligence systems, satellite warfare, and anti-satellite weaponry, poses a growing threat to global security. This article critically examines the international legal framework for preventing an arms race in space, with a focus on key treaties, including the Outer Space Treaty. It explores significant challenges, including geopolitical rivalries and enforcement gaps, while proposing solutions to strengthen space security. From an Islamic perspective, principles such as salam (peace), 'adl wa al-ihsan (justice and benevolence), and amanah (trust) reinforce global efforts for peaceful space governance. By integrating legal and ethical considerations, this article advocates for stronger international collaboration and the incorporation of Islamic values to prevent conflicts and ensure space remains a shared domain for humanity’s peaceful and sustainable advancement.

Space colonization, the establishment of permanent human habitats beyond Earth, once thought to be the realm of science fiction and fantasy has now become the work of scientists and engineers. Although the Apollo mission was able to land some people on the moon successfully, we still need great advancements in science for space colonization. However, if our earth is the cradle and we cannot be in the cradle forever" as viewed by Tsiolkovsky and realize the concept of space colonization then it evokes and poses key questions: Who benefits? What inequalities arise? Can good governance be globalized? Hence, space colonization should be approached ethically, equitably, and scientifically to balance disparities that may

Resulta importante que los Estados tengan en cuenta la Agenda «Espacio2030» en torno a la gobernanza global. En efecto, los objetivos y las principales metas a las que deben someterse las actividades en el espacio ultraterrestre precisan de una gobernanza global más firme y mejor definida en sus estructuras de apoyo. Lo que reclama una sólida estructura espacial y una mejora de los datos que puedan obtenerse desde el espacio. De ahí que la Agenda Espacio2030 suponga un referente necesario al que debemos acudir para mejorar los factores del desarrollo. Tengamos en cuenta que la gobernanza global y la diplomacia espacial se han convertido en un nuevo campo de acción como herramientas para el desarrollo desde la perspectiva del desarrollo sostenible. Por ello, la Agenda Espacio2030 se ha elaborado con el fin de cubrir cuatro pilares estratégicos y transversales como son: a) la economía espacial: buscando el desarrollo de beneficios económicos derivados del espacio; b) la sociedad espacial: es decir, la promoción de beneficios de carácter social provenientes de las actividades en el espacio; c) la accesibilidad espacial: el acceso del espacio a todos los Estados, sean desarrollados o en desarrollo, y d) la diplomacia espacial: fomentando la creación de alianzas, la gobernanza global y el fortalecimiento de la cooperación internacional. Al entender que el espacio es un «motor para el desarrollo sostenible», a través de estos cuatro pilares la agenda que comentamos se plantea encontrar las herramientas espaciales con las que alcanzar los ODS en la gobernanza global y en la utilización del espacio con fines exclusivamente pacíficos. La Diplomacia Espacial, se va a convertir en los próximos años en un instrumento imprescindible

The astronautics industry is entering a transformative era driven by private space companies such as SpaceX and Blue Origin. Their efforts toward reusable rockets, orbital infrastructure, and eventual multi-planetary settlement represent a paradigm shift in space exploration. This paper examines the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into astronautics, with a focus on how AI contributes to sustainability in propulsion, mission design, and resource management. By analyzing SpaceX's and Blue Origin's strategies, I propose a framework for AI-enabled sustainable astronautics that ensures humanity's expansion into space does not replicate the unsustainable practices of Earth.

The increasing amount of outer space debris presents significant challenges for public international law, necessitating urgent action to establish effective regulatory frameworks and collaborative international efforts. The implications of space debris are multifaceted, affecting not only satellite operations but also the safety of astronauts aboard the International Space Station. As such, it is imperative for nations to engage in dialogue and cooperation to mitigate the risks associated with this growing threat. This international collaboration is essential not only for the protection of current and future space missions but also for ensuring the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

The rapid expansion of commercial space activities, technological innovation, and geopolitical competition necessitates a comprehensive and adaptive governance framework for outer space. This paper proposes a multidimensional framework to advance space law and policy governance by addressing critical gaps in existing international treaties, national legislations, and soft law instruments. Centered on four key pillars-legal harmonization and institutional coordination, equitable access and capacity-building, sustainability and environmental protection, and accountability and security governance-the framework seeks to balance national interests with the collective stewardship of space as a global commons. Through comparative legal analysis and scenario-based testing, the study demonstrates the framework's potential to enhance cooperation, mitigate conflicts, and promote sustainable and equitable space utilization. The paper further discusses strategic, ethical, and policy implications, highlighting the importance of inclusive multilateralism and adaptive legal mechanisms. This research contributes to shaping a resilient and forward-looking governance architecture essential for the peaceful and sustainable development of outer space in the 21st century.

VEILLE 1. États-Unis 12 juin 2025 : premiers dessins du missile LRSO publiés par le Pentagone 1 . 2. Russie 2 juin 2025 : attaque de drone ukrainienne sur la base aérienne de Belaya conduisant à la destruction de plusieurs bombardiers stratégiques russes (Tu-95 Bear, et potentiellement Tu-22M) 2 . 3. Iran 12 juin 2025 : résolution du Conseil des gouverneurs de l'AIEA accusant l'Iran d'être en violation des obligations découlant de son accord de garanties 3 . 12-15 juin 2025 : frappes israéliennes sur l'usine d'enrichissement de Natanz, le centre de technologie nucléaire d'Ispahan, le réacteur nucléaire d'Arak, le site militaire de Parchin, l'usine d'enrichissement de Fordo, le Iran Centrifuge Technology Company à Karaj, le Tehran Nuclear Research Center et l'université Imam Hossein (Téhéran) 4 . 16 juin 2025 : annonce par le ministère des Affaires étrangères d'une préparation par le Parlement d'une loi permettant le retrait du TNP 5 . frappes américaines sur le site de Fordo, Natanz et Ispahan 6 . 9 juin 2025 : identification d'un nouveau bâtiment sur le site de Yongbyon, possiblement dédié à l'enrichissement de l'uranium 7 .

This paper examines the evolving discourse within the United Nations Open-Ended Working Group on the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (OEWG on PAROS), highlighting its implications for the future governance of the space domain. While the 1967 Outer Space Treaty and the UN Charter remain foundational, they were not designed to address contemporary challenges such as cyber operations, dual-use platforms, kinetic anti-satellite (ASAT) tests, and the increasing role of commercial mega-constellations. Drawing on thematic debates during the OEWG’s second session, the analysis underscores four intersecting dimensions: the urgent need to close legal and normative gaps; the humanitarian stakes of space militarization, particularly for civilian infrastructure dependent on satellite systems; the call from developing countries for equitable access, technology transfer, and inclusive rulemaking; and the emerging consensus on pragmatic pathways that balance legally binding instruments with non-binding confidence-building measures. By framing outer space as both a security and development concern, the paper argues that achieving a “common orbit” will require not only legal innovation, but also sustained multilateral cooperation that is inclusive, equitable, and enforceable. The conclusion reflects on the OEWG’s role as both a forum for legal deliberation and a laboratory for building the political will to preserve space as a peaceful, sustainable, and just global commons.

This paper examines the laws governing military aircraft and elaborates on a set of principles outlined in several conventions that determine their legitimacy and obligations under international law. The research method of this paper is qualitative, and it adopts legal research methodology, which is a library-based black letter approach. The governing regulations of two legal regimes-aviation law and humanitarian law-are considered for the purpose of analysis while considering the practical aspects and distinctive role of military aircraft. The paper is divided into three parts, and Part One provides a brief discussion on the history and evolution of governing laws for military aircraft. The second part of the paper explores the Paris Convention and the Chicago Convention's specific provisions as they relate to military aircraft. Part three of the paper delves into military aircraft under international humanitarian law embedded in the Hague regulations and Protocol I of the four Geneva Conventions and identifies how indiscriminate air attack and unlawful interception violate the law of armed conflict principles. Finally, this paper argues that while assuring legitimacy under the contemporary international legal regime, it would result in state responsibility if an act of military aircraft breached customary international law principles.

Innovation and research are at the heart of the European debate as indispensable instruments for overcoming the serious ¿ nancial and economic crisis which has affected the global economy since 2007. Italy possesses enormous potential in the ¿ eld of research and innovation -it is present in our companies, our universities and research institutions. It is this potential which will enable us to overcome the challenge we are now facing; but ¿ rst, a new strategy must be implemented without delay. A strategy that takes in globalization and that should promote a new awareness related to the fact that the growth of a society is strongly linked to the production of knowledge and research, as well as to the economy, stock exchange and markets. In short, a "knowledge-based society", where "knowledge and skills" converge, the "intangible capital" that has been designated as the new wealth of nations. The European Union, therefore, is no longer only seen as a single market, but as a society strongly tied to the production of knowledge, through its research and the consequent spreading and sharing of this knowledge, and through education and training. It is therefore important to participate, not only in building this wealth, but more importantly in distributing it fairly, the penalty being the widening of the gap between the Northern and Southern hemispheres of the world. A shared, joint strategy, of coordinated ¿ nancing in support of national research, so that we can look ahead to achieving a "European Research Area". The European Commission's Communication of 18 January 2000, "Towards a European Research Area" (COM/2000/0006 ¿ nal), marked the beginning of one of the most ambitious and strategic projects of the European Union. The European Research Area (ERA) is a system of scienti¿ c research programmes, which integrates the scienti¿ c resources of European Union countries and aims to increase the competitiveness of European research institutions. Since the early nineties, in fact, it was felt that essentially European policies were needed for research and education, since only by acting at a European level could suf¿ cient resources be collected in order to reach the critical threshold of ef¿ ciency. The objective was not to Europeanise research, nor spend more at a European level, it was important to increase the coherence of all the instruments used, to identify common aims and to converge the initiatives launched in different European countries towards synergistic goals: in other words to implement a "joint programme" of European research.

This is a critical moment in the history of Earth: Humans are ending 3.5–3.8 billion years of relative isolation, and may now leave lasting physical, chemical, biological, and unforeseen impacts on space environments. Crewed missions, alongside technological advancements in the New Space age—such as miniaturization and the use of artificial intelligence—accelerate this trend. Decisions with potentially far-reaching cosmic consequences are being made. Hence, there is an urgent need for action.

Amongst the array of possible effects following our space endeavors, some may lead—through chain reactions or exponential mechanisms—to significant, large scale and/or irreversible changes, such as: (1) geomorphologic alterations impacting entire planetary landscapes; (2) changes of celestial dynamics, leading to asteroid impacts or exponentially growing orbital debris; (3) large scale spread of chemicals, altering chemical evolution and the potential for emergence or evolution of lifeforms on a given body; (4) the spread of terrestrial lifeforms, inducing the creation of new biospheres or destruction/interaction with pre-existing ones; and (5) the changes in Earth’s electromagnetic signature, thereby increasing the potential for the identification by putative extraterrestrial intelligences.

The above scenarios may result in unprecedented consequences and prompt critical questions, such as: is it acceptable to spread terrestrial lifeforms to other celestial bodies, knowing their introduction could significantly impact environments and potential local life or even create new biospheres? Do humans have a responsibility to do so? Or rather to prevent it? Do we, as a species, want to create, destroy, or interact with extraterrestrial bio- and geo-spheres, either by accident or intentionally? Is it acceptable to signal nearby exoplanets? Beyond the scientific considerations, is it acceptable to allow biological or chemical contamination onboard spacecraft, even when landing in places in the solar system likely to host life? Is it desirable that such actions are decided by informed groups, having, however, limited representation with respect to the majority of humanity? Or unilaterally by governments, corporations, or individuals? How to respect the variety of cultural representations? Is there a need for specific laws, regulations and governance structures addressing these questions?

These questions concern the intergenerational responsibility of humanity, which extends beyond our own species and biosphere. They address the large-scale, irreversible impacts that humans have and will continue to have, following today's decisions. They connect contemporaneous actions, with consequences at scales unheard of in history, raising ethical questions we have no easy answer to. They relate to one overarching consideration: what is humanity’s responsibility, concerning its footprint on the cosmos?

Established in 1967, the Outer Space Treaty included the imperative to avoid "harmful contamination" of celestial bodies. Since then, several relevant issues related to humanity's cosmic footprint have been addressed; notably, the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) Panel on Planetary Protection developed guidelines for biological transfers in order to safeguard studies regarding the origin of life and to protect our planet from contamination. Further, a broader interest in space ethics has emerged, encompassing questions concerning humanity’s impact on the cosmos. In 1999, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology (COMEST) created a Sub-Commission on the Ethics of Outer Space. For 2024-2025, COMEST aims to formulate ethical principles for space exploration and exploitation. In 2010, the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) established the Working Group on the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities.

These initiatives, especially at the multilateral UN Level, are commendable and should be supported (for example through the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space). However, no entity today is dedicated explicitly to the empirical evaluation of our overall cosmic footprint or to the exploration and development of responsible strategies to address it.

In response to this situation, we, stakeholders and specialists from various nations, involved in a broad spectrum of space-related disciplines and activities, collectively call to humankind, the nations of Earth, scholars, experts, policymakers, stakeholders, space-related corporations and ethics committees, to unite in recognizing the need to assess and responsibly address humanity's impact beyond Earth.

Acknowledging prior work completed by dedicated individuals and organizations, we encourage everyone, from their respective areas of expertise or position of action, to engage in a comprehensive evaluation of our cosmic footprint, explore the related ethical considerations, challenge the current governance practices, and take action. In particular, we urge:

— All stakeholders, to develop enduring strategies and structures designed to keep humanity accountable for its cosmic footprint over the long term. Such governance should be transparent, responsible, sustainable, and self-reflective, aiming to represent the perspectives of all humanity while considering our accountability to the entire biosphere.

— The establishment of an international registry of our anthropogenic footprint beyond Earth. Its role will be to develop a comprehensive and scientific representation of our cosmic footprint, providing a common ground for informed discussion. This development will require: a) listing types of anthropogenic impacts in space; b) identifying, merging, and maintaining existing databases (e.g., spacecraft); c) conducting scientific research to develop missing databases (e.g., electromagnetic footprints); and d) modeling and evaluating these footprints. The registry should be publicly accessible, and actively engage stakeholders and the public through regular scientific communication—including reports, visualizations, and summaries.

To amplify the impact of this work, we invite all interested parties to co-endorse the ‘Cosmic Footprint’ initiative.

The arrival of new and innovative space systems, such as large constellations comprising hundreds or even thousands of satellites, as well as in-orbit servicing missions proposing multiple spacecraft visitations, manoeuvres and orbital activities, pose potential new risks. The possibility that these new systems could adversely affect the space debris environment, adding more uncontrolled objects such as mission remains and failed satellites, is significant. Currently there are a number of international treaties and conventions providing best-practice guidelines and standards, to help combat the issues of space debris. To develop relevant national and international policies, as well as build a robust and appropriate licensing approach to these systems, it is essential that the effects of these undertakings on the orbital environment both in the immediate future and in the longer term, are well understood. To support this, the UK Space Agency (UKSA) is currently developing a new in-house risk assessment capability, with the goal of better understanding both the likelihood and the consequences of unexpected in-orbit events for these new systems. A key aim will be to ensure that these new capabilities are underpinned with first-principles physics models, combined with high-fidelity data, and validated thoroughly through-out. This paper seeks to define some of issues that UKSA are attempting to better understand and provide details on the development currently taking place.

Prior to the beginning of the Cold War, exploration of outer space by explorers was majorly for scientific discoveries of new planets. But as time went by, governments and private entities began to explore further for natural resources that could be beneficial to the existence of man on earth. Such minerals that could be found in asteroids include iron, iridium, nickel, magnesium, gold, platinum, and palladium, among others. Although every nation of the world is believed to have equal right to outer space and the resources discovered therein, the commercialisation of space mining activities have seemingly restricted the control of these resources to world leading governments such as, the United State, China, Russia, Japan, France and some private enterprises who have the financial power for such activities. The goal of the article was to examine commercialisation, property rights and contemporary legal issues concerning outer space mining. Can private or non-governmental entities op...

The Secure World Foundation envisions the secure, sustainable, and peaceful uses of outer space contributing to global stability on Earth. We work with governments, industry, international organizations, and civil society to develop and promote ideas and actions for international collaborations that achieve the secure, sustainable, and peaceful uses of outer space.

The Space Generation Advisory Council is a non-profit organization that aims to represent the international group of young professionals and students from around the world interested in all aspects of humankind's understanding, exploration, and utilization of outer space. Within the SGAC membership, those interested in and pursuing education and training related to the legal aspects of outer space established a Space Law Working Group in the summer of 2012. One of the focuses of the group is investigating the role and importance of national space legislation. In addition to many large and established space-faring nations with large space agencies and long heritages of space capability, many more nations are becoming space capable. In the African continent, Nigeria, South Africa, and Maghreb countries are cooperating and coordinating their space activities. In Europe, ESA membership is growing, with Poland to become the 19 th Member State in the fall of 2012. Domestic European space agencies are also growing in size and capability. In the future, many new companies and many more countries will increase the size and scope of the space field, including nations with limited space experience. Consequently, the need for rational, efficient, and balanced national space legislation for countries previously lacking it will become more clear and urgent. This paper will first examine existing national space legislation, looking to see common themes and crucial hallmarks. Insights from existing national experience, along with cross-disciplinary takeaways from international relations theory and space policy, and the overriding requirements from public international space law, should intelligently inform the drafting of national space legislation.

The John F. Kennedy Space Centre (KSC) is a prestigious spaceport that boasts a rich history of space exploration and development programs. The architecture and design of this facility have played a pivotal role in the successful launch of numerous space missions. This research paper presents a comprehensive case study of the KSC's architecture and design, exclusively based on online research and resources. Spread across a sprawling area of 144,000 acres in Florida, the KSC houses over 700 facilities, catering to multiple space development programs, such as the International Space Station, Orion spacecraft, and various launch vehicles. The facility's architecture has been shaped to meet the functional requirements of these programs, with a strong emphasis on safety, efficiency, and sustainability. The survey delves into the evolution of the KSC's architecture, tracing its history from the design of the original launch pads to the subsequent expansion of the facility. The study also highlights the design of the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), which stands tall as one of the world's largest structures and was specially designed to assemble the Saturn V rocket. Furthermore, the study examines the diverse challenges faced by the KSC's architecture and design team, ranging from hurricane protection to environmental sustainability and technological advancements. The KSC's architecture has been consistently evolving to meet these challenges, with innovations like the use of solar panels for energy generation and advanced weather monitoring systems. Overall, the report provides a comprehensive overview of the KSC's architecture and design, showcasing its relevance in the history of space exploration and development. The case study provides valuable insights for architects and designers in the field of space technology, demonstrating the importance of functional design in complex engineering projects.

Human missions to Mars have been studied individually by several Space Agencies over the past decades. However, a cooperative Human Mars mission framework including, but not limited to, requirements and technologies, is still missing. The International Academy of Astronautics has set up a study group to deal with this subject with the goal of identifying, assessing and synthesizing a global set of goals with its related criteria and requirements for future human exploration of the Mars system and establishing technology opportunities and roadmaps in the context of promising cooperative exploration scenarios.

Two states can have several bilateral agreements between them, some legally binding and others not. Is there a discernible pattern to how states structure the chronological sequence of binding and non-binding agreements governing a specific issue area? For example, do states prioritize a framework treaty to establish the foundation of their cooperation and let bureaucrats iron out details in non-binding instruments? Or do they first experiment with low-commitment agreements before eventually settling on a more permanent treaty? This paper explores these questions using the example of space governance, which is characterized by a high number of bilateral agreements. Examining space agreements between 287 state dyads, it argues that a combination of power asymmetry and trust levels influences the likelihood of certain types of sequences of binding and non-binding agreements. These findings are of particular relevance to the literature on informal governance, regime complexes, and space politics.

La possibile fornitura, da parte di Starlink, di servizi satellitari per il Governo italiano solleva una serie articolata di implicazioni giuridiche e regolatorie. Il contributo esplora tali profili alla luce dell'assenza di un quadro normativo internazionale adeguato, delle recenti evoluzioni del diritto dell'Unione europea in materia di concorrenza e sovvenzioni estere, nonché della disciplina sugli appalti pubblici e sul Golden Power. In questa prospettiva, si riflette anche sul possibile contrasto con l'obiettivo di autonomia strategica perseguito dall'Unione europea nel settore delle telecomunicazioni satellitari. The potential supply of satellite communication services to the Italian government by Starlink raises a complex set of legal and regulatory issues. In light of the absence of a coherent international legal framework and recent developments in EU competition and foreign subsidy law, as well as public procurement and Golden Power rules, this article aims to analyse these issues. It also examines the possible incompatibility with the European Union's objective of achieving strategic autonomy in the satellite communications sector. SOMMARIO: 1. Tre debolezze regolative.-2. Questioni legate all'affidamento del servizio.-3. Criticità connesse alla disciplina Golden Power.-4. Problemi connessi alla disciplina sulle sovvenzioni estere e alle potenziali condotte anticoncorrenziali di SpaceX.-5. Temi concernenti il contrasto con l'autonomia strategica dell'UE.

Militarization of space has marked a critical point in global security, driven by advancements in technologies and geopolitical rivalries among U.S the super power and China the emerging super power; it is becoming a significant threat to international peace and security. The paper will look into the security implications of space-based weapons, surveillance systems, and dual-use technologies, by over viewing recently published researches in literature review. The epistemological debate indicates that there are serious gaps in laws regarding the regulation of cyber warfare in space, the definition of the peaceful use, and the implementation of responsibility. Further, the research gaps in previous philosophical works proposed some highly recommended things such as the updating of the international space law, transparency mechanisms and debris mitigation procedures have been suggested. This study highlights the need to act with the help of the qualitative method, including policy analysis and legal interpretation, that how lacking the existing space governance tools are, when it comes to frighten militarization of U.S-China in the race of space security.
Further, this research paper discusses the tendency towards the extension of space capabilities into the mainstream military doctrines and analyses the way the both super powers U.S and China are approaching for space control.  This research also examines the lack of international legal means of controlling emerging trends like the autonomous space weapons and soft-kill technologies. Based on recent military space exercise, defense white papers as well as international legal argumentation, also assesses the substantive value of soft law (norms and guidelines) and hard law (binding treaties) in limiting militarization. A holistic approach of international relations and levels of analysis approach used while concluding this research article few highly needed recommendations are given in last which may be very necessary for avoiding the possible race among developed countries from starting new military race in space technology and strategic supremacy over each other.

Keywords: Militarization of space, global security, Space technology, Super power, Controlling, Military race.

This comprehensive engineering analysis presents a detailed architecture for humanity's first crewed surface mission to Mars, designed around technologies that can be developed and deployed within the next decade. The mission framework represents a fundamental departure from traditional "heroic journey" concepts, instead embracing a cargo-first, crew-second philosophy that prioritizes astronaut safety through systematic redundancy and pre-positioned infrastructure. The proposed architecture centers on deploying five unmanned Starship cargo variants to Mars during the 2035 launch window, two years before crew departure. These vehicles will establish a complete, operational Mars surface infrastructure including habitat systems, life support, power generation, fuel production facilities, and scientific equipment. Only after this infrastructure is verified operational and producing fuel for the return journey will the fourperson crew launch for their 26-month mission.

A more proactive exchange of personnel across U.S. regulators of commercial outer-space activities would provide tangible and immediate preparatory benefits for the nearly certain redistribution of administrative authority. If a regulatory reorganization occurs along proposed pathways, employees with expertise from different offices are likely to be transferred or hired into newly empowered agencies. However, even if political gridlock occurs that prevents formalized near- or mid-term reinvestment of authority, the major questions doctrine looms as an approaching roadblock for the space-oversight status quo. Thus, whether pressed by Congress, the Executive Branch, or judicial opinions, structural change in the outer-space regulatory architecture faces many foreseeable sources. This foreseeability enables preemptive action. Specifically, emphasizing preliminary efforts at integration, shared networks, and cultural comprehension—particularly though more personnel transfers, exchanges, and secondments—is a tactic with clear potential benefits that addresses common reorganizational issues in whatever final form that effort takes here.

This research paper proposes an innovative system for propelling spacecraft using an external powerful engine stationed in Earth's orbit. The spacecraft ascends to space using a lightweight engine, then docks with a space-based propulsion station that transports it to distant destinations such as other planets. This concept helps reduce the cost and weight of launches and opens new horizons for economical and efficient interplanetary travel.-Reduces long-term mission costs.-Allows reuse of the external propulsion system. Challenges:-Complexity of docking in space.-Requires precise navigation and control systems.-Maintenance and protection of the external engine from harsh space conditions. Conclusion This concept represents a step toward developing a sustainable and efficient propulsion system in space. By investing in such ideas, we can reduce costs and expand the scope of future space missions.

The exploration and utilization of outer space resources hold significant implications for fostering international peace and security, including international cooperation among nations-states. By enabling nations to collaborate on scientific research and technological advancements, these endeavors can reduce tensions and enhance diplomatic relations. These international cooperative and collaborative approaches fosters a sense of shared responsibility for the sustainable use of outer space resources, ultimately benefiting all humanity. By promoting international peace, security and cooperation among nations, these approaches not only ensure that outer space resources are utilized ethically but also reinforces the principles of public international law, international peace, security and cooperation. Such international collaboration can lead to the establishment of frameworks that govern resource sharing and international conflict resolution in outer space. This can foster trust among nations and ensure that the benefits of outer space exploration and utilization are equitably distributed, thereby promoting international peace, security, cooperation and stability in the world.

In this context, collaborative frameworks such as international treaties and agreements will be essential in establishing norms for the responsible use of these resources. These frameworks can facilitate the peaceful and secured exploration and utilization of outer space resources, ensuring that all nations can benefit equitably while preventing international conflicts over territorial celestial claims. To achieve this, international agreements must be established to outline the rights and responsibilities of nations in outer space, and thus promoting international collaboration rather than competition. Such agreements should address issues such as resource sharing, space debris management, and the prevention of militarization, ensuring that outer space remains a domain for peaceful exploration and scientific advancement. Additionally, it is crucial for nations to establish mechanisms for conflict resolution and collaboration in scientific endeavors, fostering an environment where countries can work together towards common goals. Such initiatives can lead to shared technological advancements and the peaceful utilization of extraterrestrial resources, ultimately contributing to the international peace, security and necessitated stability in the world.

It is for such legal scholarship and research reasons why, this academic Article will analyse, investigate and examine the role of outer space resources in promoting peaceful international cooperation among nations. It will also address the legal frameworks and international treaties that govern the utilization of these celestial resources, highlighting the importance of shared benefits and conflict prevention in the pursuit of extraterrestrial mining and exploration. The study will conclude by suggesting potential pathways for international collaboration and governance. By emphasizing the necessity of frameworks that promote peaceful coexistence and international cooperation, the research aims to provide coherent sets of recommendations for policymakers to ensure that the exploration of outer space resources does not lead to international conflicts/disputes or militarization, but rather fosters a spirit of international peace and security, including international cooperation and development among the subjects of public international law.

The article aims to determine the prerequisites and factors in space law during the first half of the twentieth century that contributed or might contribute to the development of space law. The methodological basis of the article is a set of principles and modes of knowledge, the choice of which was defined by interdisciplinary approaches to the disclosure of the subject, objectives, and the specifics of the aim. Historical-legal, formal, analytical, critical and comparative research methods were used in the research process. The scientific novelty consists in the fact that unlike general studies of the biographies of lawyers in the sphere of space law during the first half of the twentieth century and the history of the specific legal acts on space law and the legal analysis of these acts, the present study is an interdisciplinary (historicallegal) study of historical-legal aspects that became a background for the process of legal regulation of space activities and formed the scope of certain goals and tasks set before the international community at the beginning of the development of space law. The results of the study of the historical and legal factors of the legal regulation of relations in outer space made it possible to find out that at the beginning of the second half of the twentieth century, the prospects of scientific and technical progress and the results of the research of the world`s leading lawyers already necessitated the development of a new field of law-namely, Space Law, which cannot have any analogies with air and maritime law. In addition, at that time, a list of the main issues and tasks that required addressing during the development of the provisions of Space Law, and which can be considered the basis for analyzing the evolution of this law, was already formed.

As space commercialization and strategic competition intensify, international legal frameworks governing outer space are under increasing pressure. This thesis examines two critical and evolving areas of space law: property rights in outer space and liability for orbital debris. Drawing on legal instruments such as the 1967 Outer Space Treaty and the 1972 Convention on Liability for Damage Arising from Activities on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, as well as contemporary frameworks like the Artemis Accords and the Hague Building Blocks, the study evaluates how national legislation and soft-law initiatives are reshaping global governance. Using a qualitative legal analysis and comparative methodology, the research highlights the legal fragmentation caused by unilateral approaches to resource extraction and the insufficiency of current mechanisms to address orbital congestion. The findings reveal an urgent need for multilateral legal reform, stronger enforcement systems, and inclusive policy design to ensure space remains a sustainable and equitable domain. The thesis concludes with recommendations for treaty modernization, regulatory harmonization, and expanded international cooperation, positioning the United States as a pivotal actor in building a more coherent space law architecture.

As Earth’s orbital monitoring capabilities improve, so too does awareness of the planet’s vulnerability to near-Earth objects (NEOs). The recent risk dismissal of asteroid 2024 YR4 by major space agencies highlights the strengths of current planetary defense systems—and their financial and strategic shortcomings. Despite successful threat tracking, the absence of preemptive global funding mechanisms leaves the world unprepared for rapid-response deflection or mitigation missions. This paper examines the geopolitical and financial aspects of planetary defense, highlighting the pressing need for a permanent international financing mechanism. It examines the feasibility of a global Planetary Defense Fund by comparing it to models such as the Global Environment Facility and the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR). Additionally, it introduces the concept of a Defense, Security, and Resilience (DSR) Bank to facilitate equitable resource pooling across nations. The study also evaluates emerging hybrid financial frameworks involving commercial launch providers, AI-driven mission planning, and public-private partnerships. It argues that proactive, multilateral investment in planetary defense infrastructure, mirroring models used in climate resilience and disaster recovery, is not only feasible but also essential. As the probability of a catastrophic impact remains low yet real, a coherent and integrated financial strategy is vital for global preparedness.

As Earth’s orbital monitoring capabilities improve, so too does awareness of the planet’s vulnerability to near-Earth objects (NEOs). The recent risk dismissal of asteroid 2024 YR4 by major space agencies highlights the strengths of current planetary defense systems—and their financial and strategic shortcomings. Despite successful threat tracking, the absence of preemptive global funding mechanisms leaves the world unprepared for rapid-response deflection or mitigation missions. This paper examines the geopolitical and financial aspects of planetary defense, highlighting the pressing need for a permanent international financing mechanism. It examines the feasibility of a global Planetary Defense Fund by comparing it to models such as the Global Environment Facility and the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR). Additionally, it introduces the concept of a Defense, Security, and Resilience (DSR) Bank to facilitate equitable resource pooling across nations. The study also evaluates emerging hybrid financial frameworks involving commercial launch providers, AI-driven mission planning, and public-private partnerships. It argues that proactive, multilateral investment in planetary defense infrastructure, mirroring models used in climate resilience and disaster recovery, is not only feasible but also essential. As the probability of a catastrophic impact remains low yet real, a coherent and integrated financial strategy is vital for global preparedness.

As space commercialization and strategic competition intensify, international legal frameworks governing outer space are under increasing pressure. This thesis examines two critical and evolving areas of space law: property rights in outer space and liability for orbital debris. Drawing on legal instruments such as the 1967 Outer Space Treaty and the 1972 Convention on Liability for Damage Arising from Activities on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, as well as contemporary frameworks like the Artemis Accords and the Hague Building Blocks, the study evaluates how national legislation and soft-law initiatives are reshaping global governance. Using a qualitative legal analysis and comparative methodology, the research highlights the legal fragmentation caused by unilateral approaches to resource extraction and the insufficiency of current mechanisms to address orbital congestion. The findings reveal an urgent need for multilateral legal reform, stronger enforcement systems, and inclusive policy design to ensure space remains a sustainable and equitable domain. The thesis concludes with recommendations for treaty modernization, regulatory harmonization, and expanded international cooperation, positioning the United States as a pivotal actor in building a more coherent space law architecture.

This research explores Andy Weir's novel The Martian according to the perspective of posthumanism; it observes to investigate the symbiotic relationship between humanity and technology during challenges. Mark Watney, the protagonist, is alone on planet Mars and relies on both human persistence and advanced technology to survive. This dependence proposes that technology enhances human identity and capacity by framing a significant mutual relationship between human ingenuity and machine competence. Watney's experience demonstrates his creative applications of scientific methods, robotics, and communication technologies, as well as the symbiotic bond of human and machine. His innovation reflects not only resolution but also the key role that technology plays in suppressing conventional human boundaries as he copes with aloneness and limited resources. By asserting that surviving in harsh environments requires a behavior where devices are seen as a necessary element of the self, Weir asks readers to reanalyze the idea of the solitary individual who lives alone on the red planet. Specifically in the areas of space exploration and existence, this development describes what it means to be human. The plot of the book portrays how embracing technology innovations might enable us to overcome the hardships that may appear as challenges. In the end, the research findings present a fresh sight of the future, one in which the synergy between people and technology analyzes not only existence but also the center of human presence in an eternally large universe.

The cost of access to space beyond low Earth orbit can be lowered if vehicles can refuel in orbit. The power requirements for a propellant depot that electrolyzes water and stores cryogenic oxygen and hydrogen can be met using technology developed for space solar power. A ...

The cost of access to space beyond low Earth orbit can be lowered if vehicles can refuel in orbit. The power requirements for a propellant depot that electrolyzes water and stores cryogenic oxygen and hydrogen can be met using technology developed for space solar power. In the longer term, cryogenic propellant production technology can be applied to a larger LEO depot, as well as to the use of lunar water resources at a similar depot elsewhere.

The landscape of international space law is undergoing unprecedented transformation as humanity enters a new era of commercial space exploration, lunar resource exploitation, and multi-planetary ambitions. This article examines the critical developments in international space law from 2023-2025, analyzing how traditional frameworks established in the 1960s are adapting to contemporary challenges. Through comprehensive analysis of the Artemis Accords, emerging national space legislation, and evolving interpretations of the Outer Space Treaty, this study reveals both the resilience and limitations of current international space governance. The article argues that while existing treaties provide foundational principles, urgent multilateral cooperation is required to address regulatory gaps in space resource utilization, commercial activities, and lunar governance before competing national frameworks create irreversible fragmentation of space law. The research demonstrates that the current moment represents a critical juncture where proactive international legal development can either establish coherent global space governance or witness the emergence of competing regulatory regimes that may undermine peaceful space exploration.

The research undertaken is centered on how the eared concepts and laws of space security change from the surface of the Earth to the space. Space activities have not only created technological progress but have also created deployment of space governance and security systems and advanced protection devices. The research delves into the following key aspects: The methodological framework that is used by this current space jurisdiction looks particular from the one that was operational previously. When speaking about space security, we would be remiss if we did not consider three fundamental issues: possible dispute over Earth's orbit and outer space resources, the lack of international safety regulations and principles, and the break-in of satellite damages on Earth. Variant study design differs from the straight-text way by applying mixed-way methods including surveys, literature reviews, analysis of treaties and agreements and most actual cases to be able to show the complexity of exploring outer space. Way of Landscape Perception displays a setup in which a considerable number of subjects with conflicting interests and technological toolbox are involved, Finally, the end product achieve a cooperative and an adaptive status in which all the stakeholders can achieve quick and effective solutions for their problems at the same time. Therefore, in this paper we will strive for the launch of proactive international cooperation required for making ion of the new procedures and other rules, as well as foster further developments in the sphere of technologies to guarantee the environmentally responsible use of space in future.

The constitutive organisations of governance systems tend to multiply and diversify over time. In parallel, a tendency toward homophily favours the creation of clusters of homogeneous organisations. Yet, few systems drift to the point of disconnection or dislocation. Several remain sufficiently cohesive to allow adaptation and other complex properties to emerge. To maintain equilibrium between order and chaos, some organisations must create bridges between otherwise homogeneous groups. This paper argues that hybrid organisations are ideally suited for this role. By their nature, hybrids share characteristics with different types of organisations in global governance, allowing them to overcome strict homophily and create bridges across clusters. Hybrids benefit from acting as brokers and in doing so, they facilitate the exchange of material and ideational resources across the governance system. Even if it is not their intention, they contribute to holding governance systems together and counterbalance the effect of homophily. We illustrate this argument by examining the space governance system and the hybrid nature, bridging activities, and brokerage role of the European Space Agency.

The pollution of Earth’s orbits by debris represents a pressing environmental problem. Recognizing that geopolitical factors hinder the adoption of a multilateral solution, several experts advocate for a polycentric governance system, inspired by Elinor Ostrom’s work. This paper assesses the viability of such a proposal. It finds that the global network of space organizations exhibits some of the structural characteristics of a polycentric system. However, arrangements concluded among these organizations fail to promote sustainability norms and interviews with key stakeholders reveal the absence of several favorable factors for a sustainable polycentric governance system. The paper concludes that a polycentric structure alone does not guarantee the emergence of sustainable governance. As orbital space is a relatively “easy case” for applying polycentricity theory to the global commons, this research serves as a reminder about the limitations of polycentric approaches in global environmental politics.

Space exploration has drastically changed the lives of human beings in the twenty-first century. Five decades ago, though it was only a dream for many individuals including scholars, scientists and many more, to actually go to space and explore its wonders, today with the advancement of the technologies and the continuous involvement of states due to their special interests in reaching the horizon, it has become possible to engage in more space activities for numerous purposes that revolves around social, political and economic interests. There is a separate legal system to govern the space activities specified and passed by the United Nations General Assembly as well as there are institutions established under the UN to assist nations in space activities. However, it is a question of fact whether these laws are sufficient to govern the evolving space activities as well as the needs of the states in today’s society and the future which is unpredictable.
Accordingly, this study focusses on the existing legal regime for military operations carried out in space in selected jurisdictions as United States of America, Russia and China and looks into whether the laws available are sufficient for the modern-day space activities, especially for the military operations carried out by the aforementioned countries.