Commercial Uses of Outer Space

This article provides a concise overview of space insurance, with a focus on satellite first-party property coverage. It touches upon the three main phases of the lifecycle of a satellite (pre-launch, launch, and in-orbit) and examines the core structure and substance of a typical space insurance policy. This article also considers the types of losses that a satellite may suffer in outer space and offers a holistic analysis of how space insurance claims are handled. While space law often tends to attract academic analysis, this article seeks to clarify the practical aspects of space insurance, particularly for those less familiar with this specialized field.

This paper was presented in a National Conference on Environmental Law and Policy on 23 July 2022 at Green University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. This paper identifies Outer Space and its legal character and determines the environmental issues in outer space. It also ascertains the interrelationship of Outer space with International Environmental law and discovers international efforts to protect the outer space Environment. This article looks for relevant national laws and policies in Bangladesh and recommends for future perspectives.

In response to the systemic shortcomings of traditional economic zones in a fragmented world, this paper introduces the OZII-Global Special Industrial Authority System, a new model of industrial governance designed to address modern challenges in supply chains, technological sovereignty, and inclusive growth. Unlike conventional economic zones, OZII is structured as a legally autonomous authority with global-standard oversight, AI-driven management, and long-term industrial transfer mechanisms. It serves as a living laboratory for testing governance models that reconcile economic dynamism with social justice and sustainability. OZII is the first institutional application of the broader OZINomy paradigm-a socioeconomic framework designed to respond to a world increasingly divided by geopolitical rivalries and fragmented governance. While OZII is the initial laboratory, OZINomy can guide other governance experiments globally.

Resulta importante que los Estados tengan en cuenta la Agenda «Espacio2030» en torno a la gobernanza global. En efecto, los objetivos y las principales metas a las que deben someterse las actividades en el espacio ultraterrestre precisan de una gobernanza global más firme y mejor definida en sus estructuras de apoyo. Lo que reclama una sólida estructura espacial y una mejora de los datos que puedan obtenerse desde el espacio. De ahí que la Agenda Espacio2030 suponga un referente necesario al que debemos acudir para mejorar los factores del desarrollo. Tengamos en cuenta que la gobernanza global y la diplomacia espacial se han convertido en un nuevo campo de acción como herramientas para el desarrollo desde la perspectiva del desarrollo sostenible. Por ello, la Agenda Espacio2030 se ha elaborado con el fin de cubrir cuatro pilares estratégicos y transversales como son: a) la economía espacial: buscando el desarrollo de beneficios económicos derivados del espacio; b) la sociedad espacial: es decir, la promoción de beneficios de carácter social provenientes de las actividades en el espacio; c) la accesibilidad espacial: el acceso del espacio a todos los Estados, sean desarrollados o en desarrollo, y d) la diplomacia espacial: fomentando la creación de alianzas, la gobernanza global y el fortalecimiento de la cooperación internacional. Al entender que el espacio es un «motor para el desarrollo sostenible», a través de estos cuatro pilares la agenda que comentamos se plantea encontrar las herramientas espaciales con las que alcanzar los ODS en la gobernanza global y en la utilización del espacio con fines exclusivamente pacíficos. La Diplomacia Espacial, se va a convertir en los próximos años en un instrumento imprescindible

Prior to the beginning of the Cold War, exploration of outer space by explorers was majorly for scientific discoveries of new planets. But as time went by, governments and private entities began to explore further for natural resources that could be beneficial to the existence of man on earth. Such minerals that could be found in asteroids include iron, iridium, nickel, magnesium, gold, platinum, and palladium, among others. Although every nation of the world is believed to have equal right to outer space and the resources discovered therein, the commercialisation of space mining activities have seemingly restricted the control of these resources to world leading governments such as, the United State, China, Russia, Japan, France and some private enterprises who have the financial power for such activities. The goal of the article was to examine commercialisation, property rights and contemporary legal issues concerning outer space mining. Can private or non-governmental entities op...

Human missions to Mars have been studied individually by several Space Agencies over the past decades. However, a cooperative Human Mars mission framework including, but not limited to, requirements and technologies, is still missing. The International Academy of Astronautics has set up a study group to deal with this subject with the goal of identifying, assessing and synthesizing a global set of goals with its related criteria and requirements for future human exploration of the Mars system and establishing technology opportunities and roadmaps in the context of promising cooperative exploration scenarios.

This research paper proposes an innovative system for propelling spacecraft using an external powerful engine stationed in Earth's orbit. The spacecraft ascends to space using a lightweight engine, then docks with a space-based propulsion station that transports it to distant destinations such as other planets. This concept helps reduce the cost and weight of launches and opens new horizons for economical and efficient interplanetary travel.-Reduces long-term mission costs.-Allows reuse of the external propulsion system. Challenges:-Complexity of docking in space.-Requires precise navigation and control systems.-Maintenance and protection of the external engine from harsh space conditions. Conclusion This concept represents a step toward developing a sustainable and efficient propulsion system in space. By investing in such ideas, we can reduce costs and expand the scope of future space missions.

As space commercialization and strategic competition intensify, international legal frameworks governing outer space are under increasing pressure. This thesis examines two critical and evolving areas of space law: property rights in outer space and liability for orbital debris. Drawing on legal instruments such as the 1967 Outer Space Treaty and the 1972 Convention on Liability for Damage Arising from Activities on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, as well as contemporary frameworks like the Artemis Accords and the Hague Building Blocks, the study evaluates how national legislation and soft-law initiatives are reshaping global governance. Using a qualitative legal analysis and comparative methodology, the research highlights the legal fragmentation caused by unilateral approaches to resource extraction and the insufficiency of current mechanisms to address orbital congestion. The findings reveal an urgent need for multilateral legal reform, stronger enforcement systems, and inclusive policy design to ensure space remains a sustainable and equitable domain. The thesis concludes with recommendations for treaty modernization, regulatory harmonization, and expanded international cooperation, positioning the United States as a pivotal actor in building a more coherent space law architecture.

As Earth’s orbital monitoring capabilities improve, so too does awareness of the planet’s vulnerability to near-Earth objects (NEOs). The recent risk dismissal of asteroid 2024 YR4 by major space agencies highlights the strengths of current planetary defense systems—and their financial and strategic shortcomings. Despite successful threat tracking, the absence of preemptive global funding mechanisms leaves the world unprepared for rapid-response deflection or mitigation missions. This paper examines the geopolitical and financial aspects of planetary defense, highlighting the pressing need for a permanent international financing mechanism. It examines the feasibility of a global Planetary Defense Fund by comparing it to models such as the Global Environment Facility and the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR). Additionally, it introduces the concept of a Defense, Security, and Resilience (DSR) Bank to facilitate equitable resource pooling across nations. The study also evaluates emerging hybrid financial frameworks involving commercial launch providers, AI-driven mission planning, and public-private partnerships. It argues that proactive, multilateral investment in planetary defense infrastructure, mirroring models used in climate resilience and disaster recovery, is not only feasible but also essential. As the probability of a catastrophic impact remains low yet real, a coherent and integrated financial strategy is vital for global preparedness.

As Earth’s orbital monitoring capabilities improve, so too does awareness of the planet’s vulnerability to near-Earth objects (NEOs). The recent risk dismissal of asteroid 2024 YR4 by major space agencies highlights the strengths of current planetary defense systems—and their financial and strategic shortcomings. Despite successful threat tracking, the absence of preemptive global funding mechanisms leaves the world unprepared for rapid-response deflection or mitigation missions. This paper examines the geopolitical and financial aspects of planetary defense, highlighting the pressing need for a permanent international financing mechanism. It examines the feasibility of a global Planetary Defense Fund by comparing it to models such as the Global Environment Facility and the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR). Additionally, it introduces the concept of a Defense, Security, and Resilience (DSR) Bank to facilitate equitable resource pooling across nations. The study also evaluates emerging hybrid financial frameworks involving commercial launch providers, AI-driven mission planning, and public-private partnerships. It argues that proactive, multilateral investment in planetary defense infrastructure, mirroring models used in climate resilience and disaster recovery, is not only feasible but also essential. As the probability of a catastrophic impact remains low yet real, a coherent and integrated financial strategy is vital for global preparedness.

As space commercialization and strategic competition intensify, international legal frameworks governing outer space are under increasing pressure. This thesis examines two critical and evolving areas of space law: property rights in outer space and liability for orbital debris. Drawing on legal instruments such as the 1967 Outer Space Treaty and the 1972 Convention on Liability for Damage Arising from Activities on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, as well as contemporary frameworks like the Artemis Accords and the Hague Building Blocks, the study evaluates how national legislation and soft-law initiatives are reshaping global governance. Using a qualitative legal analysis and comparative methodology, the research highlights the legal fragmentation caused by unilateral approaches to resource extraction and the insufficiency of current mechanisms to address orbital congestion. The findings reveal an urgent need for multilateral legal reform, stronger enforcement systems, and inclusive policy design to ensure space remains a sustainable and equitable domain. The thesis concludes with recommendations for treaty modernization, regulatory harmonization, and expanded international cooperation, positioning the United States as a pivotal actor in building a more coherent space law architecture.

The cost of access to space beyond low Earth orbit can be lowered if vehicles can refuel in orbit. The power requirements for a propellant depot that electrolyzes water and stores cryogenic oxygen and hydrogen can be met using technology developed for space solar power. A ...

American industry began investigations into the viability of processes for the purification and structural study of biological materials in the micro-gravity of space with a commercial objective. The McDonnell Douglas Corporation partnering with Johnson&Johnson and NASA initiated this pursuit in the early 1980s. Technical and scientific success was achieved. The cost and reliability of access to and return from orbit together with the advent of practical genetic engineering for biologics at the time, however, overwhelmed the initiatives' commercial potential.

 An IDP (a fragile-looking one)  Brownleeite TEM photo  Comet 26P/Grigg-Skjellerup (pretty sky photo; can do any comet if this specific one is too hard)  Comparison of some small world surfaces at same scales? Itokawa, 67P, Eros?  JSC sample curation facility (ideally, Keiko in her lab)  Hayabusa2 and OSIRIS-REx art [caption] Some IDPs are fragile, have primitive properties, and do not appear to be related to any meteorite. IDPs probably come from collisions among asteroids and from comet jets, but where any specific particle came from is unknown.

the "Aldridge Commission Report") said that "it is imperative that [property rights] issues be recognized and addressed at an early stage in the implementation of the vision, otherwise there will be little significant private sector activity associated with the development of space resources, one of our key goals." The author will discuss the implications of these developments, including the prospects for future U.S. legislation regarding property rights and mining law in outer space.

Numerous architectures have been proposed for a human mission to Mars. Most of them are appropriate for the first missions but in the long term, important improvements are expected to reduce the complexity and costs of the missions. Assuming the presence of water and carbonates on Phobos, which is suggested by several experts, it might be possible to use this Moon of Mars as a refueling station for rockets coming from Earth and Mars. In the long term, an interesting perspective is to manufacture on Mars a single stage to orbit space plane, called Albatros, that could be used to transfer crews and cargo from Mars orbit to Mars surface and the other way round. Technical specifications and illustrations of this SSTO are given as well as a range of possible applications. This idea was developed in a proposal in response to the recent Mars Society City State Design Competition, where we achieved the third place, with "Foundation".

Below is an scientific statement addressed to the US government and global intellectual leaders, detailing how NASA's achievements over the past decade have transformed our scientific outlook and why continued support is essential: Scientific Statement on NASA's Transformative Achievements To the United States Government, Global Policy Makers, and the Esteemed Community of World Thinkers: Over the past decade, NASA's research and exploration initiatives have not only redefined our understanding of the cosmos but have also yielded critical technological and biomedical advances that echo across diverse scientific fields. The multifaceted benefits derived from NASA's ventures create a compelling case for continued, robust investment from governmental agencies, private sectors, and intellectual communities worldwide. Pioneering Research in Microgravity Environments NASA's work aboard the International Space Station (ISS) has provided a singular laboratory for experiments that are unachievable on Earth. Research conducted under microgravity conditions-ranging from the crystallization of proteins to innovative tissue chip experiments-has significantly advanced our grasp of fundamental biological processes. These studies offer critical insights into the behavior of biological tissues, the progression of diseases, and potential regenerative therapies. The synthesis of such findings not only enhances our biomedical knowledge but also paves the way for breakthroughs that could revolutionize drug development and therapeutic interventions on Earth.

A part of the 'Explorers of minor worlds' series

‘A relic that bears witness to the dawn of the solar system, a colossus that outweighs all other residents of the main asteroid belt save Ceres (Dawn's second destination), a fuzzy point of light among the stars that has intrigued and enticed astronomers for more than two centuries, a mysterious orb that has stirred the passions of creatures on a distant planet, inspiring them to dispatch an emissary to scrutinize it, is finally being revealed as a unique and fascinating world. ‘

Space holds promise for both economic prosperity and the attainment of strategic goals. The EU's future role in space is contingent on fast-changing geopolitical dynamics, which can range from peaceful cooperation to heightened competition or conflict among global powers. Given the importance of this subject, the European Commission has announced plans to propose an EU space act in the second quarter of 2025. This paper aims to describe the geopolitical context of space activities that affect the EU's current and future capabilities, with a specific focus on the use of space for security and defence and the response to space-related risks. Four distinct future scenarios present contextual conditions that may shape the EU's ambitions in space. The scenarios also highlight challenges and opportunities, while considering policy considerations for EU action.

The paper discusses the main legal issues related to the commercial exploitation of space natural resources in the light of (un)certainty and (in)completeness of international space law. The author claims that without general international law it is not possible for a clear legal framework to be shaped within which the conduct of space resource exploitation activities would be opposable and effective erga omnes. The uncertainty regarding law on the exploitation of space resources arises precisely from the difficulty of identifying the formal sources of general international law in this respect. The author argues that the analysis of legal issues related to the exploitation of the space natural resources supports the key importance of customary law in this regard and the secondary importance of treaty law. Moreover, the principle of good faith matters as it offers an opportunity to go beyond the Lotus controversy
as well as it promotes legal certainty and supports completeness of international space law.

The study is devoted to organizing the legal space of the Universe based on “ius naturale,” morals, and consuetudes of space activities, with the prospects for the existence of extraterrestrial intelligent beings in the Universe.
On the grounds of the results of the study, 7 natural factors and 2 technical factors are identified, the influence of which determines the spaces to which the sovereignty and jurisdiction of both states and all of humanity extend.
Based on these factors, the NMC Concept “natura, moribus et consuetudines” is proposed, according to which, due to natural and other factors, all outer space above the Earth`s surface is divided into a “domestic room” (our Solar System) and an “alien room” (outside the Solar System), the boundary between which are the Kuiper Belt and the center of the Sun.
At the same time, it is proposed to apply the principle of “Res Communis Humanitatus” to the “domestic room”, and the new principle of “Res Nullius Civitatis et Res Communis Animal Rationale” to the “alien room”.
Additionally, the authors emphasize the fact that the above factors have already formed the structure of the “domestic room” regardless of the existing intentions and suggestions, leaving the world to recognize and accept it.
Within the structure of the “domestic room”, the following two types of spaces have been formed: the “unified and sovereign spatial-territorial domains of states”, to which the exclusive jurisdiction of states extends, and “Res Communis Humanitatus”, to which generally recognized international law extends.
In these circumstances, considering all natural and technical factors, the authors take notice of the allocation of two separate layers in “Res Communis Humanitatus”: “Orbital layer” and “Ballistic space”.
The authors also propose developing a “sanitary atmospheric zone” to ensure humanity`s safety from the effects of the “X” factor.
Moreover, the authors suggest applying different principles of international regulation to the “Ballistic space,” the “Orbital layer” and the space beyond it, based on the mechanisms of “tacit consent,” “silent disapproval”, “active consent”, and “active disapproval”.
The result of this research is a draft Pact for the Cosmos.

This comment explores the law regarding the ownership of newly emerging islands. Specifically, the comment examines who might claim ownership of newly emerged islands between the Volcano and Mariana Islands and under what theories these claims could be made. The author begins by discussing the use of existing seabed claims to claim newly emerged islands. The author then discusses how the theories of contiguity, occupation, and discovery might be used to claim newly emerged islands. The author concludes by discussing the political feasibility of such claims and the possible effect the UNCLOS III would have

If you say, when would we reach that million-person threshold, from the point at which the first ship goes to Mars, it's probably between 20 to 50 total Mars rendezvous. So it's […] between maybe 40 to 100 years to achieve a fully self-sustaining civilization on Mars." 1 On September 27, 2016 Silicon Valley entrepreneur Elon Musk presented his formidable vision for Mars colonization during the IAC conference in Guadalajara, Mexico. Against the backdrop of a spinning terraforming Mars globe, he explained in detail how over the next few decades people could be ferried to Mars to bootstrap the construction of the first off-planet city. During his presentation, he positioned this plan as a logical extension of mankind's history of exploration and colonization. Musk's SpaceX is one of the relatively new space companies that are developing technology for commercial human spaceflight. Others include Jeff Bezos' Blue Origins and Richard Branson's Virgin Galactic. In response to the Musk's Mars colonization plans, scientist and social activist Danielle Lee had written the year before: "The assumption that colonizing Mars is inherently good and that American narratives are universal, or at least the most paramount, is narrow and exclusive." 2 And back in 2007, Linda Billings, NASA space communicator and space policy analyst, wrote "Examining the history of spaceflight advocacy reveals an ideology of spaceflight that draws deeply on a durable American cultural narrative -a national mythology -of frontier pioneering, continual progress, manifest destiny, free enterprise, [and] rugged individualism." 3 This points to some crucial issues: the current development of mankind's future in outer space is indeed not a culturally inclusive effort, and justifies itself using a historical white colonialist narrative (Columbus' discovery of the Americas is often employed). In this vision, alien worlds are to be subjugated and transformed into a mirror image of the conqueror. Terraforming is a perfect example of this: Mars gets physically and biologically transformed into a copy of planet Earth, violently erasing its otherness. World War II gave birth to space technology, while the subsequent Cold War created the incentive to rapidly evolve it. These military roots are also still present in the world of currentday space exploration: a strong top-down hierarchical culture, and the use of a reductionist systems engineering approach. It must be said that both in the military and in aerospace the challenges have been recognized. The strategy of working with more autonomous distributed squads has been explored by allied forces in the Middle East for many years,

What do we want from space? We want the knowledge we can gain from scientific research; we can learn much about the Earth and its inhabitants, as well as the universe around us, by studying space. We want to explore, to satisfy the thirst for adventure and conquest imagined in countless science fiction books and films. We want to improve our collective lot down here on Earth. Space offers the potential for practically limitless wealth, some already being exploited, some we may only harness in the distant future, and undoubtedly some we cannot begin to guess. Already the wealth of space is being developed in the form of telecommunications and remote satellite observation. The private-sector investment in telecommunications satellites alone was projected to total $54.3 billion (including launch) between 1996 and 20001 -and this figure doesn't include other commercial space ventures, nor does it include investment in Russian and Chinese satellites. A further $70 billion was projected to be invested in satellite communications ground stations over the same period. 2 Research in materials science is uncovering phenomena unique to the lowand no-gravity environment of space, and the space-based processing of these new alloys, composites, ceramics and polymers may soon become an important industry. 3 The field of biotechnology is also taking advantage of zero-gravity conditions to manu-Associate, Kirkland & Ellis (New York Office).

What do we want from space? We want the knowledge we can gain from scientific research; we can learn much about the Earth and its inhabitants, as well as the universe around us, by studying space. We want to explore, to satisfy the thirst for adventure and conquest imagined in countless science fiction books and films. We want to improve our collective lot down here on Earth. Space offers the potential for practically limitless wealth, some already being exploited, some we may only harness in the distant future, and undoubtedly some we cannot begin to guess. Already the wealth of space is being developed in the form of telecommunications and remote satellite observation. The private-sector investment in telecommunications satellites alone was projected to total $54.3 billion (including launch) between 1996 and 20001 -and this figure doesn't include other commercial space ventures, nor does it include investment in Russian and Chinese satellites. A further $70 billion was projected to be invested in satellite communications ground stations over the same period. 2 Research in materials science is uncovering phenomena unique to the lowand no-gravity environment of space, and the space-based processing of these new alloys, composites, ceramics and polymers may soon become an important industry. 3 The field of biotechnology is also taking advantage of zero-gravity conditions to manu-Associate, Kirkland & Ellis (New York Office).

Astrocolonialism is postcolonial, decolonial, colonialism.

This paper presents a theory of astrocoloniality which aims to differentiate astrocolonialism from previous forms of colonialism and coloniality. It argues that astrocolonialism is postcolonial in the sense that the form of uneven extraterrestrial development which it generates precisely avoids a literal repetition of the logics of global colonization. It is decolonial to the extent that it at least promises to cure the problems generated by global colonization. Finally, it is postcolonial and decolonial to the extent that it leaves space for other iterations of coloniality which differ from those of global colonialism, in the case studied in this paper, Chinese astrocolonialism. Astrocolonialism saves colonialism from global colonialism through more colonization.

What is astrocolonialism? It is what occurs when technology, futurism, and coloniality become entangled.

A new space age has begun. But how do we prevent geopolitical tensions on Earth from spilling over into space? Nayef Al-Rodhan argues that with over 200 launches taking place in 2024, the creation of the United States Space Force, and with a potential, human-manned mission to Mars upcoming, we need a new politics of space for the new space age. Al-Rodhan argues, due to the harshness of space, individual rights in space must trump the rights of nations. While ownership claims, say for Mars, cannot be made purely on the basis of who gets there first.

John S. Lewis is Professor of Planetary Sciences and Co-Director of the Space Engineering Research Center at the University of Arizona. He was previously a Professor of Planetary Sciences at MIT and Visiting Professor at the California Institute of Technology. Most recently, he was a Visiting Professor at Tsinghua University in Beijing for the 2005-2006 academic year. His research interests are related to the application of chemistry to astronomical problems, including the origin of the Solar System, the evolution of planetary atmospheres, the origin of organic matter in planetary environments, the chemical structure and history of icy satellites, the hazards of comet and asteroid bombardment of Earth, and the extraction, processing, and use of the energy and material resources of nearby space. He has served as member or Chairman of a wide variety of NASA and NAS advisory committees and review panels. He has written 17 books, including undergraduate and graduate level texts and popu...

A honosság számos esetben előkerül a világűr nemzetközi jogi szabályozásában, melyeket a tanulmány három témakörben vizsgál: az űrobjektumok honossága, a károkozó honossága, továbbá a károsult honossága esetében. Az űrobjektumok honosságánál a tanulmány arra keresi a választ, hogy az űrobjektum honosságát adó lajstromozásnak van-e szerepe az űrobjektum által okozott károkért felelős állam azonosításában. A károkozók honosságánál a nem állami szereplők honosságának meghatározását követően azt vizsgálja a tanulmány, hogy mely állam tehető felelőssé a tevékenységükért, illetve mely állam a kárfelelős az űrobjektumok által okozott károkért nem állami szereplő érintettsége esetén. A károsult honosságánál a tanulmány azonosítja a honosság szerepét a károsultak körének meghatározásánál és a kárigényt érvényesíteni jogosult államot. Ezen kérdések elemzéséhez vizsgálat tárgyává teszi a világűrjog hatályos nemzetközi szabályozását, azok megfelelő értelmezésére és szükség esetén továbbfejlesztésére tesz javaslatokat.

The appetite for space mining is growing and the corresponding legislation is mushrooming, but mainly at a national level. Beyond questions of law, questions emerging from the field of environmental ethics take on an engaging significance concerning mining in space.

This paper tries to unravel the dimensions that cause conflict between international laws and national laws concerning the commercialization of outer space. The NSAs that are already in the process of exploiting resources in asteroids and other celestial bodies using the guarantee that national laws provide in the sector. While the provision of outer space and other celestial bodies is under the common heritage of all humankind under Article 1 of the OST, the gaps present in the law have made it possible for individuals to resources from outer space through local legislation. This study attempts to provide illumination of the sovereignty of a country against the principles of CHM concerning outer space by exploring the possible challenges that place the hierarchy of laws in the spectrum of international law as opposed to national ones, to distinguish why these gaps were present in the legislature of international law and how the address of these gaps aids the sector. Lastly, the harmonization of international laws with national laws could be achieved to ensure that space exploration is done respectably and equitably to reach the end of fair and even trade that space commercialization presents. My intent to look at the logic in legislation that guides private companies to address the exploitation of minerals from outer space and to derive the question of whether these national laws should exist in a sector for all. In this study, I shall answer the enigmatic question of whether the US and CSLCA, China's anti-satellite ASAT test and the Russian ASAT test, present a challenge to international law regarding its hierarchal superiority for this case study to shed more light on the topic. This is due to the availability to gather first-hand data on the topic through books, articles and statutes. In this paper, I shall be discussing the tension that persists between the sovereignty of a nation and the common heritage present in competing interests of outer space.

One of the critical questions facing the human spaceflight industry is how its activities will be regulated during the infancy of the industry. It is generally agreed that regulation is necessary to address safety risks to crew, passengers and third parties. However, there is also a concern that government agencies may over-regulate the industry in a manner that could create unnecessary administrative burdens and interfere with technological innovation. In fact, the growth of regulation over the human space industry has been quite slow. Although the United States enacted the Human Space Flight Requirements for Crew and Space Flight Participants in 2006, a moratorium on design and operations requirements was imposed until 2012 (later extended to 2015). Other countries have yet to issue regulations specifically addressing the human spaceflight industry. But while formal regulation is evolving slowly, multiple initiatives have been undertaken to develop voluntary operational and design...

The Moon and its surrounding space have become an arena for Earth's geopolitical rivalries, as nations compete for strategic advantages, scientific breakthroughs, and potential resources. The Moon rising over Western China. Credit: NASA Photo / Alamy Stock Photo The quest for territory, influence, and resources is increasingly transcending Earth's boundaries, reaching the mysterious reaches of the far side of the Moon and Cislunar space, the region of space from the Earth out to, and including, the region around the surface of the Moon. The secrets these regions harbour and the lunar resources they promise have turned the Moon into the centrepiece of space competition for scientific purposes as well as for military, commercial, and geopolitical reasons.

Mars is the planet closest to Earth. Many support that it may house humanity in the future. On the surface of Mars, sufficient resources are available to support life. Active studies are required to fundamentally comprehend the varied operating conditions and the major governing parameters involved in the growth of space colonization and supported atmospheric conditions. The existing legal framework of the Outer Space Treaty (OST), which was designed several decades ago, describes its goal of peaceful collaboration based on principles that we have not been able to uphold on Earth. It is vital to address the gaps in the legal system and ultimately deal with the mostly unanswered legal and regulatory questions. As interest in Martians colonisation missions from both government agencies and the private sector evolves, a workable solution that respects the essence of the OST and allows for limited sovereignty claims outside of protected habitation has been proposed.

explore the consequences of high-quality imaging of Earth from space. ANALYSIS 19 The ethics of space exploration Jai Galliott argues that our environmental responsibilities extend into outer space. FEATURE Tackling space debris in the orbital environment Hugh Lewis explains the problem and a surprising source for its solution. FEATURE 34 Space agriculture is bringing farming indoors Gary Stutte analyses the impact of growing food for spaceflight. February 2016 | environmental SCIENTIST | 3 FEATURE 8 Monitoring nature from space: what is so exciting about it? Nathalie Pettorelli explains how satellite remote sensing can complement in-situ data collection. OPINION 28 Ethics after the Space Act? Tony Milligan outlines the legislation that governs our use of Space and whether it is fit for purpose. CASE STUDY 42 Trees in Space: no longer the forbidden fruit Thomas Graham explains the advantages of carrying fruit on space missions and the advances that are making this possible. FEATURE 48 Unlocking the lunar archive Louise Alexander explains how the history of the Solar System is contained in lunar samples.

A honosság számos esetben előkerül a világűr nemzetközi jogi szabályozásában, melyeket a tanulmány három témakörben vizsgál: az űrobjektumok honossága, a károkozó honossága, továbbá a károsult honossága esetében. Az űrobjektumok honosságánál a tanulmány arra keresi a választ, hogy az űrobjektum honosságát adó lajstromozásnak van-e szerepe az űrobjektum által okozott károkért felelős állam azonosításában. A károkozók honosságánál a nem állami szereplők honosságának meghatározását követően azt vizsgálja a tanulmány, hogy mely állam tehető felelőssé a tevékenységükért, illetve mely állam a kárfelelős az űrobjektumok által okozott károkért nem állami szereplő érintettsége esetén. A károsult honosságánál a tanulmány azonosítja a honosság szerepét a károsultak körének meghatározásánál és a kárigényt érvényesíteni jogosult államot. Ezen kérdések elemzéséhez vizsgálat tárgyává teszi a világűrjog hatályos nemzetközi szabályozását, azok megfelelő értelmezésére és szükség esetén továbbfejlesztésére tesz javaslatokat.

The purpose of In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), or "living off the land", is to harness and utilize space resources to create products and services which enable and significantly reduce the mass, cost, and risk of near-term and long-term space exploration. ISRU can be the key to implementing a sustained and affordable human and robotic program to explore the solar system and beyond. Potential space resources include water, solar wind implanted volatiles (hydrogen, helium, carbon, nitrogen, etc.) [1] , vast quantities of metals and minerals, atmospheric constituents, abundant solar energy, regions of permanent light and darkness, the vacuum and zero-gravity of space itself, and even trash and waste from human crew activities. Suitable processing can transform these raw resources into useful materials and products. Today, missions must bring all of the propellant, air, food, water and habitable volumes and shielding needed to sustain the crew for trips beyond Earth. Resources for propellants, life support, and construction of support systems and habitats must be found in space and utilized if humans ever hope to explore and colonize space beyond Earth. The immediate goal of ISRU is to greatly reduce the direct expense of humans going to and returning from the Moon and Mars, and then to build toward selfsufficiency of long-duration manned space bases to expand our exploration efforts and possibly to return energy or valuable resources to Earth. Four major areas of ISRU that have been shown to have great benefit to future robotic and human exploration architectures are: Mission consumable production (propellants, fuel cell reagents, life support consumables, and feedstock for manufacturing & construction) Surface construction (radiation shields, landing pads, walls, habitats, etc.) Manufacturing and repair with in-situ resources (spare parts, wires, trusses, integrated systems etc.) Space utilities and power from space resources. Numerous studies have shown that making propellants in-situ can significantly reduce mission mass and cost, and also enable new mission capabilities, such as permanent manned presence and surface hoppers. Experience with the Mir and International Space Station and the recent grounding of the Space Shuttle fleet have also highlighted the need for backup caches or independent life support consumable production capabilities, and a different paradigm for repair of failed hardware from the traditional orbital replacement unit (ORU) spares and replacement approach for future long duration missions. Lastly, for future astronauts to safely stay on the Moon or Mars for extended periods of time, surface construction and utility/infrastructure growth capabilities for items such as radiation protection, power generation, habitable volume, and surface mobility will be required or the cost and risk of these missions may be prohibitive. To evaluate the benefits, state-of-the-art, gaps, risks, and challenges of ISRU concepts, seven ISRU capability elements were defined and examined: (i) resource extraction, (ii) material handling and transport, (iii) resource processing, (iv) surface manufacturing with in-situ resources, (v) surface construction, (vi) surface ISRU product and consumable storage and distribution, and (vii) ISRU unique development and certification capabilities. When considering the impacts and benefits of ISRU, mission and architect planners need to consider the following five High Criticality-to-Mission Success/Cost areas that are strongly affected by ISRU during technology and system trade studies Transportation (In-space and surface) Energy/Power (electric, thermal, and chemical) Life Support (radiation protection, consumables, habitable volume, etc.) Sustainability (repair, manufacturing, construction, etc.) Commercialization (costs are transitioned to the private sector initially or over time) Rev 1

Resumen: En este trabajo cualitativo, se emplea la teoría crítica del derecho para cuestionar la postura estadounidense de colonizar el espacio, con la anuencia de sus Estados aliados. Con ello se ocasiona una escisión entre los Estados capaces de desarrollar un proyecto espacial nacional y los que no lo tienen. Esta división entre Estados repercute en la posible discriminación que se realizará hacia los países periféricos con respecto al uso de los Recursos Naturales Ultraterrestres (RNU). El propósito de esta investigación es incidir en el debate sobre la necesidad de que la sociedad internacional se cuestione respecto a cómo se puede respetar, proteger y garantizar el derecho humano al goce de los beneficios del progreso científico en materia de los RNU.

During the past few years, several research programs have assessed the current state and future evolution of the Low Earth Orbit region. These studies indicate that space debris density could reach a critical level such that there will be a continuous increase in the number of debris objects, primarily driven by debris-debris collision activity known as the Kessler effect. These studies also highlight the urgency for active debris removal. An Active Debris Removal System (ADRS) is capable of approaching the debris object through a close-range rendezvous, stabilizing its attitude, establishing physical connection, and finally de-orbiting the debris object. The de-orbiting phase could be powered by a chemical engine or an electrodynamic tether (EDT) system. The aim of this project is to model and evaluate a debris removal mission in which an adapted rocket upper stage, equipped with an electrodynamic tether (EDT) system, is employed for de-orbiting a debris object. This hybrid ADRS is...