Space Law

Forty years after Lord Cockfield’s White Paper, this article revisits the pivotal role of the completion of the Single Market in reviving the European project according to Delors vision. It also analyzes its developments, transformations, and limitations. From its origins in the aftermath of the 1970s crisis, through to the reshaping of European economic
governance, the structural tension between competition and industrial policy is brought to the fore. Present challenge is twofold: to complete the Single Market in its still fragmented areas (taxation, services, finance) and to rethink it as a strategic lever for a new season of sustainable, coordinated and transition-oriented European industrial policies.

Розглядаються спеціальні принципи міжнародного екологічного права, виявлено взаємозалежність загальних принципів міжнародного права, спеціальних принципів міжнародного екологічного права та принципів міжнародного економічного права.Рассматриваются специальные принципы международного экологического права, выявлено взаимозависимость общих принципов международного права, специальных принципов международного экологического права и принципов международного экономического права.Special principles of international environmental law are considered, the interdependence of general principles of international law, special principles of international environmental law and principles of international economic law is revealed

ning that should be taken to meet some of the problems raised in her book: We need new and better legislation that uses the knowledge we have to protect children, not to punish parents. We need community planning specifically devised to make the best use possible of every available dollar, to give the maximum benefit to children, and to coordinate and develop every potential resource to its fullest capacity. We need greater public understanding of the problems and complexities child welfare faces in trying to protect children and greater support of its efforts and needs. Finally, we need much more knowledge.... We need research that will pursue the many questions that can only be suggested by this study. We need to know causes and means and fulfillable goals. 2 ' I shbuld like to underscore these steps. I should note, however, that in "Wednesday's Children" Dr. Young herself has added a great deal of knowledge. She has also contributed significantly toward clarity in the field. SANFORD N. KATZ* SPACE LAW AND GOVERNMENT.

В статье изучен вопрос привлечения в космонавтику гражданских специалистов в 1960-е гг. На фоне этой проблемы автор проследил эволюцию изменений в «Положении о космонавтах» -документе, регулировавшем правовое положение космонавтов. Основными источниками информации стали документы Российского государственного архива научно-технической документации (РГАНТД) и опубликованные нормативно-правовые акты. Было установлено, что необходимость привлечения в космонавтику специалистов из науки и промышленности привела к обострению конфликтов между Центром подготовки космонавтов (ЦПК) и конструкторскими бюро, протежированию последних со стороны Министерства общей промышленности и углублению внутренних проблем ЦПК, в первую очередь, связанных с недостаточно укомплектованной тренажерной базой. Именно в середине 1960-х гг. разобщенность, характерная для руководства советской космической программой, проникает и в пилотируемую космонавтику -ЦПК на десятилетия теряет единоличное право полной подготовки космических экипажей.

This article provides a concise overview of space insurance, with a focus on satellite first-party property coverage. It touches upon the three main phases of the lifecycle of a satellite (pre-launch, launch, and in-orbit) and examines the core structure and substance of a typical space insurance policy. This article also considers the types of losses that a satellite may suffer in outer space and offers a holistic analysis of how space insurance claims are handled. While space law often tends to attract academic analysis, this article seeks to clarify the practical aspects of space insurance, particularly for those less familiar with this specialized field.

A book which explores the current laws relevant to aviation and space cybersecurity and analyses them from a critical perspective. The growing connection between the aviation and space sectors and reliance on related technology make them more susceptible to potential cyberattacks. Consequently, cybersecurity is becoming a pressing concern that should be taken into consideration by stakeholders in both sectors. This progressive book takes an introductory approach to allow those unfamiliar with aviation and space law, including telecommunications, and/or cybersecurity to gain valuable insight into these areas, and the subsequent chapters delve deep into the gamut of relevant international and European Union (EU) laws, with specific attention to associated risks, existing legal provisions and the potential development of new rules.

This paper was presented in a National Conference on Environmental Law and Policy on 23 July 2022 at Green University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. This paper identifies Outer Space and its legal character and determines the environmental issues in outer space. It also ascertains the interrelationship of Outer space with International Environmental law and discovers international efforts to protect the outer space Environment. This article looks for relevant national laws and policies in Bangladesh and recommends for future perspectives.

The Outer Space Treaty (OST) was established to ensure the peaceful use of outer space for the benefit of all humanity. However, it overlooked the existential risks posed by natural celestial threatssuch as asteroids and comets-during its formulation. With the increasing recognition of near-Earth objects (NEOs) as credible threats to planetary safety, the need for a globally coordinated response mechanism has become urgent and essential. This paper examines the legal and governance challenges in planetary defense, emphasizing absence of explicit international frameworks to guide deflection missions, assign liability, and govern the use of potentially dual-use technologies like nuclear deflection systems. The paper identifies key legal gaps based on existing treaties, such as the OST, the Liability Convention, and the Rescue Agreement. It proposes the formation of a Planetary Defense Council (PDC) under the auspices of the United Nations. The proposed framework addresses decisionmaking authority, funding, liability sharing, and ethical considerations, including public communication and global inclusivity. This study frames planetary defense as a collective action problem and underscores the necessity of multilateral cooperation, transparent governance, and equitable participation in protecting life on Earth.

Islam encourages the pursuit of knowledge and exploration, including outer space, as a means of appreciating Allah’s creation and advancing human progress. However, as space technology rapidly evolves, the increasing militarisation of outer space, through intelligence systems, satellite warfare, and anti-satellite weaponry, poses a growing threat to global security. This article critically examines the international legal framework for preventing an arms race in space, with a focus on key treaties, including the Outer Space Treaty. It explores significant challenges, including geopolitical rivalries and enforcement gaps, while proposing solutions to strengthen space security. From an Islamic perspective, principles such as salam (peace), 'adl wa al-ihsan (justice and benevolence), and amanah (trust) reinforce global efforts for peaceful space governance. By integrating legal and ethical considerations, this article advocates for stronger international collaboration and the incorporation of Islamic values to prevent conflicts and ensure space remains a shared domain for humanity’s peaceful and sustainable advancement.

Brian Patrick Green's Space Ethics serves as an introduction to the area, exposing readers to potential issues involved in going into space while asking important philosophical questions about life, risk and virtue. The book takes the form of a textbook, written in an introductory fashion for those new to the area or to philosophy. Chapter 1 serves as an overview of the text while providing duelling accounts of why we should or should not go to space. This chapter serves as a 'why' of the book, motivating the topic and making the case for philosophical investigation into issues in space exploration. Applied ethics books often need to figure out how to balance introducing ethical theories with the issues at hand, and Chapter 2 serves as a crash course in ethical theory, covering a lot of ground, some of which inevitably reappears in the analysis of the later chapters. While Green covers a wide range of material here, classics of consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics make consistent appearances (Green often favours teleological and virtuebased analysis). These subjects are undertaken in a relatively short form here, so instructors may wish to expand on this content in their courses. Green also introduces questions of justice, human rights and other ethics traditions, such as environmental ethics, feminist ethics and intersectional ethics, though not all the approaches introduced here make an appearance later in the text. In my opinion, some of this content could have been cut if not reappearing later, to provide more depth of explanation of the approaches that will be utilised. Alternatively, some of them could easily be woven into later chapters (for example, feminist ethics could be brought into conversations regarding the ethics of reproduction in space, and intersectionality plays a role in issues of who gets to go to space, tourism and the politics of future space settlements). Space exploration is a risky endeavour, and Chapter 3 presents a variety of approaches to risk management which make appearances throughout the text; risk and trade-offs often accompany issues in engineering and technology ethics, which intersect with space exploration. Throughout Space Ethics, Green surveys an array of applied issues in space exploration, doing fantastic work familiarising the reader with technical details about the various problems space poses, as such particulars matter to the ethical analysis. Beginning this work, Chapter 4 considers the health issues and harmful effects on human life in outer space, raising issues of consent. Chapter 5 attends to issues related to space debris, highlighting concerns over 'Kessler Syndrome', a potential cascading of space debris around Earth that would severely inhibit access to outer space. Foreshadowing Chapter 6 on the ethics of

In this paper, I undertake a conceptual analysis of ordinary usages of the concepts of "litter" and "pollution." If "litter" or "pollution" applies to space debris in its various contexts, then in dealing with space debris as an ethical concern, we may more neatly apply arguments for the wrongness of litter and pollution to these new contexts. After engaging in a conceptual analysis of "litter" and "pollution," I consider whether these concepts apply to space debris, examining three contexts: (1) surface debris on Moon and Mars, (2) intentionally crashing objects into gas giants, ice giants, and stars, and (3) the pressing issue of orbital space debris. I conclude by finding that neither "litter" nor "pollution" cleanly applies to any of these three contexts.

The astronautics industry is entering a transformative era driven by private space companies such as SpaceX and Blue Origin. Their efforts toward reusable rockets, orbital infrastructure, and eventual multi-planetary settlement represent a paradigm shift in space exploration. This paper examines the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into astronautics, with a focus on how AI contributes to sustainability in propulsion, mission design, and resource management. By analyzing SpaceX's and Blue Origin's strategies, I propose a framework for AI-enabled sustainable astronautics that ensures humanity's expansion into space does not replicate the unsustainable practices of Earth.

The increasing amount of outer space debris presents significant challenges for public international law, necessitating urgent action to establish effective regulatory frameworks and collaborative international efforts. The implications of space debris are multifaceted, affecting not only satellite operations but also the safety of astronauts aboard the International Space Station. As such, it is imperative for nations to engage in dialogue and cooperation to mitigate the risks associated with this growing threat. This international collaboration is essential not only for the protection of current and future space missions but also for ensuring the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

The rapid expansion of commercial space activities, technological innovation, and geopolitical competition necessitates a comprehensive and adaptive governance framework for outer space. This paper proposes a multidimensional framework to advance space law and policy governance by addressing critical gaps in existing international treaties, national legislations, and soft law instruments. Centered on four key pillars-legal harmonization and institutional coordination, equitable access and capacity-building, sustainability and environmental protection, and accountability and security governance-the framework seeks to balance national interests with the collective stewardship of space as a global commons. Through comparative legal analysis and scenario-based testing, the study demonstrates the framework's potential to enhance cooperation, mitigate conflicts, and promote sustainable and equitable space utilization. The paper further discusses strategic, ethical, and policy implications, highlighting the importance of inclusive multilateralism and adaptive legal mechanisms. This research contributes to shaping a resilient and forward-looking governance architecture essential for the peaceful and sustainable development of outer space in the 21st century.

Terraforming Mars, an idea originating in planetary engineering, is built on the incorporation of simulation-based analysis and robotic autonomy. This literature review has revealed examples of established advancements in multi-robotic systems, in-situ resource utilization (ISRU), and datadriven habitat-inhabiting as potential pillars for rendering Mars a habitable ecosystem. Three case studies of significance were presented: a collaboration between autonomous multirobot systems, the Design-to-Robotic-Production and Operation (D2RP&O) process of producing subsurface habitats using local regolith, and applications of legged robots in navigating granular and steep Martian surfaces. Within these realms of technology, the contribution of robotic autonomy could lead to enhanced operational efficiency, increased structural integrity, and improved environmental adaptability in the harsh conditions of the Martian landscape. It is important to note that even more complex processes now utilizing simulated models are allowing us to optimize energy utilization, project material handling, and environmental shielding with both architectural and mobility systems. The possibilities with robotics and modeling can expand our understanding and lay the groundwork for the diminishing logistical and physiological demands for human settlers on Mars, while potentially increasing the rate of large-scale colonization efforts. This review has demonstrated that integrated robotic systems and environmental modeling can represent the essential basis of long-term terraforming efforts.

The current space arena has changed significantly since the 1950s, when outer space activities commenced. At the time of the adoption of the Outer Space Treaty (and the related General Assembly Resolutions), the outer space arena was largely dominated by the political interests of the two major space powers, the USA and the (then) USSR. Although states have remained the primary actors in regulating the use of outer space, the extent to which private companies would become involved in the exploration and use of space was not envisaged at the time of the conclusion of the space treaties. It is particularly the involvement of private space actors that complicates the traditional understanding of the prohibition on territorial sovereignty in outer space. With specific reference to the outer space boundary, the principle of the common heritage of humankind and property rights in outer space, this contribution aims to highlight some of the challenges to the prohibition of sovereignty in v...

This is a critical moment in the history of Earth: Humans are ending 3.5–3.8 billion years of relative isolation, and may now leave lasting physical, chemical, biological, and unforeseen impacts on space environments. Crewed missions, alongside technological advancements in the New Space age—such as miniaturization and the use of artificial intelligence—accelerate this trend. Decisions with potentially far-reaching cosmic consequences are being made. Hence, there is an urgent need for action.

Amongst the array of possible effects following our space endeavors, some may lead—through chain reactions or exponential mechanisms—to significant, large scale and/or irreversible changes, such as: (1) geomorphologic alterations impacting entire planetary landscapes; (2) changes of celestial dynamics, leading to asteroid impacts or exponentially growing orbital debris; (3) large scale spread of chemicals, altering chemical evolution and the potential for emergence or evolution of lifeforms on a given body; (4) the spread of terrestrial lifeforms, inducing the creation of new biospheres or destruction/interaction with pre-existing ones; and (5) the changes in Earth’s electromagnetic signature, thereby increasing the potential for the identification by putative extraterrestrial intelligences.

The above scenarios may result in unprecedented consequences and prompt critical questions, such as: is it acceptable to spread terrestrial lifeforms to other celestial bodies, knowing their introduction could significantly impact environments and potential local life or even create new biospheres? Do humans have a responsibility to do so? Or rather to prevent it? Do we, as a species, want to create, destroy, or interact with extraterrestrial bio- and geo-spheres, either by accident or intentionally? Is it acceptable to signal nearby exoplanets? Beyond the scientific considerations, is it acceptable to allow biological or chemical contamination onboard spacecraft, even when landing in places in the solar system likely to host life? Is it desirable that such actions are decided by informed groups, having, however, limited representation with respect to the majority of humanity? Or unilaterally by governments, corporations, or individuals? How to respect the variety of cultural representations? Is there a need for specific laws, regulations and governance structures addressing these questions?

These questions concern the intergenerational responsibility of humanity, which extends beyond our own species and biosphere. They address the large-scale, irreversible impacts that humans have and will continue to have, following today's decisions. They connect contemporaneous actions, with consequences at scales unheard of in history, raising ethical questions we have no easy answer to. They relate to one overarching consideration: what is humanity’s responsibility, concerning its footprint on the cosmos?

Established in 1967, the Outer Space Treaty included the imperative to avoid "harmful contamination" of celestial bodies. Since then, several relevant issues related to humanity's cosmic footprint have been addressed; notably, the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) Panel on Planetary Protection developed guidelines for biological transfers in order to safeguard studies regarding the origin of life and to protect our planet from contamination. Further, a broader interest in space ethics has emerged, encompassing questions concerning humanity’s impact on the cosmos. In 1999, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology (COMEST) created a Sub-Commission on the Ethics of Outer Space. For 2024-2025, COMEST aims to formulate ethical principles for space exploration and exploitation. In 2010, the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) established the Working Group on the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities.

These initiatives, especially at the multilateral UN Level, are commendable and should be supported (for example through the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space). However, no entity today is dedicated explicitly to the empirical evaluation of our overall cosmic footprint or to the exploration and development of responsible strategies to address it.

In response to this situation, we, stakeholders and specialists from various nations, involved in a broad spectrum of space-related disciplines and activities, collectively call to humankind, the nations of Earth, scholars, experts, policymakers, stakeholders, space-related corporations and ethics committees, to unite in recognizing the need to assess and responsibly address humanity's impact beyond Earth.

Acknowledging prior work completed by dedicated individuals and organizations, we encourage everyone, from their respective areas of expertise or position of action, to engage in a comprehensive evaluation of our cosmic footprint, explore the related ethical considerations, challenge the current governance practices, and take action. In particular, we urge:

— All stakeholders, to develop enduring strategies and structures designed to keep humanity accountable for its cosmic footprint over the long term. Such governance should be transparent, responsible, sustainable, and self-reflective, aiming to represent the perspectives of all humanity while considering our accountability to the entire biosphere.

— The establishment of an international registry of our anthropogenic footprint beyond Earth. Its role will be to develop a comprehensive and scientific representation of our cosmic footprint, providing a common ground for informed discussion. This development will require: a) listing types of anthropogenic impacts in space; b) identifying, merging, and maintaining existing databases (e.g., spacecraft); c) conducting scientific research to develop missing databases (e.g., electromagnetic footprints); and d) modeling and evaluating these footprints. The registry should be publicly accessible, and actively engage stakeholders and the public through regular scientific communication—including reports, visualizations, and summaries.

To amplify the impact of this work, we invite all interested parties to co-endorse the ‘Cosmic Footprint’ initiative.

Prior to the beginning of the Cold War, exploration of outer space by explorers was majorly for scientific discoveries of new planets. But as time went by, governments and private entities began to explore further for natural resources that could be beneficial to the existence of man on earth. Such minerals that could be found in asteroids include iron, iridium, nickel, magnesium, gold, platinum, and palladium, among others. Although every nation of the world is believed to have equal right to outer space and the resources discovered therein, the commercialisation of space mining activities have seemingly restricted the control of these resources to world leading governments such as, the United State, China, Russia, Japan, France and some private enterprises who have the financial power for such activities. The goal of the article was to examine commercialisation, property rights and contemporary legal issues concerning outer space mining. Can private or non-governmental entities op...

The Secure World Foundation envisions the secure, sustainable, and peaceful uses of outer space contributing to global stability on Earth. We work with governments, industry, international organizations, and civil society to develop and promote ideas and actions for international collaborations that achieve the secure, sustainable, and peaceful uses of outer space.

The 59th International Institute of Space Law (IISL) Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space was held from 27–30 September 2016 in Guadalajara, Mexico, in conjunction with the 67th International Astronautical Congress (IAC). Comprised of seven technical sessions and one session for interactive presentations, the Colloquium focused on a range of thematic issues in space law, and featured papers from almost seventy presenters. Topics discussed included the legal aspects related to the remote sensing principles, regional cooperation and Latin American space activities, large satellite constellations, space resource utilization, planetary defence, and spectrum management. The 8th Nandasiri Jasentuliyana Keynote Lecture was delivered by incoming IISL president Kai-Uwe Schrogl, entitled ‘Space Law and Diplomacy’. The Manfred Lachs Space Law Moot Court semi-finals and world finals were also held in Guadalajara, as well the General Assembly of the IISL.

Space2030 is an agenda under the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, with the vision of using space as a driver for peace and the Sustainable Development Goals. The agenda aims to strengthen the contributions of space technologies by addressing global development challenges, building stronger partnerships, and bridging the space divide between developed and developing States. This paper is an extension of the Team Project "Space2030"; a major component of the 2019 Southern Hemisphere Space Studies Program, which was jointly coordinated by the International Space University and the University of South Australia, hosted in Adelaide, Australia. It identifies and recommends priority items to be included in the Space2030 Agenda from the perspective of the Economic South. These are States on or south of the Tropic of Cancer, which consists of developed and developing States, emerging space powers, and States of a growing influence on the world stage. Re...

The Space Generation Advisory Council is a non-profit organization that aims to represent the international group of young professionals and students from around the world interested in all aspects of humankind's understanding, exploration, and utilization of outer space. Within the SGAC membership, those interested in and pursuing education and training related to the legal aspects of outer space established a Space Law Working Group in the summer of 2012. One of the focuses of the group is investigating the role and importance of national space legislation. In addition to many large and established space-faring nations with large space agencies and long heritages of space capability, many more nations are becoming space capable. In the African continent, Nigeria, South Africa, and Maghreb countries are cooperating and coordinating their space activities. In Europe, ESA membership is growing, with Poland to become the 19 th Member State in the fall of 2012. Domestic European space agencies are also growing in size and capability. In the future, many new companies and many more countries will increase the size and scope of the space field, including nations with limited space experience. Consequently, the need for rational, efficient, and balanced national space legislation for countries previously lacking it will become more clear and urgent. This paper will first examine existing national space legislation, looking to see common themes and crucial hallmarks. Insights from existing national experience, along with cross-disciplinary takeaways from international relations theory and space policy, and the overriding requirements from public international space law, should intelligently inform the drafting of national space legislation.

The remote astronomical observation of Mars, also called Ares, was followed by science-fiction literature and on-site missions, mainly by NASA. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty covers the exploration of Mars as ‘’province of all mankind’’ whilst it does not identify outer space as ‘’common heritage of mankind’’, unlike the marginal 1979 Moon Agreement, whose provisions apply inter alia to Mars. Rules on the Red Planet, illustrated by the 2020 Artemis Accords, constitute a central and novel thematic area within Space Law, let alone a province of all jurists. This form of democratization ties in with the democratic character of astronomy and also the popularization of Martian questions through science-fiction literature. Martian Law could be called by the alternative name ‘’Arean Law’’ and be approached in contraposition to Martial Law, imposed in South Korea. This contraposition symbolizes the legal shift to the right to peace. Does the principle of hospitality follow?

Outer Space Law consists mainly in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, establishing that outer space is not subject to national appropriation. Besides, the 1979 Moon Agreement, which has not been widely ratified, emphasizes that the lunar resources are the ‘’common heritage of mankind’’ and suggests that an international regime should be established to govern their exploitation. There is no Lunar Law, in the sense of a branch of law, whilst lunar exploration constitutes a diachronic, democratic phenomenon with big expectations. Aristotle has been an emblematic figure of the pre-telescopic astronomy, having proved the Earth’s spheric shape through lunar eclipses, and his neologism ‘’entelechy’’ may be applicable inter alia on astronomical phenomena. Another figure of Greek-language written production, Lucianus of Samosata, is regarded as the precursor of the modern movement of science-fiction literature related to the Moon. He invented the word ‘’Selenites’’ for Moon dwellers, to which ‘’Martians’’ is comparable.

Two states can have several bilateral agreements between them, some legally binding and others not. Is there a discernible pattern to how states structure the chronological sequence of binding and non-binding agreements governing a specific issue area? For example, do states prioritize a framework treaty to establish the foundation of their cooperation and let bureaucrats iron out details in non-binding instruments? Or do they first experiment with low-commitment agreements before eventually settling on a more permanent treaty? This paper explores these questions using the example of space governance, which is characterized by a high number of bilateral agreements. Examining space agreements between 287 state dyads, it argues that a combination of power asymmetry and trust levels influences the likelihood of certain types of sequences of binding and non-binding agreements. These findings are of particular relevance to the literature on informal governance, regime complexes, and space politics.

La possibile fornitura, da parte di Starlink, di servizi satellitari per il Governo italiano solleva una serie articolata di implicazioni giuridiche e regolatorie. Il contributo esplora tali profili alla luce dell'assenza di un quadro normativo internazionale adeguato, delle recenti evoluzioni del diritto dell'Unione europea in materia di concorrenza e sovvenzioni estere, nonché della disciplina sugli appalti pubblici e sul Golden Power. In questa prospettiva, si riflette anche sul possibile contrasto con l'obiettivo di autonomia strategica perseguito dall'Unione europea nel settore delle telecomunicazioni satellitari. The potential supply of satellite communication services to the Italian government by Starlink raises a complex set of legal and regulatory issues. In light of the absence of a coherent international legal framework and recent developments in EU competition and foreign subsidy law, as well as public procurement and Golden Power rules, this article aims to analyse these issues. It also examines the possible incompatibility with the European Union's objective of achieving strategic autonomy in the satellite communications sector. SOMMARIO: 1. Tre debolezze regolative.-2. Questioni legate all'affidamento del servizio.-3. Criticità connesse alla disciplina Golden Power.-4. Problemi connessi alla disciplina sulle sovvenzioni estere e alle potenziali condotte anticoncorrenziali di SpaceX.-5. Temi concernenti il contrasto con l'autonomia strategica dell'UE.

The main goal of the authors of this paper is to explicitly display the contract on the engagement of catering capacities, concluded between the caterer and the tourist agency. The review of this contract, often in the practice of tourist workers, was carried out by presenting the basic legal provisions related to this contract. Additionally, the most interesting examples from the practice of the courts in Serbia is presented, where the parties to the court proceedings were the contractors from the contract on the engagement of catering facilities.

Human expedition to Mars is a mission with untold risks and rewards. Of all the planets, Mars could conceivably be inhabited by humans in the later part of the 21st century. The International Academy of Astronautics (IAA) assembled a diverse, international group of subject matter experts to evaluate a task. This group, SG-2.14, concentrated its efforts on the Medical Support for an International Human Expedition to Mars. This is a summary of a report entitled 'Challenges in Medical Support for an International Human Expedition to Mars'. This report summarizes the current and potential future challenges and opportunities that we will face on any expedition and eventual settlement on the Martian surface. It highlights the findings and assertions of the final report to the IAA.

Although there is an acknowledged need to manage the environments of extraterrestrial bodies like the Moon, Mars, or even asteroids, there are currently no international policies for guiding space-based activities including exploration, resource use, and exploitation that could impact planetary environments (e.g., mining, energy production, and general construction of infrastructure required for landing areas, extended human habitation, large telescopes, or facilities away from bases, etc.). There is an obvious need to develop a clear, justifiable and implementable framework in anticipation of proposals for diverse activities and uses beyond Earth, whether by governments, non-governmental, commercial, or private entities. In recent years, a variety of suggestions have been published on how to manage space environments based on adaptations of various Earth based analogues (e.g., industry codes of conduct and best management practices; establishment of reserves; mitigation for or cont...

The exploration and utilization of outer space resources hold significant implications for fostering international peace and security, including international cooperation among nations-states. By enabling nations to collaborate on scientific research and technological advancements, these endeavors can reduce tensions and enhance diplomatic relations. These international cooperative and collaborative approaches fosters a sense of shared responsibility for the sustainable use of outer space resources, ultimately benefiting all humanity. By promoting international peace, security and cooperation among nations, these approaches not only ensure that outer space resources are utilized ethically but also reinforces the principles of public international law, international peace, security and cooperation. Such international collaboration can lead to the establishment of frameworks that govern resource sharing and international conflict resolution in outer space. This can foster trust among nations and ensure that the benefits of outer space exploration and utilization are equitably distributed, thereby promoting international peace, security, cooperation and stability in the world.

In this context, collaborative frameworks such as international treaties and agreements will be essential in establishing norms for the responsible use of these resources. These frameworks can facilitate the peaceful and secured exploration and utilization of outer space resources, ensuring that all nations can benefit equitably while preventing international conflicts over territorial celestial claims. To achieve this, international agreements must be established to outline the rights and responsibilities of nations in outer space, and thus promoting international collaboration rather than competition. Such agreements should address issues such as resource sharing, space debris management, and the prevention of militarization, ensuring that outer space remains a domain for peaceful exploration and scientific advancement. Additionally, it is crucial for nations to establish mechanisms for conflict resolution and collaboration in scientific endeavors, fostering an environment where countries can work together towards common goals. Such initiatives can lead to shared technological advancements and the peaceful utilization of extraterrestrial resources, ultimately contributing to the international peace, security and necessitated stability in the world.

It is for such legal scholarship and research reasons why, this academic Article will analyse, investigate and examine the role of outer space resources in promoting peaceful international cooperation among nations. It will also address the legal frameworks and international treaties that govern the utilization of these celestial resources, highlighting the importance of shared benefits and conflict prevention in the pursuit of extraterrestrial mining and exploration. The study will conclude by suggesting potential pathways for international collaboration and governance. By emphasizing the necessity of frameworks that promote peaceful coexistence and international cooperation, the research aims to provide coherent sets of recommendations for policymakers to ensure that the exploration of outer space resources does not lead to international conflicts/disputes or militarization, but rather fosters a spirit of international peace and security, including international cooperation and development among the subjects of public international law.

The proliferation of space debris poses significant challenges to global peace and security, as it threatens both military and civilian satellite operations, complicating international relations and efforts for collaborative space exploration. Consequently, the increasing number of defunct satellites and fragments in orbit not only endangers the safety of current missions but also escalates tensions among nations as they navigate the complexities of space governance and debris mitigation strategies. This growing threat necessitates international collaboration to establish robust frameworks that ensure the safe use of outer space. The author of this Article asserts that, as nations look to expand their presence in space, the lack of comprehensive regulations surrounding debris management could lead to catastrophic consequences, undermining global peace and security. The proliferation of space debris not only threatens operational satellites but also increases the risk of collisions, which could escalate tensions between nations. Consequently, it is imperative for the international community to establish binding agreements and collaborative frameworks that prioritize the sustainable use of outer space. This will require concerted efforts to mitigate the risks posed by existing debris while preventing the creation of new debris through responsible practices.

Additionally, legal scholar opines that, fostering international dialogue and cooperation will be crucial for developing effective debris management strategies. This would involve not only sharing technological advancements but also creating a unified framework for debris assessment and removal. By establishing clear guidelines and responsibilities, nations can work together to mitigate the risks posed by space debris, ensuring a safer environment for current and future space missions. This paper contributes to the ongoing discourse on the significance of managing space debris, particularly in relation to international treaties and collaboration among nations. By examining the intricacies of space governance, this paper will elucidate the potential risks posed by space debris to both military and civilian satellite operations. These risks can manifest in various forms, including the disruption of communication networks, threats to national security, and challenges to international relations and diplomacy. Furthermore, as space becomes increasingly congested with debris, the likelihood of collisions grows, which may lead to significant geopolitical tensions among nations dependent on satellite technology. Legal scholar concludes succinctly and puts forward some pertinent recommendations in the absolute celestial interests of spacefaring nations and corporations, in order to maintain the international peace and security of the planet Earth.

The article aims to determine the prerequisites and factors in space law during the first half of the twentieth century that contributed or might contribute to the development of space law. The methodological basis of the article is a set of principles and modes of knowledge, the choice of which was defined by interdisciplinary approaches to the disclosure of the subject, objectives, and the specifics of the aim. Historical-legal, formal, analytical, critical and comparative research methods were used in the research process. The scientific novelty consists in the fact that unlike general studies of the biographies of lawyers in the sphere of space law during the first half of the twentieth century and the history of the specific legal acts on space law and the legal analysis of these acts, the present study is an interdisciplinary (historicallegal) study of historical-legal aspects that became a background for the process of legal regulation of space activities and formed the scope of certain goals and tasks set before the international community at the beginning of the development of space law. The results of the study of the historical and legal factors of the legal regulation of relations in outer space made it possible to find out that at the beginning of the second half of the twentieth century, the prospects of scientific and technical progress and the results of the research of the world`s leading lawyers already necessitated the development of a new field of law-namely, Space Law, which cannot have any analogies with air and maritime law. In addition, at that time, a list of the main issues and tasks that required addressing during the development of the provisions of Space Law, and which can be considered the basis for analyzing the evolution of this law, was already formed.

As space commercialization and strategic competition intensify, international legal frameworks governing outer space are under increasing pressure. This thesis examines two critical and evolving areas of space law: property rights in outer space and liability for orbital debris. Drawing on legal instruments such as the 1967 Outer Space Treaty and the 1972 Convention on Liability for Damage Arising from Activities on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, as well as contemporary frameworks like the Artemis Accords and the Hague Building Blocks, the study evaluates how national legislation and soft-law initiatives are reshaping global governance. Using a qualitative legal analysis and comparative methodology, the research highlights the legal fragmentation caused by unilateral approaches to resource extraction and the insufficiency of current mechanisms to address orbital congestion. The findings reveal an urgent need for multilateral legal reform, stronger enforcement systems, and inclusive policy design to ensure space remains a sustainable and equitable domain. The thesis concludes with recommendations for treaty modernization, regulatory harmonization, and expanded international cooperation, positioning the United States as a pivotal actor in building a more coherent space law architecture.

As Earth’s orbital monitoring capabilities improve, so too does awareness of the planet’s vulnerability to near-Earth objects (NEOs). The recent risk dismissal of asteroid 2024 YR4 by major space agencies highlights the strengths of current planetary defense systems—and their financial and strategic shortcomings. Despite successful threat tracking, the absence of preemptive global funding mechanisms leaves the world unprepared for rapid-response deflection or mitigation missions. This paper examines the geopolitical and financial aspects of planetary defense, highlighting the pressing need for a permanent international financing mechanism. It examines the feasibility of a global Planetary Defense Fund by comparing it to models such as the Global Environment Facility and the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR). Additionally, it introduces the concept of a Defense, Security, and Resilience (DSR) Bank to facilitate equitable resource pooling across nations. The study also evaluates emerging hybrid financial frameworks involving commercial launch providers, AI-driven mission planning, and public-private partnerships. It argues that proactive, multilateral investment in planetary defense infrastructure, mirroring models used in climate resilience and disaster recovery, is not only feasible but also essential. As the probability of a catastrophic impact remains low yet real, a coherent and integrated financial strategy is vital for global preparedness.

As space commercialization and strategic competition intensify, international legal frameworks governing outer space are under increasing pressure. This thesis examines two critical and evolving areas of space law: property rights in outer space and liability for orbital debris. Drawing on legal instruments such as the 1967 Outer Space Treaty and the 1972 Convention on Liability for Damage Arising from Activities on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, as well as contemporary frameworks like the Artemis Accords and the Hague Building Blocks, the study evaluates how national legislation and soft-law initiatives are reshaping global governance. Using a qualitative legal analysis and comparative methodology, the research highlights the legal fragmentation caused by unilateral approaches to resource extraction and the insufficiency of current mechanisms to address orbital congestion. The findings reveal an urgent need for multilateral legal reform, stronger enforcement systems, and inclusive policy design to ensure space remains a sustainable and equitable domain. The thesis concludes with recommendations for treaty modernization, regulatory harmonization, and expanded international cooperation, positioning the United States as a pivotal actor in building a more coherent space law architecture.

The protection of the interests and rights of future generations, which are being progressively influenced by the actions of the present, has become a pressing global concern. Since 2021, the United Nations has intensified its efforts to cope with this issue, particularly through Our Common Agenda. Space has been identified as a priority within the Pact for the Future, adopted in September 2024, as part of this broader initiative. This study explores sustainable space governance and its potential to advance the rights of future generations and promote intergenerational justice. Key areas such as regulating space traffic, mitigating space debris, and ensuring equitable access to space resources are identified as critical for the sustainable use and governance of space for both present and future generations. The study argues that protecting future generations' rights has become a global gridlock. In the context of global politics, sustainable space governance provides a pathway to addressing complex, interconnected challenges while safeguarding these rights. Intra-and intergenerational justice is already a component of existing space governance frameworks. Nevertheless, the advancement of these frameworks necessitates the prioritization of Wendt's concept of the internationalization of the state and the contributions of epistemic communities. This study synthesizes the four essential policy goals for future generations adopted in 2023 with gridlock pathways and suggests that the adaptation of these principles to space policies is crucial to address emerging challenges and secure a just future.

The landscape of international space law is undergoing unprecedented transformation as humanity enters a new era of commercial space exploration, lunar resource exploitation, and multi-planetary ambitions. This article examines the critical developments in international space law from 2023-2025, analyzing how traditional frameworks established in the 1960s are adapting to contemporary challenges. Through comprehensive analysis of the Artemis Accords, emerging national space legislation, and evolving interpretations of the Outer Space Treaty, this study reveals both the resilience and limitations of current international space governance. The article argues that while existing treaties provide foundational principles, urgent multilateral cooperation is required to address regulatory gaps in space resource utilization, commercial activities, and lunar governance before competing national frameworks create irreversible fragmentation of space law. The research demonstrates that the current moment represents a critical juncture where proactive international legal development can either establish coherent global space governance or witness the emergence of competing regulatory regimes that may undermine peaceful space exploration.

Below is a detailed, science-focused plan for Mars exploration that combines our current knowledge with future technological advances and strategic milestones. This plan is built on decades of research-and is designed not only to answer fundamental questions about Mars' history and habitability but also to pave the way for eventual human exploration.