Outer Space Law

Actualmente es innegable que vivimos en un periodo de sobreexplotación y escasez de los recursos naturales en nuestro planeta: sobreexplotación, porque nuestro ritmo de uso y consumo de estos materiales es mucho mayor a su tasa de regeneración; y escasez, porque ello irremediablemente provoca que muchos de estos recursos puedan agotarse. A la luz de esta situación, los científicos han planteado, entre diversas alternativas, la posibilidad de extraer los recursos fuera de nuestro planeta. El problema, desde una perspectiva legal, sería determinar bajo qué circunstancias esa extracción debería estar permitida. En este sentido cabría preguntarse si los recursos existentes en la Luna deberían ser distribuidos de forma equitativa entre los países de la comunidad internacional o si por el contrario debería aplicarse la máxima de quien llega primero se lo queda. La respuesta a esta pregunta no es definitiva, mientras que el Tratado internacional sobre el espacio ultraterrestre firmado en 1967 estableció en su artículo 2 el principio de no apropiación, el Acuerdo que gobierna las actividades de los estados en la Luna y otros cuerpos celestes de 1979, dejaba la puerta abierta al establecimiento de un régimen internacional. Lamentablemente, las divergencias entre los diferentes estados de la comunidad internacional hicieron imposible llegar a establecer este régimen. De hecho, el Acuerdo sobre la Luna fue el último tratado internacional adoptado en esta materia. Sin embargo, el problema no acaba aquí y es que recientemente varios estados de la comunidad internacional han regulado unilateralmente sus actividades espaciales en su Derecho interno. Este es el caso, por ejemplo, de los Estados Unidos de América o de Luxemburgo. De hecho, en la actualidad, hay una serie de países que están tramitando su propia ley reguladora de la actividad espacial. En este sentido se espera, por ejemplo, que Emiratos Árabes Unidos adopte muy pronto su propia legislación nacional en esta materia. Todo ello provoca que no quede nada claro cómo estos actos unilaterales de los estados afectarán al régimen internacional establecido y cómo se podría lograr una gestión más eficiente de los recursos espaciales. Quizás podríamos aprender del exitoso modelo implementado por la Unión Internacional de Telecomunicaciones (UIT) para la regulación de las órbitas espaciales.

Mars in unearthly, unchartered, unknown & yet attracts all of humanity. The hazards of the endeavor are overwhelmed by the hype & hope surrounding the enterprise. A variety of individuals, private companies, commercial firms and national space agencies are engrossed in efforts at landing & inhabiting Mars. However, these efforts are disjoint and there exists little or no coordination. The aspirations as also hazards are immense, the resources scarce & costly. Consequently, left ungoverned, the potential for conflict in space exploration is high. There exists a critical need to regulate and coordinate affairs in this area right now when the technologies and legislation are yet immature. This calls for a credible institutionalized governance structure. This paper proposes an expansion of the existing United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) to take on the mantle of space exploration governance and to continue with incremental progressions later.

Outer space has become a contested, congested and competitive domain with an ever growing importance to life on Earth. Recently, an increasing number of new players have entered the space arena. Slovakia has also stepped up its space related activities. In March 2013, it declared its interest to become a member of European Space Agency (ESA) by 2020. Increased involvement in space sector will bring new opportunities and responsibilities for Slovakia. Is Slovakia ready to address these challenges?

The Earth's orbital space is increasingly threatened by debris. It is frequently described as a common-pool resource vulnerable to a 'tragedy of the commons' scenario. Scholars have suggested ambitious policy proposals to tackle the tragedy of space debris and assure the sustainability of the Earth's orbits. Their proposals can be classified into three categories: hierarchical regulations, economic incentives and property rights. All three categories require some form of central coordination. However, there might be an alternative approach to the problem and other potential solutions. Elinor Ostrom suggested that decentralized, polycentric systems are appropriate for governing common-pool resources. Anecdotal evidence suggests that a polycentric form of governance can encourage a more sustainable use of the Earth's orbits.

Economically profitable resource exploitation in space is becoming increasingly feasible as more actors - national,
public and private-are engaging in space exploration. The Outer Space Treaty (OST), which serves as the
basis for the current corpus juris spatialis, declares that no government can claim sovereignty over celestial bodies
or outer space itself. Because this is generally interpreted as denying private ownership, the OST is sometimes
claimed to be an obstacle to commercial venture, particularly resource exploitation. Such claims ignore a wealth
of terrestrial models which promote profitable commercial resource exploitation independent of fee-simple
ownership. To achieve an approach to space exploration and exploitation which balances national, international,
and commercial interests and a need to prevent conflict and militarization of outer space, terrestrial approaches
to managing resource exploitation should be carefully examined for frameworks and mechanisms with potential
to serve as models in further elaborating an international regime for space resource exploitation. A previously
overlooked terrestrial example, the Alaska Permanent Fund, and its unique citizen's dividend, is explored as one
possible model for such a balanced approach that could encourage profit-driven exploration and exploitation of
extra-terrestrial resources, reduce the risk of conflict between actors in outer space and simultaneously accrue
tangible benefits to all of humanity.

Space Traffic Management (STM) is being developed to deal mainly with the problems of satellite operations and space debris. Therefore, it is currently being examined separately from air traffic management (ATM). However, the advent of reusable space vehicles (RLVs) and the increase of private spaceflight operations calls for a joined examination of the STM with ATM. Among others, airspace will be shared by both aircraft and RLVs, while outer space traffic in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) will increase and begin resembling air traffic. At the same time, modernization of ATM worldwide focuses also on satellite-based navigation. Therefore, developing a comprehensive AeroSpace Traffic Management (ASTM), to include both aviation and LEO space flights, could be useful.
In this regard, some core concepts and technologies already developed or under development for ATM could set a useful example. The Automatic Depended Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS-B) technology uses satellite navigation to locate the position of a given aircraft and the aircraft flying nearby, and transmit it to other aircraft and the Air Traffic Control (ATC). The 4d-trajectory management is based on the integration of time into the 3D aircraft trajectory, to ensure flight on a practically unrestricted, optimum trajectory for as long as possible, provided that the aircraft meets accurately an arrival time over a designated point. The System Wide Information Management (SWIM) concept envisages prompt and efficient data sharing among airspace users and Air Navigation Services Providers (ANSPs) through a wide-array network or a centralized flight data processing system. Such concepts and technologies could prove useful to regulate spaceflight traffic to and from LEO, as well as coordinate such traffic effectively with air traffic.
Moreover, developing an efficient ASTM system requires designating competent authorities, which will supervise the service providers. The nature of outer space as res nullius is similar to international airspace, which falls under the jurisdiction of no State. Air traffic in such airspace is controlled through air navigation regional agreements, which designate a specific national or transnational authority as responsible to control the airspace and ensure flight safety, without affecting the international status of the airspace. Similarly, LEO could be divided into zones, for each of which a competent authority can be designated through special international agreements. Such authorities could be linked to a SWIM, which would include both air traffic and space traffic data available to all affected authorities, service providers and aerospace users.

As recent events prove, the creation and use of works in outer space give rise to practical issues of copyright law. This article examines whether Earthly copyright law applies to matters that take place in outer space and, if so, which law. First, the principles of space law are compared
with those of copyright law established for matters on Earth. Secondly we examine whether the principles of space law affect and limit the scope of copyright law. Next, we address if and how international copyright law determines a national copyright law which governs the
creation of works as well as copyright infringements in outer space. We then show that matters in outer space may challenge the application of the lex loci protectionis as well as the principle of territoriality in copyright law.

This paper presents the essential elements of salvage law for outer space. The author introduces the topic by explaining how salvage law could alleviate the problem of space debris and promote economic use of inoperative space objects. The second section of the paper examines precedents for space salvage in maritime and admiralty law. The third section discusses the status of space objects and debris under existing international law. Finally the author uses existing laws and precedents to develop salvage laws for outer space.

It is the eve of outer space development, but few people are aware of this. In the absence of awareness, people cannot prepare for the opportunities that will arise; and so the vast wealth likely to flow to Earth from outer space will cause ever-greater inequality and instability in our already unequal and unstable world.

This book is a call to educators to factor equality and diversity into the process of outer space development by creating a widespread movement to teach outer space development studies to all students, especially those who study social and behavioral sciences. In calling for this, the author is also putting out a call to visionary thinkers to increase public awareness that outer space is already in the process of being developed. Her objective is to provide a pedagogical approach aimed at mending the knowledge gap. If we fail in this objective, we are more likely than ever before to witness ever-widening gaps of social and financial inequality.

http://www.cambridgescholars.com/outer-space-development-international-relations-and-space-law-16

How will extraterrestrial operations be governed? So far, trips off-planet have been temporary. As humans move farther out into space, some are going to stay there. They will live, have children, age, and die. They will do this in structures that may attempt to apply the laws of several states, and on properties that currently have the status of the common heritage of mankind. In these locations, including planetary surfaces, lunar bases, asteroids, comets, and

КОНЦЕПТУАЛЬНЫЕОСНОВЫОБЩЕГОНАСЛЕДИЯЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСТВА Цель данного исследования состояла в обзоре концептуальных рамок общего наследия человечества, с помощью которых можно понять философию этого понятия и буквальное значение термина общего наследия человечества. Поскольку эта концепция рассматривается как новое явление в международном праве и бросает вызов принятым концепциям классического международного права, она изучается философски и оценивается в естественном праве и позитивном праве. Каждое из слов общей фразы наследия человечества и его правовых последствий было также изучено, чтобы разрешить неоднозначности в этой концепции как можно больше. Учитывая, что концепция общего наследия человечества включает в себя некоторые принципы, на основе которых она устанавливается, были рассмотрены принципы мирного использования, неисключительного использования ресурсов, совместного использования выгод и международного управления ресурсами. Были изложены позиции развитых и развивающихся стран в отношении этих принципов и упомянуто нынешнее состояние этих принципов. Ключевые слова: общее наследие человечества; развивающиеся страны; развитые страны; морское право; космическое право; естественное право; позитивное право. THECONCEPTUALFOUNDATIONSOFTHECOMMONHERITAGEOFMANKIND The purpose of this research was to overview the conceptual framework of the common heritage of mankind through which the philosophy of this concept and the literal meaning of the term of the common heritage of mankind can be understood. Since this concept is considered a new phenomenon in the international law and challenges the accepted concepts of the classical international law, it has been studied philosophically and evaluated in natural law and positive law. Each of the words of the common heritage of mankind phrase and its legal implications was also studied to resolve the ambiguities in this concept as much as possible. Given that the concept of the common heritage of mankind involves some principles based on which it is established, the principles of peaceful using, non-exclusive use of resources, benefits sharing and international management of resources were examined. The positions of developed and developing countries about these principles were described and the current status of these principles was mentioned.

Space is a metaphor for the future. Outer space is not just void beyond earth's atmosphere, but an arena for ceaseless human evolution. When through human industry a small round metal object was shot into space for the first time, a rare opportunity to carry human rights into outer space emerged. Since the inception of the outer space treaty, the relationship between outer space exploration and human rights is grounded on the doctrine of exploration for the philosophical or spiritual benefit of mankind. The technological and scientific advancement of the twenty-first century especially in aerospace engineering and space exploration popularly known as ‗space-age' along with access and control of information known as ‗information age' is arguably the defining characteristics of the current era of human civilization. In regard to outer space exploration and exploitation, a very important problem is represented by the conflict between the right of state with respect to sovereignty and the rights of individual in regard to development. Since the appearance of ‗province of mankind' and ‗benefit of mankind' provisions in the outer space treaties and agreements, controversy regarding the intent and meaning of the terms in regard to nation's right to explore and use common environment for not just one's own benefit but to share benefits derived with the rest of the world has escalated. The availability of freedom of information regardless of frontiers, an integral part of freedom of expression to seek, receive and impart information and ideas as a fundamental consideration among states in space is explored. The impact of right to development in space exploration whether it is a dead-end or does it open new avenues of thinking and possibility of better implementation of human rights in space law from benefit of mankind perspective is examined. The paper explores the conflict and complementary relationship between the two bodies of law and argues that human rights could only find it's place in space law in a dialectic process with state rights. Space law's domination by concept of state's sovereignty over concept of humanity, the dialectic process can offer hint for the method to be used to determine the nature of the relationship between the two. The first part of this research paper examines the relationship between space exploration and human rights by invoking various provisions of both bodies of law regarding benefit of mankind principles and what it means to define outer space as province of all mankind. The second part seeks to understand the interaction between space law and first generation of human rights and the journey of some of the important Resolutions that gave rights beyond frontiers. The third part determines that right to development can provide a roadmap for transformational change that can elegantly find solution to reconcile the conflict between the state's right and individual freedom. The dialectical approach finds that the way to balance needs of developing countries and the obligations of developed countries in outer space activities can be found by invoking right to development concept. The paper concludes with findings that in pursuit of development, non-discrimination and mutual benefit principles, the interaction and reciprocity of space law and human rights does afford an opportunity to better implement human rights in outer space.

General Rafael Reyes Prieto, reconocido y categorizado en (A1) por COLCIENCIAS, con el código COL0104976. 1. Manfred Lachs fue un escritor, educador, diplomático y jurista polaco que influyó profundamente en el desarrollo del Derecho Internacional en la posguerra; particularmente el derecho espacial.

Considering the worsening climate change, in the future outer space might be our last Noah’s Ark. Now, humans must look
to space as an opportunity to support growing resource requirements. Asteroids are rich in metals, which could be transported
back to Earth. Unfortunately, the existing international legal framework discourages investments in the space economy. Once
an enterprise invests billions of dollars in discovering and developing a mining site, it cannot claim any ownership because of
the non-appropriation principle stipulated in Article 2 of the Outer Space Treaty (OST). Thus, other entities could legally
access and exploit the same resource without any participation in the initial financial investment, increasing the risk of potential
conflict. Bearing this in mind, the question arises, which legal regime could ensure effective allocation of resources, avoiding
a chaotic space race to acquire valuable assets? The aim of this research is to argue that the first two articles of OST should be
amended, to set up an international legal trust system which would guarantee different kinds of rights, dependently on the
nature of the celestial body. E.g., property rights could be preferable to a lease over asteroids, as they could be exploited to
their disappearance. This proposed system would be led by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), as
the main trustee. The co-trustees would be the nations of the world. Prior to initiating any space activity, every entity would
send a request to their national government. If all the legal parameters are respected, the nation would forward the operational
request to the UNOOSA. In the case of acceptance, UNOOSA would record the permit on an international public registry. The
country in which the company has been registered would investigate whether the activities of its national company are
consistent with the permit. This would be the ordinary model. The extraordinary model would be when the applicant for the
space activity is a state, then the trustee would be the UN. All lucrative activities would be subject to benefit-sharing. Finally,
this research will demonstrate the valuable outcome of the International Legal Trust System and its advantages for all
humankind. Private companies would rely on property rights, while the benefit-sharing could be used to finance the 17
Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the UN in 2015, which address peace, climate change, inequalities and poverty.

The purpose of this research is to provide a comprehensive international legal analysis of the concept of common heritage of mankind as it exists in international space law. In this article scientific methodological approach was used which facilitate determination the whole canvas of the research, identify the main aspects and concepts of the study. The author also widely investigated the concept of common heritage of mankind in the practice of States and international organizations and bodies. Since mankind succeeded to access outer space and opened the window of this infinite realm, the effort was made to systematize spatial activities by codification and adoption numerous international treaties and declarations. One of the significant result of these efforts was the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies that adopted by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space by consensus on 5 December 1979, declares the Moon and other celestial bodies to be the common heritage of mankind. This Agreement has never been ratified by any State that engaged in self-launched manned space exploration or has plans to do so and thus has an insignificant effect on spatial activities. This article analysis the concept of common heritage of mankind that consists of five elements: non-appropriation, international management of resources, sharing of financial and technological benefits , reservation for peaceful purposes and reservation for further generations. It is shown that the Moon Agreement applying the concept of common heritage of mankind to outer space, Moon and other celestial bodies which has been presented by developing countries to preserve essential resources, always been associated with some problems. Also, on the one hand, there is an attempt to scrutinize these obstacles that prevent applying this concept by paying attention to its challenges. On the other hand, author presents some solutions to strengthen this concept in outer space legal system and motivate space powers to join the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

This article, published originally in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics, introduces the space policy of the European Union. It provides an overview of what the EU space policy is and how it developed. In addition, it offers a critical review of the available scientific literature and identifies the key challenges surrounding the study of this new EU policy area.

“Space: The Final Frontier.”  While that phrase has been a call to arms for generations of science fiction fans and space enthusiasts to look up at the night sky in wonder and amazement, it has increasingly become a siren call for private space pioneers. Since man first went to space, humankind has been pushing the boundaries of experimentation, research, and exploration into the cosmos. Even though Earth’s supply of certain rare and precious metals may be reaching depletion, researchers have found that asteroids are likely to contain vast quantities of these resources.  Today, several companies are attempting to tap into this potential wealth of resources for use, both on Earth and in space.  Before these companies can begin mining, however, stronger property laws are needed to ensure the Asteroid Belt of our solar system is not described as the next California Gold Rush.  This Article argues that the international community must be united on the policies and customs surrounding property ownership in space so these mining operations can be performed in a peaceful and safe manner.

Following Dennis Tito's flight to space aboard the Russian Soyuz capsule in 2001, suborbital has become a new form of commercial activity. Fueled by an eager public and decreasing prices, the industry is rapidly expanding. Because the current space law regime was originally designed for governmental exploration, it is inadequate to handle the range of legal challenges emerging from this private commercial activity. This article therefore suggests that the current legal regime is incapable of sustaining the space tourism industry and that there is an urgent need for a new international convention.

Since World War I, the accepted principle has been that countries can direct flight over their regions or regional oceans. Apparently, nobody was genuinely worried about satellites and space vessels when the different traditions tending to over flight were drawn. In any case, the space soon gets to be noteworthy. One of the most punctual issues was exactly how far national sovereign power reaches out: when does airspace stop and space start.
The issues surrounding sovereignty over outer space are likely to become ever more critical as globalisation, growing pressure on resources and the need for energy and national security become acute, and the resolution of special delimitation disputes seems likely to become an important question in the twenty-first century.
This project begins shall constitute an examination of sovereignty and exploitation of resources on earth and in outer space. It provides a good overview of relevant international space law, focusing on provisions of the Outer Space Treaty and the Moon Agreement and other treaties so as to answer the debatable question of sovereignty over outer space.

ÖZET Uzayın ve uzay faaliyetlerinin hukuki rejimi, gerek uluslararası antlaşmalarla gerek Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Kurulu İlkeleri'yle ortaya konulmuştur. Ancak mevcut hukuki rejim, uzay teknolojisinin gelişmesiyle birlikte, yeni kavram ve kurumlar bakımından tartışmaya açılmıştır. Uzay teknolojisinin uzay hukukuna etkisi bakımından literatürde en çok karşılaşılan konular; uzay trafiği, uzay çöpü, uzayın barışçıl kullanımı ve uzay turizmi olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Söz konusu tartışmalar farklı görüşleri içerse de, uzaya ilişkin mevcut uluslararası antlaşmaların belirtilen meselelere cevap vermek bakımından yetersiz kaldığı görülmektedir. Dolayısıyla uluslararası toplumun harekete geçerek, mevcut antlaşmalara ek protokoller ya da yeni uluslararası antlaşmalar yapması gerekmektedir. GİRİŞ Uzaya ve uzay faaliyetlerine ilişkin hukuki rejim, uzay faaliyetlerinin başlamasından bir süre sonra düzenlenebilmiştir. Yani hukuk, teknolojinin gerisinde kalmış, hukuki boşluk döneminde dünya ABD ile Sovyetler Birliği'nin uzay rekabetini seyretmiştir. Söz konusu seyir, insanoğlunun Ay'a ayak basmasından sonra sona ermiş, Birleşmiş Milletler bünyesinde uzaya ve uzay faaliyetlerine ilişkin bir uluslararası antlaşma yapılması gündeme gelmiştir.[33] Birleşmiş Milletler bünyesinde önce Ad Hoc olarak kurulan ve Daimi Komite'ye dönüştürülen Uzayın Barışçıl Amaçlarla Kullanılması Komitesi (COPOUS), uzayın gerek hukuki açıdan gerekse teknolojik açıdan ele alındığı bir platform olmuştur. Nitekim uzaya ilişkin uluslararası antlaşmalar önce Komite bünyesinde tartışılmış, daha sonra Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Kurulu'nda kabul edilmiştir. Uluslararası antlaşmaların içermediği bazı konular, yine Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Kurulu bünyesinde kabul edilen " İlkeler " ile düzenlenmiştir. [23] Uzaya ve uzay faaliyetlerine ilişkin hukuki rejim gerek antlaşmalar gerek Genel Kurul İlkeleri ile oluşturulmuş olsa da, teknolojinin yıldan yıla gösterdiği ilerleme, uzay faaliyetlerini etkilediği ölçüde

This chapter offers a detailed analysis of a very fashionable subject: space tourism. Virgin Galactic and other companies have developed prototypes of spacecraft able to navigate in the airspace and outer space for pleasure or recreation. Tourist activities may also include a long-term stay in orbital facilities or parabolic intercontinental flights for transportation. Hence, again it would be useful to establish the level of separation between airspace and outer space for the application of air law and space law to the two phases of the flight, for liability reason (e.g. damage suffered by tourists) or navigation purposes. Air law already contains these cases, the outer space law doesn’t. Another tricky aspect concerns the status of the tourist: should such person be considered an astronaut and subject to the provisions of the Space Treaties?

The Moon and Near Earth Asteroids (NEAs) are increasingly gaining attention as sources of raw materials.1 They might be able to satisfy growing needs of the humans, while the limited amount of natural resources on Earth is steadily decreasing.2 For example, the Moon is rich in Helium-3, an isotope with nonradioactive properties that is expected to make fusion reactors of nuclear energy safe.3 NEAs are comprised of rare metals that are possibly worth millions of dollars4. The question must be asked whether international space law recognizes property rights of the celestial bodies to non-governmental actors. Outer Space Treaty (OST)5 seems to have some ambiguities, but in fact, it closes its own loopholes. Moon Agreement6 explicitly prohibits granting ownership of space resources to non-State actors. However, contrary to OST, it is not widely supported by the international community. In the end, this paper will suggest that rights in space should be clarified through the amendment of Moon Agreement.

New technology is always considered as the boon for development of mankind. With advancement of technology, our civilization also advanced and so did the rules, norms and obligations which restrict technology only for welfare and betterment of humans. Development has always remained top priority of human cogitation. Today outer space is not only an important resource but also a great factor for sustainable development. This article preliminary confer about evolution of Outer Space legislations; its genesis and core concept. Further this article extends to Obligations and Liabilities of nations under Space Laws as well as peaceful use of outer space for sustainable development and other important implications regarding telecommunication, remote sensing, Global Positioning System (GPS), and broadcasting. Before conclusive remark the concept of sustainable development is highlighted. The article also emphasizes on utilization of space tech in achieving sustainable development. The position of India in space related activities is highlighted along with present legal stand and issues of outer space such as space debris.

NOTE: This is the self-archive version of the chapter "​​Why Space Migration Must Be Posthuman" in the book "The Ethics of Space," edited by Schwartz, J., Milligan, T., published by Springer, Vol. 8, 2016, pp. 137-152. ISBN: 978-3-319-39825-9 (Print) 978-3-319-39827-3 (Online). For the final version of this article, please purchase the chapter: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39827-3_10
ABSTRACT: This chapter responds to the urgency for reflecting on the large-scale ethical implications, socio-political challenges and technological preconditions of space migration, by highlighting the importance of treating outer space in relation to Earth, and not as a separated otherness. Instead of the utilitarian view of space, which perceives it as the ultimate resource, this chapter will approach space from an onto-epistemological standpoint inspired by Heidegger's definition of technology: outer space will be thus accessed as " a way of revealing " , allowing for an original understanding of the notion. This focal point will be emphasized by showing how outer space has historically performed and continues to manifest as a way of revealing, in the processual constitution of human and posthuman identities. In the first section, this chapter will demonstrate that, in the ancient world, astronomical insights were crucial to the understanding of the Earth and to the development of human civilizations. In the second section, it will underline how, in the space race, humans lost their ontological primacy; it will also critically analyze the history of humans in space according to practices of discrimination such as: anthropocentrism, sexism and racism. In the third section, it will highlight how space pragmatics should be revised by developing sustainable space technologies in order to comply with the theoretical principles of the " Outer Space Treaty " (1967), expanding the beneficial vision of space exploration, from humans and Earth, to non-human beings and non-human agents, including other planets. The dynamics of space migration will be inquired by reconciling the varied philosophical landscape of the posthuman, bridging different schools of thought such as: Posthumanism, Transhumanism, New Materialism and Object-Oriented Ontology.

Focuses on the concept of Space Traffic Management (STM), the matter which has been of high interest for many space actors in the last three decades. With the emergence of the NewSpace era, and flourishment of commercial and economic incentives for space activities, this topic has gained the attention of many space actors in the preceding decades, thus turning into a separate agenda item in the Legal Subcommittee of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. However, establishing and implementing such regulations is a challenging task, especially for new space actors. This article aims to assess the existing challenges of STM and provide solutions to overcome them. Firstly, this article provides the necessity of establishing such a regulation: it is evaluated and discussed while describing the requirements for achieving this goal. Secondly, the paper studies definitions provided by governmental and non-governmental entities regarding this concept and the measures taken towards its realising. Finally, the research discusses the challenges that space actors face regarding implementing this concept, both legal and practical. In conclusion, the authors highlight the importance of promoting endeavours and coordination among all current and potential space actors with due considerations for their relevancy.

The study is intended to pursue already developed research work by the team about space security in a context of emergence of new actors in this field with a direct effect in international relations. This particular project will focus on security in outer space at a time when it is confronted by possible risks regarding the development of anti-space weapons by several countries. The basic research objectives will consist in understanding how key elements may interact for developing a future “space diplomacy”. This will imply firstly a comprehensive understanding of the notion of “space weaponization”, including the building by the research project of a “state-of-the-art” picture in the domain of Anti-satellite systems. Secondly, this will require having a better understanding of the motivations behind such evolutions, including the occasional use of the notion of “threat in space” in international arenas and in foreign-policy making. This shall finally lead to a better identification and assessment of the founding elements of an upcoming “space diplomacy”, paving the way of a new research field in international politics, and then contributing to French and European Foreign policy-making in this field at a 2030 horizon.

"The idea of the oceans as the new, seventh continent was popular in the mid 1960s.
Starting in 1965 and lasting until 1980, more than 65 of these habitats were built all around the world by industrialized states. This has led to the assumption that both the conquest of the deep sea and that of the space can be seen as an expansion of frontiers in the times of the Cold War and in the postcolonial era. For instance, in 1964, at the New York World Fair, a special exhibition called Futurama showed a model of a possible future civilization on the sea-floor as well as displaying proposals for settlements in the Antarctic as both were considered unsettled continents."

Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies 1967 (The Outer Space Treaty) merupakan perjanjian yang dibentuk oleh negara – negara peserta perjanjian untuk mengatur kegiatan penggunaan dan pemanfaatan ruang angkasa beserta benda – benda langit lainnya. Ruang angkasa memiliki sumber daya alam yang terbatas antara lain orbit, yaitu sumber daya alam yang  merupakan jalur – jalur untuk pengorbitan satelit. Menurut The Outer Space Treaty, kegiatan penggunaan serta pemanfaatan benda – benda langit pada dasarnya secara eksklusif hanya untuk tujuan damai saja, sehingga bentuk kegiatan yang ditujukan untuk kepentingan militer merupakan pelanggaran atas perjanjian ini. Pada prakteknya terdapat beberapa negara yang melakukan kegiatan keruangangkasaan yang ditujukan untuk kepentingan militer. Skripsi ini membahas permasalahan hukum dari kegiatan keruangangkasaan yang dilakukan untuk tujuan militer.
Penelitian ini menggunakan metode pendekatan yuridis normatif yaitu dengan teori-teori hukum dalam praktek pelaksanaannya, penelitian yang menggunakan sumber data sekunder dengan bahan hukum primer yaitu Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies 1967 disingkat Outer Space Treaty 1967 dan bahan hukum sekunder yaitu buku-buku, dokumen, hasil-hasil penelitian, hasil karya dari kalangan hukum, dan media online.
Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dapat disimpulkan bahwa kegiatan manusia di ruang angkasa telah diatur didalam berbagai instrumen hukum ruang angkasa internasional. Lebih spesifiknya untuk pengaturan tentang kegiatan penggunaan dan pemanfaatan benda – benda langit yang ditujukan untuk kepentingan militer telah diatur didalam The Outer Space Treaty. Merujuk kepada aturan – aturan yang ditetapkan oleh hukum ruang angkasa internasional, kegiatan keruangangkasaan yang dilakukan oleh India terdapat ketidaksesuaian dengan regulasi yang terdapat didalam The Outer Space Treaty dengan meluncurkan satelit GSAT-7 yaitu satelit yang diperuntukan untuk membantu komunikasi, navigasi, serta pemetaan wilayah yang ditujukan untuk kepentingan militer India, dengan demikian kegiatan tersebut termasuk kegiatan yang ditujukan untuk kepentingan militer walaupun bersifat non-agresif.

The OASIS concept is represented in the cover artwork and logo. Within the logo are the nodes representing the spaceport way-points. It was inspired by the skipping of stones across a body of water, representing stepping stones throughout space. The abstract palm tree represents the OASIS concept -a location where you gather supplies and services while traveling through a harsh environment. Design work courtesy of the OASIS Graphics Team.

Psychoanalytic theory is often wrongly accused of being a ‘humanism’ and therefore not capable of addressing the new conceptual challenges that the post-human, post-apocalyptic, post-Anthropocenic era may present us with. The persistent mischaracterization of psychoanalysis as reducing grand theoretical, political and philosophical concerns into petty subjective questions of personal experience has meant that the radical conceptual possibilities of it are missed. Given its shared ability to engage the unconscious and allow us to experience (as dreams so often do) forms of time and space altering logic, often the way to approach these questions is through cinema. More than just concerns with the gaze, desire and ideology as is traditionally associated with Lacanian film theory, cinema can offer scope to think through psychoanalytic and philosophical questions in a way that empirical research simply cannot. This essay engages the recent films Arrival (Denis Villeneuve), Aniara (Pella Kågerman and Hugo Lilja) and High Life (Claire Denis) in order to consider subversive questions relating to time, taboo and the death drive in the vastness of the universe. Ultimately, I argue that it is through film as a conceptual and psychoanalytic apparatus or form of thinking that we may begin to address these frequently unthought dimensions of human experience.

The Project Icarus Study Group’s objective is to design a mainly fusion-propelled interstellar probe. The starting point are the results of the Daedalus study, which was conducted by the British Interplanetary Society during the 1970’s. As the Daedalus study already indicated, interstellar probes will be the result of a large scale, decade-long development program. To sustain a program over such long periods, the commitment of key stakeholders is vital. Although previous publications identified political and societal preconditions to an interstellar exploration program, there is a lack of more specific scientific and political stakeholder scenarios. This paper develops stakeholder scenarios which allow for a more detailed sustainability assessment of future programs. For this purpose, key stakeholder groups and their needs are identified and scientific and political scenarios derived. Political scenarios are based on patterns of past space programs but unprecedented scenarios are considered as well. Although it is very difficult to sustain an interstellar exploration program, there are scenarios in which this seems to be possible, e.g. the discovery of life within the solar system and on an exoplanet, a global technology development program, and dual-use of technologies for defence and security purposes. This is a submission of the Project Icarus Study Group.

Psychologists have been called upon in recent years to look into the psychological effects on humans, after being in space for prolonged periods, as both government and private corporations work towards making the idea of living in space for long periods of time a reality. Over the course of a few decades, psychological research into “analogue sites” here on earth, simulations, and astronauts living and working in orbit has started to show how humans are affected by such environments. In general, findings show the potential for conflict or emotional deterioration during long-term isolated periods, but it may have more to do with people’s perceptions of their environment more so than the environment itself. Even still, living in isolated and confined areas can cause stress and problematic behaviours that may interfere with productivity and relationships. Communication, homesickness, and habitat design also become important factors in the success of long-term missions in space. Several factors pertaining to culture such as nationality, gender roles and sexual orientation become important aspects to learn about in order to work harmoniously with others in a long-term space environment and to avoid any misunderstandings. The broad definition of culture also becomes an important aspect of living and working off world. Most researchers are aware of the problems when studying culture such as pinpointing the parts of culture that are causing such issues. Therefore, it is suggested that future research defines culture more clearly while learning more in depth information regarding participants’ ideas of their own identities. This independent study will explore the psycho-social issues of living in isolated and confined spaces, culture and gender for long-term missions off world.

This article traces parallels between James Cook’s 1768 Endeavour voyage to measure the transit of Venus and current initiatives searching for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). While separated by vast time and space, both are united in their appeal to celestial frontier science in the service of all humanity, and contain discrepancies between their ethical protocols and probable outcomes. Past, present, and future colonial projects are interwoven by drawing on Dipesh Chakrabarty’s “time-knot,” Star Trek’s “prime directive,” and firsthand experience in SETI’s Indigenous studies working group. This analysis cautions against the current trend toward unabated interstellar imperialism and suggests alternative approaches for engaging outer spaces and beings through celestial wayfinding.

Le droit et l’astronomie apparaissent au premier abord contradictoire. En effet, réconcilier science humaine et science exacte semble tenir de la gageure. Cette entreprise est néanmoins réalisable. Heureusement, car à l’impossible, nul n’est tenu. Le droit en tant que discours et comme pratique, est une réalité inhérente à toute activité sociale. Il s’imbrique ainsi dans les activités scientifiques et notamment dans l’astronomie. Leur commun dénominateur se révèle être le droit de l’espace.

Activity in space has so far been confined mostly to the Earth's orbit. Man-made objects' travel and presence in deep space beyond Earth's orbit has been seldom and limited to scientific excursions. But this is about to change due to advances in relevant technologies; space beyond Earth's immediate orbit may soon be opening to commercial activity and perhaps to human settlement. When it happens, the presence of state and non-state actors in deep space and their competition to own and exploit its resources will be adding new, problematic, even controversial dimensions to international relations, along with which a range of ramifications should be expected. Among them are legal status and property v rights under international law, international security and economy, and the nature of relationship between state and non-state actors in space environment. This thesis will seek to identify and elaborate some of those ramifications. In order to facilitate and place on more solid ground the task of generating foresights about the future, at the end parallels would be drawn with the circumstances and consequences of the great age of maritime explorations of 15 th to 17 th centuries.