Marine Archaeology

The 2002 Joint Expedition of the Institute of Nautical Archaeology and the Centro Nacional de Arqueologia Náutica e Subaquática examined Phoenician maritime involvement in Portugal, combining archaeological, geological and geophysical surveys of former coastal sites-Santa Olaia, Abul and Castro Marim-where previous excavations have uncovered Phoenician remains. Significant geomorphic evolution of bay-head delta and estuarine settings masks the fact that Phoenician sites were situated at the head of marine embayments or on estuary margins, had easy access to the sea, and immediate access to at least one natural anchorage. All sites exhibited topographical criteria familiar from Phoenician trading-stations and merchant outposts in the Mediterranean.

Figure 1. Location map showing harbor ruins and excavation sites outside of harbor (W4: 677079, 3598186; W6: 677100, 3598300; W7: 677045, 3598318). Insets show regional tectonic framework of eastern Mediterranean (bottom left) and layout of Herod's harbor (upper right).

A recently discovered artificial stone mound on the northern shore of the Dead Sea is a maritime feature exposed by the drying of the lake. Lake-level fluctuations, a loose silt bottom, lack of natural anchorages, and onshore prevailing winds, prevented the long-term planning, construction and maintenance of shore-based harbour installations in this area. This and a similar mound nearby, Rujum el Bahr, are interpreted as structures once used for open-water mooring, providing a firm anchor-hold over a range of lake levels and wind directions. As such, they enabled the use of this economically and strategically important part of the lake by maritime traffic.

The Mesolithic-to-Neolithic transition which coincided with rising sea levels, marked the time when a hunter-gatherer economy gave way to agriculture. Bouldnor Cliff is a submarine archaeological site with a well-preserved Mesolithic palaeosol dated to 8000 years BP. We analyze a core obtained from sealed sediments, combining evidence from microgeomorphology and microfossils with sedimentary ancient DNA (sedaDNA) analyses to reconstruct floral and faunal changes during occupation of this site, before it was submerged. In agreement with palynological analyses, the sedaDNA sequences suggest a mixed habitat of oak forest and herbaceous plants. However, in later sediments, they also provide evidence of wheat 2000 years earlier than mainland Britain and 400 years earlier than proximate European sites. These results suggest that sophisticated social networks linked the Neolithic front in southern Europe to the Mesolithic peoples of northern Europe.

Exposure to oil from the Deepwater Horizon spill may have lasting impacts on preservation of historic shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico. Submerged steel structures, including shipwrecks, serve as artificial reefs and become hotspots of biodiversity in the deep sea. Marine biofilms on submerged structures support settlement of micro and macro-biota and may enhance and protect against corrosion. Disruptions in the local environment, including oil spills, may impact the role that biofilms play in reef preservation. To determine how the Deepwater Horizon spill potentially impacted shipwreck biofilms and the functional roles of the biofilm microbiome, experiments containing carbon steels disks (CSDs) were placed at five historic shipwreck sites located within, and external to the benthic footprint of the Deepwater Horizon spill. The CSDs were incubated for 16 weeks to enable colonization by biofilm-forming microorganisms and to provide time for in situ corrosion to occur. Biofilms from the CSDs, as well as sediment and water microbiomes, were collected and analyzed by 16S rRNA amplicon gene sequencing to describe community composition and determine the source of taxa colonizing biofilms. Biofilm metagenomes were sequenced to compare differential gene abundances at spill-impacted and reference sites. Biofilms were dominated by Zeta-, Alpha-, Epsilon-, and Gamma-proteobacteria. Sequences affiliated with the Mariprofundus and Sulfurimonas genera were prolific, and Roseobacter, and Colwellia genera were also abundant. Analysis of 16S rRNA sequences from sediment, water, and biofilms revealed sediment to be the main known source of taxa to biofilms at impacted sites. Differential gene abundance analysis revealed the two-component response regulator CreC, a gene involved in environmental stress response, to be elevated at reference sites compared to impacted sites within the spill plume fallout area on the seafloor. Genes for chemotaxis, motility, and alcohol dehydrogenases were differentially abundant at reference vs. impacted sites. Metal loss on CSDs was elevated at sites within the spill fallout plume. Time series images reveal that metal loss at a heavily impacted site, the German Submarine U-166, has accelerated since the spill in 2010. This study provides evidence that spill residues on the seafloor may impact biofilm communities and the preservation of historic steel shipwrecks.

Around 8150 BP, the Storegga tsunami struck Northwest Europe. The size of this wave has led many to assume that it had a devastating impact upon contemporaneous Mesolithic communities, including the final inundation of Doggerland, the now submerged Mesolithic North Sea landscape. Here, the authors present the first evidence of the tsunami from the southern North Sea, and suggest that traditionalnotions of a catastrophically destructive event may need rethinking. In providing a more nuanced interpretation by incorporating the role of local topographic variation within the study of the Storegga event, we are better placed to understand the impact of such dramatic occurrences and their larger significance in settlement studies.

This paper addresses whether molluscan evidence from Orkney can shed light on the hypothesis that there was a trend towards the intensi-fication of marine resource use at the end of the first millennium AD. The stratified middens of Quoygrew, which date from approximately the 10th to the 13th centuries, are shown to contain predominantly limpets, which may have been used for baiting fish. From metrical data it is shown that these limpets reduce in size through time. In order to test whether this observation is related to intensification in exploitation, analysis of limpet shoreline location was carried out. In addition, age data were used to demonstrate a lowering of average age which suggests intensi-fication in gathering rather than environmental influences, particularly during the 11the12th centuries at this site.

Archaeology provides a long-term term framework to document prehistoric resource use and habitat modification. Excavation at Nu'alolo Kai, Kauai yielded a large well preserved shellfish assemblage.Analysis determined the suceptibility of mollusk communities to foraging pressures in the past. Some coral reef and intertidal species, such as Turbo sandwicensis and Strombus maculatus, declined in abundance as a result of heavy exploitation. In contrast, shoreline mollusk communities remained fairly stable through time. Archaeological research provides baselines for modern conservation efforts and fisheries management.

Continued exploration of the coastal area of the southern Black Sea off Sinop and Eregli, Turkey in 2011 expanded our current understanding of the transition zone along the oxic/anoxic interface. Push cores collected with an ROV in sediments underlying the oxic, suboxic, and anoxic waters were analyzed for geochemistry, meiofauna, and microbiology to help characterize this transition zone. During the course of side-scan sonar surveys, nine shipwrecks were located in various states of preservation, all within 100-115 m depth and ranging from the 4th century B.C. to the early 20th century. Many of these wrecks have wooden components well preserved due to the influences of anoxic waters being washed up along the shelf by internal waves. However, a number of these sites have been heavily damaged by bottom trawling along the seabed up to the shelf break, highlighting the persistent threat such activities pose to submerged archaeological sites.

The paper represents the first Scripps Center for Marine Archaeology (SCMA) land and sea study carried out in collaboration with Greek colleagues that took place in 2016 at the Mycenaean site of Kastrouli and the nearby Antikyra Bay on the north shore of the Gulf of Corinth in Greece.  It is an interim study of what happened to a Late Mycenaean land and sea system at the end of the Late Bronze Age.  It has new data on the social economic nature of a LH IIIC settlement and the anchorages that probably serviced it some 5 km from the site.  The paper explores what Thomas Tartaron (2013) defines as a Mycenaean coastal world.  The work has implications for the larger issue of the collapse of Late Bronze Age civilizations in the eastern Mediterranean and the possible influences of climate and environmental change.

The Gulf of Mexico played an important role in the power struggles between Europe and the United States for control of access to valuable resources in North and South America. Spain, France, Great Britain, and the burgeoning United States utilized this vast body of water to jockey for positions of power, especially for control of New Orleans. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries these countries wrangled for control of the Gulf through treaty, trade, warfare, and privateering. Serving many different roles, ships engaged in transporting commodities, protecting places and resources, and antagonizing rivals. Between wars, commercial competition, and disasters at sea, many vessels were lost to the depths of the Gulf. One such vessel, the Mardi Gras Shipwreck, may have served in one or more of these roles during its career. By examining the historical record, archaeologists can reconstruct the sociocultural, political, and economic milieus to establish the historical context in which the shipwreck and its story reside. (NOTE: A viewable-only version is available at the following SharedIt web address: http://rdcu.be/tI3L)

Shipwreck cargo of lead ingots, some marked, discovered off Tel Ashkelon, weighed about four tonnes. C14 analysis of charred wood from an ingot dated it to the 11th-13th centuries AD, Crusader times. Lead isotopic ratios provenanced the ingots to Mont-Lozère, France. Various aspects of the lead trade are discussed, including: lead sources, extraction, casting, lead in the international maritime trade, weight units in medieval trade, prices, transportation, sale and storage, lead cargo and ballast, reconstruction of the wrecking event, salvage after the vessel was wrecked, Ashkelon as a trading coastal town in the 11th-13 th centuries AD, and the possible destination of the cargo.

As told in a novel of the second century ad, the couple Leucippe and Clitophon boarded a ship
sailing from Beirut to Alexandria. The ship, apparently a 20-metre-long coaster, set out on a SW
course, driven by an easterly wind. On the third day the wind shifted abruptly to the southwest,
and the sea rose. Despite the efforts to tack, balance the ship and make way to windward,
she was wrecked near Pelusium in Egypt. The weather phenomenon described is explained by
a change of synoptic conditions, typical to the region, most probably in a transitional season,
spring or autumn. The suggested course and distances made by the ship differ from a previous
analysis of this voyage by Jean Rougé in 1978.

Archaeological research of the remains of Herod the Great's Sebastos Harbour has identified foreign building materials, corroborating Josephus’ description of its construction. The three materials are 17,000 m3 of volcanic ash (pozzolana) from Puteoli, 11–14,000 m3 of timber from Seleucia Pieria, and cobblestones of unidentified origin. These materials and their importation are discussed, using past provenance analysis, new data, and historical and logistical considerations. The pozzolana and timber importation demanded dozens of transport ships, and is evidence of the sophistication of the construction of Sebastos Harbour and the efficient organization of the Mediterranean under Augustus’ control.© 2007 The Author

Except for the addition of modern material remains, the archaeological record is a finite resource, which means that, at some point in the future, there will be nothing left to find. In this paper, we model trends in archaeological discovery based on the growth of the field and the probability of site discovery. We compare this model to seven diverse datasets of archaeological discovery trends: (1) all sites from the state of Wyoming, USA; (2) high-altitude archaeological sites from the state of Colorado, USA; (3) mostly complete Neandertal crania; (4) monumental sites of the Maya Classic period; (5) proboscidean kill/scavenge sites globally; (6) Upper Paleolithic sites from Europe; and (7) a compilation of shipwreck discoveries. We forecast discovery trends over the current century. We show that, for all datasets, rates of discovery are in decline, and some segments of the record are near depletion. Con la excepción de la añadidura de restos materiales modernos, el registro arqueológico es un recurso finito, lo cual significa que en algún momento en el futuro no quedará nada por descubrir. Es este trabajo modelamos las tendencias en descubrimientos arqueológicos sobre la base del crecimiento del campo y la probabilidad de descubrimiento de sitios. Comparamos este modelo con siete conjuntos de datos de tendencias de descubrimientos arqueológicos: 1) todos los sitios del estado de Wyoming, EUA; 2) los sitios de alta elevación en el estado de Colorado, EUA; 3) los cráneos de Neandertales casi completos; 4) los sitios monumentales mayas del Periodo Clásico; 5) los sitios de matanza y carnicería de proboscídeos alrededor del globo; 6) los sitios europeos del Paleolítico Superior; y 7) una compilación de descubrimientos de naufragios. También predecimos las tendencias en el descubrimiento de sitios en el siglo presente. Mostramos que, para todos los conjuntos, el ritmo de descubrimientos va disminuyendo y en algunos segmentos el registro se encuentra casi agotado.

Underwater surveys along the Israeli Carmel coast have revealed six cargoes of iron semiproducts
associated with shipwrecks. They are described and dated according to the associated
artefacts. Metallographic and chemical analyses on samples from the biggest cargo have
determined the stages of the chaîne opératoire, identified the properties of the iron and
characterized the iron trade along the Israeli coast. The new discoveries contribute to our
understanding of the circulation of iron in the South Levant, which was characterized by an
almost complete absence of local iron production. During the Byzantine and Crusader
periods, this absence was compensated by long-distance sea trade, depending on political
circumstances and restrictions. Three main types of iron semi-products were identified:
(a) partly consolidated blooms, (b) short pointed bars and (c) elongated pointed bars. The
cargoes discovered represent a time period of nearly a millennium. Altogether, 148 iron
semi-products were studied. Of these, 166 were from cargo a, which was dated by coins to
around 1130–1200 CE. Those coins could have been imported from Europe for Crusader
military and civil uses in the Levant. The iron from cargoes b, d and f, dated perhaps to the
Byzantine period, could have been imported from Anatolia or Venice for military and civil
purposes.

In 2007, a possible wreck site was discovered in Trygghamna, Isfjorden, Svalbard by the Norwegian Hydrographic Service. Using (1) a REMUS 100 autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) equipped with a sidescan sonar (SSS) and (2) a Seabotix LBV 200 mini-remotely operated vehicle (ROV) with a high-definition (HD) camera, the wreck was in 2015 identified as the Figaro: a floating whalery that sank in 1908. The Figaro is to our knowledge currently the northernmost wreck in the world to be investigated by archaeologists. As the wreck is protected by law as an underwater cultural heritage (UCH) site, only non-intrusive methods could be used during surveys. In this study, we demonstrate how using multiple complementary remote sensing techniques can be advantageous with respect to acquiring a holistic overview of a recently discovered wreck site. In January 2016, the wreck was revisited, and a full photogrammetric survey of the site was conducted with a Sperre Subfighter 7500 medium class ROV. In addition to stereo camera images, HD-video and underwater hyperspectral imagery was also obtained from the wreck site. In terms of data analysis and interpretation, the emphasis was in the current study put on the photogrammetric 3D model and the underwater hyperspectral imagery. The former provided an excellent general overview of the Figaro wreck site, whereas the latter supplied detailed information from a 14.65-m 2 sub-area situated on the top of the wreck. By analyzing classified underwater hyperspectral imagery in context with supplementary information from the 3D model, the levels of biofouling associated with different marine archaeological substrate types were assessed. Our findings suggest that strongly protruding archaeological objects support significantly higher levels of biofouling than their surroundings, and consequently that high-density biological assemblages could serve as proxies for identifying human-made artifacts on the seafloor.

As this volume, the final monograph of the SPLASHCOS network, was being finalised, the European Research Council agreed to fund a major new project relating to the marine palaeolandscapes of the southern North Sea. Emerging from the earlier work of the North Sea
Palaeolandscapes Project (NSPP), the Lost Frontiers project seeks to go beyond the maps generated by that ground-breaking research. Led by researchers in the fields of archaeogeophysics, molecular biology and computer simulation, the project seeks to develop a new paradigm for the study of past environments, ecological change and the transition between hunter gathering societies and farming in North West Europe.
Following from earlier work, the project will seek to release the full potential of the available seismic reflectance data sets to generate topographical maps of the whole of early Holocene Doggerland that
are as accurate and complete as possible. Using these data, the study will then reconstruct and simulate the emerging palaeoenvironments of Doggerland using conventional palaeoenvironmental data, as well as ancient DNA extracted directly from sediment cores along the routes of two submerged river valleys. Using this base data, the project aims to transform our understanding of the colonisation of the North Sea

Biogeography of macro-and microorganisms in the deep sea is, in part, shaped by naturally occurring heterogeneous habitat features of geological and biological origin such as seeps, vents, seamounts, whale and wood-falls. Artificial features including shipwrecks and energy infrastructure shape the biogeographic patterns of macro-organisms; how they influence microorganisms is unclear. Shipwrecks may function as islands of biodiversity for microbiomes, creating a patchwork of habitats with influence radiating out into the seabed. Here we show microbiome richness and diversity increase as a function of proximity to the historic deep-sea shipwreck Anona in the Gulf of Mexico. Diversity and richness extinction plots provide evidence of an island effect on microbiomes. A halo of core taxa on the seabed was observed up to 200 m away from the wreck indicative of the transition zone from shipwreck habitat to the surrounding environment. Transition zones around natural habitat features are often small in area compared to what was observed at Anona indicating shipwrecks may exert a large sphere of influence on seabed microbiomes. Historic shipwrecks are abundant, isolated habitats with global distribution, providing a means to explore contemporary processes shaping biogeography on the seafloor. This work is a case study for how built environments impact microbial biodiversity and provides new information on how arrival of material to the seafloor shapes benthic microbiomes.

More than 2,000 historic shipwrecks spanning 500 years of history, rest on the Gulf of Mexico seafloor. Shipwrecks serve as artificial reefs and hotspots of biodiversity by providing hard substrate, something rare in deep ocean regions. The Deepwater Horizon (DWH) spill discharged crude oil into the deep Gulf. Because of physical, biological, and chemical interactions, DWH oil was deposited on the seafloor where historic shipwrecks are present. This study examined sediment microbiomes at seven historic shipwrecks. Steel-hulled, World War II-era shipwrecks and wooden-hulled, 19th century shipwrecks within and outside of the surface oiled area and subsurface plume were examined. Analysis of 16S rRNA sequence libraries, sediment radiocarbon age data, sedimentation rates, and hydrocarbons revealed that the German U-boat U-166 and the wooden-hulled sailing vessel known as the Mardi Gras Wreck, both in the Mississippi Canyon leasing area, were exposed to deposited oil during a rapid sedimentation event. Impacts to shipwreck microbiomes included a significant increase in Piscirickettsiaceae-related sequences in surface sediments, and reduced biodiversity relative to unimpacted sites. This study is the first to address the impact of the spill on shipwreck-associated microbiomes, and to explore how shipwrecks themselves influence microbiome diversity in the deep sea.

Two Portuguese naus from Vasco da Gama's second voyage to India, left behind to disrupt maritime trade between India and the Red Sea, were wrecked in May 1503 off the northeastern coast of Al Hallaniyah Island, Oman. The ships, Esmeralda and São Pedro, had been commanded by da Gama's maternal uncles, Vicente and Brás Sodré, respectively. A detailed study and scientific analysis of an artefact assemblage recovered during archaeological excavations conducted in Al Hallaniyah in 2013 and 2014 confirms the location of an early 16th-century Portuguese wreck-site, initially discovered in 1998. Esmeralda is proposed as the probable source of the remaining, un-salved wreckage.

The North Sea subsurface shows the marks of long-term tectonic subsidence. Much of it contains a thick record of glacial and interglacial deposits and
landscapes, formed during multiple glacial cycles and the associated regressions and transgressions during the past two million years. At times of lower
sea level than today, areas that are presently submerged were fertile lowlands more favourable for hunting and gathering than the surrounding upland.
These drowned lowlands are not captured by traditional 1:250,000 geological maps of the North Sea subsurface because the underlying seismic and core
data are commonly too widely spaced to achieve this. Palaeolandscape mapping requires identification of building blocks with spatial scales in the order
of 1 km or less. As high-density 2D and high-quality 3D seismics are becoming available for an increasing part of the North Sea, glacial and interglacial
palaeolandscapes can be reconstructed for more and more areas. An overview of published palaeolandscape reconstructions shows that shallow time
slices through 3D data provide map views that are very suitable for the identification of landscape elements. For optimal results, each time slice needs
to be validated and ground-truthed with 2D seismics and with descriptions and analyses of cores and borehole samples. Interpretations should be made
by teams of geoscientists with a sufficiently broad range of expertise to recognise and classify even subtle or unfamiliar patterns and features. The result-
ing reconstructions will provide a context and an environmental setting for Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic societies and finds.

This paper describes some results of the research undertaken over the Brown Bank area during recent (2018/2019) geoarchaeological surveys in the North Sea which included seismic imaging, shallow (vibro)coring and dredging. It examines the benefits of simultaneous high-resolution (0.5 – 1 m) and ultra-high-resolution (10–20 cm) seismic survey techniques and a staged approach to resolving the submerged Holocene landscape in the highest possible detail for the purpose of targeted prospecting for archaeological material from the Mesolithic landscape of Doggerland. The materials recovered from such surveys offer significantly greater information due to an enhanced understanding of the context in which they were recovered. The importance of this information cannot be understated archaeologically, as few locations on land provide the opportunity to recover archaeological finds in situ within preserved landscapes. Moreover, it allows offshore areas of potential human activity to be prospected with some certainty of success.

The Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021-2030 is a UN initiative that promotes a common framework for supporting stakeholders in studying and assessing the health of the world's oceans. The initiative also presents a vital opportunity to improve the integration of archaeology within the marine sciences. With the First Global Planning Meeting of the Decade held in Copenhagen at the National Museum of Denmark in May 2019, steps are already being taken to make the best of this opportunity, and the resulting creation of an Ocean Decade Heritage Network is proposed as a way forward to continue to raise awareness in the cultural heritage community about the Decade and to facilitate information sharing regarding this endeavour.

The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (2016) 00.0: 1–11
doi: 10.1111/1095-9270.12173-
In 1972, a commercial fisherman, R. Schomos,
discovered a bronze gun attached to a wooden
gun carriage (Piece A) while diving off Megadim
on the Carmel coast (Fig. 1). He informed A. Raban
and J. Galili, members of the Underwater Exploration
Society of Israel, who documented the gun and its
carriage under water (Raban, 1980). However, the
assemblage was simultaneously discovered by others,
and salvaged unscientifically, thus losing much of the
carriage and associated artefacts. In 1973, another
fisherman, Mr. Y. Ben Moshe, reported a large metal
object at the same site. Eventually a massive bronze
artillery piece (Piece B) was retrieved by E. Galili. As
public institutions failed to buy the gun, the court
awarded it to the fisherman. During the 1970s several
muskets, tied together, were retrieved from the site by
another fisherman, and sold before documentation.
Rescue surveys on the site were conducted from 1985
to 2004, and revealed removable powder chambers,
elements of ship rigging and lead musket shot. During
2013, while checking the site,Oand E. Galili discovered
a third bronze gun (piece C). Pieces A and B have been
briefly published in this journal, without mention of the
location and context of the shipwreck (Roth, 1989). The
site, the three artillery pieces, and additional associated
artefacts are described and discussed below.

This paper presents the results of an underwater photogrammetric survey of an intact standing steel wreck with high vertical profiles from the seabed at 60 meters depth. The survey was conducted in Trondheim Harbour in August 2014 using a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) equipped with a stereo camera rig. The paper demonstrates how the emergence of commercially available photogrammetric software has reduced the required resources for creating high-resolution 3D-models of archaeological sites from photographs. At the same time, the resources and ROV-pilot skills required for the survey itself still represent an obstacle for the end users. The results and experiences of this survey are therefore used as the basis for a discussion on the possible benefits, challenges and strategies for conducting such a survey autonomously.

Submerged palaeolandscapes can contain pristine underwater heritage. Regular monitoring of these areas is essential to assess and mitigate threats from development including construction, mining, and commercial trawling. While bathymetry alone may be insufficient to detect submerged palaeolandscape features, it can nonetheless recognize previously mapped structures that have a topographic
expression. The Sentinel-1 constellation will provide unprecedented access to freely available, high-resolution Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data, acquired systematically and with long-term continuity, and may constitute a cost-effective solution for the monitoring of submerged  alaeolandscapes. The article shows the application of a
recently developed bathymetric algorithmto Sentinel-1 SAR data over  a region of the southern North Sea. Results show general agreement with water depth data obtained from the European Marine Observation and Data Network portal for bathymetry (EMODnet). To assess the support that SAR bathymetry can provide to the analysis of submerged palaeolandscapes, the Sentinel-1-derived water depths were compared to a  alaeolandscape map of the same area produced
by the North Sea Palaeolandscapes Project (NSPP). Results show a clear correspondence between certain topographic structures identified in the Sentinel-1 water depth map and features interpreted by the NSPP as early Holocene lakes, rivers, and landscape topography

During the period between the 5th century BC and the 6th century AD, two ship construction technologies were prevalent around the Mediterranean Sea: shell-first and frame-based. The shell-first concept was of a strong rigid hull, comprising edge-joined strakes reinforced by transverse frames which were not joined to the keel. In the frame-based technique , transverse frames were connected to the keel to form the skeleton, and the strakes were then nailed to the frames. The hull was strengthened with longitudinal reinforcements. These concepts did not exist in isolation, and at times both techniques were combined. An initial global finite element study (FEA) which analyzed the two technologies, the shell-first Maʻagan Mikhael (400 BC), and the frame-based Dor 2001/1 (6th century AD), revealed that the ships were on a structural par. In that same study, a controlled FEA experiment on generic models was constructed to simulate shell-first and frame-based ships, showing, however, that the shell-first technique exhibited significantly higher structural integrity than the frame-based method. These results prompted a secondary study to explore the mechanical-structural contribution of longitudinal reinforcements to frame-based constructs. Using the same frame-based generic model as in the previous study, longitudinal reinforcements were added in various configurations. The FEA results from this study demonstrated that three critical interdependent factors determined the relative strengths of shell-first and frame-based techniques: the number of transverse frames, the number of longitudinal reinforcements, and their relative locations.

This study explores the applicability and effectiveness of electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) as a tool for the high-resolution mapping of submerged and buried shipwrecks in 3D. This approach was trialled through modelling and field studies of Crowie, a paddle steamer barge which sunk at anchor in the Murray River at Morgan, South Australia, in the late 1950s. The mainly metallic structure of the ship is easily recognisable in the ERT data and was mapped in 3D both subaqueously and beneath the sediment-water interface. The innovative and successful use of ERT in this case study demonstrates that 3D ERT can be used for the detailed mapping of submerged cultural material. It will be particularly useful where other geophysical and diver based mapping techniques may be inappropriate due to shallow water depths, poor visibility, or other constraints.

Ehud Galili
Israel Antiquities Authority, and Zinman Institute of
Archaeology, University of Haifa, POB 180 Atlit
30300 Israel, udi@israntique.org.il

Baruch Rosen
Israel Antiquities Authority

The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (2014) ••.••: ••–••
doi: 10.1111/1095-9270.12082

ABSTRACT: Underwater archaeological exploration along the Israeli coast revealed fish remains, fishing
gear and auxiliary implements. These were recovered from submerged prehistoric villages, anchorages,
harbors, fishing grounds and shipwreck sites. Prehistoric fishing techniques included free diving fishing
and fishing by nets and hooks. A set of fishing gear recovered from a Roman shipwreck off the Carmel
coast included netting tools, fishing hooks, lead sinkers, and auxiliary tools. The sinkers found in this
wreck, some decorated, enabled the identification of cast net(s), passive standing nets and beach seines. A
discovered set of artifacts used for fishing by light include cast net sinkers, a fishing spear, an iron fire
basket and a sounding weight. Auxiliary implements found in Israel include sounding weights for fishing
ground location, grapnels and rings for salvaging lost gear and coral harvesting gear. Documents written
by ancient authors and mosaics helped in identifying the recovered fishing artifacts.

KEYWORDS: FISHING, ISRAEL, PREHISTORY, PROTOHISTORY, CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY,
FISHING GEAR, FISHING METHOD

Ehud Galili and Baruch Rosen
Israel Antiquities Authority, POB 180 Atlit, 30300
Israel, and Zinman Institute of Archaeology,
University of Haifa

One of the most unusual technological artefacts
present on Roman ships was the lead brazier
(Fig. 1). About 20 such braziers have been
recovered off the coast of Israel, most of them off the
Carmel coast, with others from off Tel Ridan, Ashkelon
and Yavneh-Yam (Fig. 2) (Galili and Sharvit,
1996; 1999a; 1999b; 1999c; Galili et al., 2000; Rosen
and Galili, 2007; Galili et al., 2009; Galili and Rosen,
2011, Galili and Rosen, forthcoming). These ingeniously
designed artefacts were invented in Antiquity,
by master-craftsmen, to solve the problem of maintaining
a cooking-fire at sea. Cooked food and warm
drinks are important in maintaining the health,
stamina and morale of those aboard. But ships are
exposed to fire-raising winds, and carry flammable
materials such as wood, rope and sailcloth. Any accident
involving a shipboard fire may end by destroying
the ship and everything aboard. The inventors of the
lead brazier aimed at mitigating such danger.
These artefacts are not known, certainly not in such
quantity and variety, from any other time and place in
Antiquity. None has ever been found on land, where it
could have been associated with a known cultural
context. Consequently there are unanswered questions
as to where, when and by whom these braziers were
invented, designed and manufactured. This note
describes a decorated lead brazier, how it was manufactured,
and the exceptional decoration, which will be

Figure 1. Cross-section of a nautical brazier in use. (E
Galili)
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NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 41.2
416 © 2012 The Authors. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology © 2012 The Nautical Archaeology Society

A detailed side-scan sonar survey of the shallow region immediately offshore of Jamestown Island, Virginia, specifically conducted for archaeological purposes, disclosed numerous anthropogenic or unexplained features including an outline of one feature having dimensions of many tens of meters. These items are of particular interest as Jamestown Island is the site of the earliest successful English settlement on North America. The major feature in the imagery was in an area thought a likely location for the fort constructed in 1607, the region having been drowned by the ensuing rise in sea level. Subsequent investigations of the features depicted on the sonograms, first by waders and swimmers, later during a plane-table survey, retrieved seventeenth-century artifacts but were inconclusive in better identifying the major feature as other than a series of very subtle ridges with no immediately discernable underlying structure. Although providing no specific evidence, analysis of historical maps and charts suggests that this structure might be related to a recent pier that had been constructed slightly downstream from and in deeper water than the site of interest. The origin and history of the large, anthropogenic feature remain unknown and require further investigation.

Recently, the finding of 8,000 year old wheat DNA from submerged marine sediments (1) was challenged on the basis of a lack of signal of cytosine deamination relative to three other data sets generated from young samples of herbarium and museum specimens, and a 7,000 year old human skeleton preserved in a cave environment (2). The study used a new approach for low coverage data sets to which tools such as
mapDamage cannot be applied to infer chemical damage patterns. Here we show from the analysis of 148  alaeogenomic data sets that the rate of cytosine deamination is a thermally correlated process, and that organellar generally shows higher rates of deamination than nuclear DNA in comparable environments. We categorize four clusters of deamination rates (α,β,γ,ε) that are associated with cold stable environments, cool but thermally fluctuating environments, and progressively warmer environments. These correlations show that the expected level of deamination in the sedaDNA  ould be extremely low. The low coverage approach to detect DNA damage by Weiss et al. (2) fails to identify damage samples from the cold class of deamination rates. Finally, different enzymes used in library preparation processes exhibit varying capability in reporting cytosine deamination damage in the 5’ region of fragments. The PCR enzyme used in the sedaDNA study would not have had the capability to report 5’ cytosine deamination, as they do not read over uracil residues, and signatures of damage would have better been sought at the 3’ end. The 8,000 year old sedaDNA matches both the thermal age prediction of fragmentation, and the expected level of cytosine deamination for the preservation environment. Given these facts and the use of rigorous  controls these data meet the criteria of authentic ancient DNA to an extremely stringent level.

Acoustic sensors like side scan sonars and multibeam echosounders are important tools in marine archaeology. In this paper we will give a very brief explanation of the principles behind SAS compared to conventional SSS, and how these differences affect practical use for archaeological purposes. We will also describe requirements and procedures for deployment, operation and data processing. We will show examples of SAS output, both imagery and bathymetry, demonstrating resolution and range. We will present some first experiences from using SAS for marine archaeological purposes, pros and cons compared to traditional SSS, and discuss some perspectives for future applications.

Forest resources constituted a key ancient economic good. Access to forest resources was therefore of importance to various agents: regionally, at a polity level, and to individuals, rich and poor. A range of environmental, economic, and social factors influenced forest access. Ancient forests were important for the provision of wood products (timber and fuel), and non-wood products (including foodstuffs, leisure, water supply). Of these, timber and fuel were the most important economic goods. Wood could be sourced privately, but substantial forests and woodlands were state controlled. Raw wood or charcoal fuel were required domestically in every home, rich or poor, for cooking and heating, and especially in industries such as metal smelting and smithing; ceramics, lime and glass production; and fuelling the baths. Wood was the most important fuel in the Greco-Roman world, although non-wood fuels also played a part.  Together with stone and cement, wood was an essential construction material. Its abundance, or lack thereof, could materially affect a state’s ability to wage war and carry out trade. R. Meiggs’ important contribution collated the ancient historical sources relating to wood, especially its use as timber, and he incorporated archaeological evidence where it was available.  This discussion seeks now to highlight new archaeological and scientific data, and nuance our understanding of inequalities of demand and supply of this important ancient commodity.

Public Archaeology and Climate Change promotes new approaches to studying and managing sites threatened by climate change, specifically actions that engage communities or employ ‘citizen science’ initiatives.

Researchers and heritage managers around the world are witnessing severe challenges and developing innovative mechanisms for dealing with them. Increasingly archaeologists are embracing practices learned from the natural heritage sector, which has long worked with the public in practical recording projects. By involving the public in projects and making data accessible, archaeologists are engaging society in the debate on threatened heritage and in wider discussions on climate change. Community involvement also underpins wider climate change adaptation strategies, and citizen science projects can help to influence and inform policy makers. Developing threats to heritage are being experienced around the world, and as this collection of papers will show, new partnerships and collaborations are crossing national boundaries.

With examples from across the globe, this book brings together a selection of papers that detail the scale of the problem through a variety of case studies. Together they will demonstrate how heritage professionals, working in diverse environments and with distinctive archaeology, are engaging with the public to raise awareness of this threatened resource. The contributions in this volume will examine differing responses and proactive methodologies for the protection, preservation and recording of sites at risk from natural forces. It will demonstrate how new approaches can better engage people with the growing number of sites that are under increasing threat of destruction, thus contributing to the resilience of our shared heritage. The new insights using real-life examples presented in this volume will make it a key reference in the field of climate change and heritage studies.

The Applied Underwater Robotics Laboratory (AUR-Lab) at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) is an inter-faculty arena for multi- and interdisciplinary research and education on underwater robotics, marine acoustics, marine biology and marine archaeology. The main scientific focus of AUR-Lab is development of technology for ocean observation comprising guidance, navigation and control of underwater robots as instrument carrying platforms and corresponding use of sensors to identify, map and monitor sea surface, water column and seafloor.
In December 2011 AUR-Lab conducted a research cruise to test its ability to run integrated operations deploying ROVs and AUVs as remote sensing platforms for baseline surveys.  A key element in the operations was data and information interdependency, with data processing and interpretation in near real time. Even though the data processing pipeline can be further optimized, the concept was proven. The cruise was considered a success, and scientific results were obtained together with valuable operational experience.

An iron nail heading tool was found during excavations in Sigtuna in 1999–2000. Its find context has a preliminary date of AD 1040–1050. This type of tool is standard equipment in any smithy where nails and clench nails are produced manually. The Sigtuna nailheader was clearly originally fitted with a wooden handle or helve. It has only one perforation, slightly conical, approx. 4 mm in diameter. This coincides with the crossection dimensions of the large number of discarded clench nails which are found everywhere in the town’s 10th to 13th-century occupation layers. These testify to the repair and scrapping of boats on the site. This nail heading tool should
be seen in the context of mass production of boat nails and other similar clench nails.