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Marine Archaeology

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Marine archaeology is the study of human interaction with the sea, lakes, and rivers through the recovery and analysis of submerged artifacts, structures, and landscapes. It encompasses the investigation of shipwrecks, coastal settlements, and underwater cultural heritage to understand historical maritime activities and their impact on societies.
lightbulbAbout this topic
Marine archaeology is the study of human interaction with the sea, lakes, and rivers through the recovery and analysis of submerged artifacts, structures, and landscapes. It encompasses the investigation of shipwrecks, coastal settlements, and underwater cultural heritage to understand historical maritime activities and their impact on societies.
Iron anchors and mooring in the ancient Mediterranean (until ca. 1500 CE) - D.Phil. Thesis, University of Oxford (2014)
by Gregory F Votruba
This dissertation examines ancient anchoring practice in the Mediterranean through ca. 1500 CE, as well as the history and technological developments of iron anchors, which are among the most important tools inherited from the ancient... more
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Mapping Doggerland: the Mesolithic Landscapes of the Southern North Sea
by Vincent Gaffney and 
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Simon Fitch

2007, Mapping Doggerland: the Mesolithic Landscapes of the Southern North Sea

12,000 years ago the area that now forms the southern North Sea was dry land: a vast plain populated by Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. By 5,500 BC the entire area had disappeared beneath the sea as a consequence of rising sea levels. Until... more
Table 5.1 Position, dimensions and trends of Ridges A and B
Vincent Gaffney, Kenneth Thomson and Simon Fitch
Figure 1.1 Hypothetical maximum extent of Doggerland (redrawn from Coles 1998)
Figure 1.2 Early Holocene Doggerland (redrawn from Coles 1998,
Figure 1.3 Holocene shorelines (after Jelgersma, 1979) capable of providing detailed images or Late Pleistocene and Holocene features that have a bathymetric expression. Whilst bathymetry pro- vides a reasonable approximation for the land sur- face for the area it can rarely consider, or attempt to resolve, burial of features that may have oc- curred during or after submersion (Cameron et al., 1992). Consequently, the technique is unsuit- able for areas including the southern North Sea and the Irish Sea, where deposition has buried most of the Quaternary and Holocene. The scale of this problem was clearly stated by Dix et al. (2004, 89); “although modern bathymetry can
(this volume) that demonstrate the detail of specific geo- morphological structures, including the nature of internal features identified within the Outer Silver Pit. A full description of the technologies utilised to explore and integrate the available seismic data is provided in the papers by Thomson and Gaffney and Fitch et al. (the atlas, this volume). It is enough to note here that the signifi- cance of the first results of this work was rapidly appreci- ated, and that mapping of the area proceeded apace, as is demonstrated in the atlas paper by Fitch et al. This is com- plemented by papers from Briggs et al. and Holford et al. It is true, however, that as the project proceeded there was an increasing concern within the team concerning not so much the extent of available supporting data (including 2D seismics lines, cores etc) but the quality, or even availabil-
Figure 2.1 BGS survey coverage on the UK continental shelf as displayed by GeoIndex, October 2006. (a) shows geophysical profile lines, (b) shows shallow sediment sample stations A variety of geophysical survey techniques have been util- ised as part of this process. In order to map the shape of the sea floor all areas have been explored using an echo sounder and some by more sophisticated sonar techniques. The majority have been surveyed using a potential field instrument: a gravimeter or magnetometer. These give an indication of a variation in bulk density and magnetisation of seabed material laterally. However, the most useful technique for visualising the vertical stratigraphy of sea- bed sediments is sub-bottom seismic profiling. Most of the BGS geophysical survey lines have been covered by a
Figure 2.2 Distribution of 3D seismic surveys acquired by the UKOOA
Figure 2.3 Three study areas around the English coast The Mapping European Seabed Habitats (MESH — http://www.searchmesh.net/default.aspx) is an interna- tional marine habitat-mapping programme involving a consortium of twelve partners across the UK, Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium and France. The aim is to produce standardised seabed habitat maps for northwest Europe. The MESH website hosts a basic GIS. A much larger metadata archive of all forms of marine surveying within specified regions can also be queried elsewhere on the website.
Figure 2.4 Areal a) Industrial threats to seabed archaeology within the Bristol Channel b) Distribution of previous BGS sampling and 2D surveys c) UKOOA surveys d) Archaeology and previous ALSF survey conducted by the BGS within Area I. Somerset coast in August 1869 (NMR Number SS 94 NE 11, Record 36754). Mesolithic blades and flakes, and Neolithic flints and scrapers, just offshore from Minehead on the Northwest
Figure 2.7 Intense use of space within the Southern North Sea
Figure 3.2 Seismic resolution of a layer of varying thickness. The blue lines show the top and base of a layer. Using « 400Hz Ricker wavelet, and assuming a sediment velocity of 1600ms", the reflections from the top and base can be show to constructively interfere at thicknesses less than YA (1 metre) with the maximum amplitude at 44. Furthermore, the toy and the base of the layer do not perfectly align with peak and troughs. At thicknesses of /2A (2 metres) and greater the to] and the base of the layer are separable with peak and troughs aligning perfectly with the position of the top and bas recsnertiyely As the vertical resolution is dependent upon the wavelength it is therefore dependent on the velocity of the medium and the frequency of the seismic source/reflected wave. Ideally, a high frequency source (>100Hz) would be used in all circumstances. However, as the geology progressively dampens high frequency seismic signals with depth, the seismic source needs to be chosen with consideration to the required depth of penetration. The
Figure 3.1 Typical marine seismic reflection acquisition. The vessel travels through the water and regularly fires seismic source. The sound wave travels through the water column (and underlying sediments) and is partially reflectec acoustic impendence contrasts. Receivers within the long towed cable astern of the vessel detect the reflected wave, wh is then transmitted to the vessel and recorded.
Figure 3.3 Plots of seismic resolution as a function of burial depth and frequency. (a) The minimum resolvable vertical resolution. (b) The minimum separable vertical resolution. (c) The horizontal resolution of unmigrated seismic data. (d) The assumed velocity-depth structure.
Figure 3.4 A comparison between (a) high frequency 2D seismic reflection line and (b) low frequency 3D seismic line from the same location. Note that higher frequencies yield greater vertical detail.
Figure 3.5 (a-d) Four possible interpretations of a channel morphology based on a coarse 2D seismic grid. Each interpretation is equally valid. (e-h) Schematic illustrations of how each of the interpretations shown in a-d would appear on a timeslice from a laterally continuous, binned 3D seismic volume. This demonstrates that 3D seismic data has the potential to distinguish between the possible alternatives. This method of acquisition has two main disadvantages. Firstly, the reflected seismic energy is assumed to have originated from a point directly beneath the profile even though it could have originated from a point laterally offset from the profile. This aliasing means that the location of a feature cannot be accurately constrained, as the spacing be- tween lines is too wide to correct this error. Secondly, the spacing between lines is sufficiently wide that it can be diffi- cult to map the position of a morphological feature across the region of interest. For example, Figure 3.5 demonstrates how wide line spacing can lead to several equally valid in- terpretations. Traditional seismic reflection data is generally referred to as 2D as it is acquired as a series of discrete vertical profiles using a single streamer towed behind the vessel. This acquisition pattern results in the collection of sev- eral profiles with the spacing between profiles being several orders of magnitude greater than the trace spac- ing (i.e. the horizontal sampling interval along the pro- file).
Figure 3.6 Typical 3D marine seismic reflection acquisition. The vessel travels through the water and regularly fires the seismic source. The sound wave travels through the water column (and underlying sediments) and is partially reflected at acoustic impendence contrasts. Receivers within the towed cables astern of the vessel detect the reflected wave, which is then transmitted to the vessel and recorded. In contrast to Figure 3.1, 3D acquisition involved multiple towed cables with each cable being capable of producing a seismic profile.
Figure 3.7 (a) Geological map of Poole and Christchurch bays with the artificially illuminated plan view of the seabed reflector. (b) Artificially illuminated plan view of the seabed reflector. (c) Artificially illuminated plan view of the seabed reflector with palaeo-channels as mapped using 3D seismic. (d) Artificially illuminated plan view of the seabed reflector with palaeo-channels as mapped using 2D seismic data (Velegrakis et al. 1999). Note the poor correlation between the 2D interpretation and the actual channel locations.
Figure 3.8 A comparison of seismic images from the Dogger Bank produced using different techniques. (a) Simple seismic amplitude timeslice revealing some Holocene depositional features (channels). (b) RMS amplitude extraction for the top 200ms of the data. (c) Opacity rendering of the same seismic volume as (b). Note that both the RMS extraction and the manipulation of the opacity allow some improvement in channel definition. (d) Seismic coherence (semblance) timeslice at the same level as (a). Note that coherence provides some additional detail of the channels.
The primary goal of the North Sea Palaeolandscapes Pro- ject (NSPP) was to explore the Late Pleistocene and Holo- cene landscapes of the Southern North Sea through the use of c. 23,000 km° of contiguous 3D seismic data provided by PGS UK (www.PGS.com). Processing this large vol- ume of data required considerable investment in both hardware and software. In line with most archaeological projects utilising large amounts of digital, remote sensed data, there was a requirement to utilise specialist softwares for the processing of primary seismic datasets and standard geographic information systems to manage, manipulate and display supporting data and interpretative layers (Gaffney and Gater, 2003 Chapter 5; Chapman 2006). What is, perhaps, less usual within archaeology has been the requirement to provide access to high bandwidth net- works and storage to cope with the large volumetric data- Figure 4.1 HP VISTA infrastructure diagram
Figure 4.2 Inspecting data at the Visual and Spatial Technology Centre (HP VISTA) The primary engines for the majority of analysis were three HP xw8200 workstations with 64bit dual processors, 16Gb of RAM, 2Tb of local storage and high-end graphics cards. Whilst the majority of primary processing was car- ried out on these machines, specialist softwares used to carry out attribute analysis on the seismic data, for exam- ple, were resident on machines elsewhere on the campus. Project data was held centrally on a secure 5Tb NAS stor- age system resident within the University Information Services’ machine room. The need to move data between these machines and to the central storage was supported by gigabit-enabled cabling between most project computers, and assisted by the availability of a dedicated fibre optic link between the NAS and the main display centre in the HP VISTA centre. The extent and complexity of the volumetric data, and the utilisation of solid modelling and opacity rendering techniques, required that the data should be viewed stereoscopically and also that displays were large enough to provide the opportunity of group viewing. This was provided within the HP VISTA centre via an HP SV7 scaleable visualisation system. This is a multi-pipe system providing high-end, high quality visualisation. A particular benefit of the system is the ability to set the level of performance, image quality and resolution inde- pendently, so a large model can be rapidly manipulated at a lower quality/higher performance setting and then a par- ticular region of interest examined at a high quality/lower performance setting, without having to interrupt the visu- alisation. The SV7 supported projection across a 4.27m by 1.8m dual channel, rear projection Fakespace Power- Wall. This provided a geometrically accurate stereoscopic display using active stereo glasses (Figure 4.2). This combination of analytical power and sophistication of dis- play, rare within archaeology, was demanded by the nature of the datasets under investigation and is comparable with specialist facilities dealing directly with petroleum geol- ogy and remote sensing data sets. To put this in context, a paper published 10 years ago and also concerned with the issues of integrating GIS and other spatial technologies within archaeological projects at Birmingham, records that the entire archaeological computing group was then ser- viced by a single server with 64 megabytes of RAM and 4 gigabytes of mass storage (Buteux et al. 1997, Gaffney and Gaffney 2000a). The NSPP's computing require- ments, and its demand for exponentially increased storage capacity, presumably indicates the scale of change that can be anticipated in future, comparable digital landscape pro- jects.
Figure 4.3 Seismic data slice illustrating a fluvial channel and estuary Thus such an approach is compatible with standard proc- essing and display methodologies used in archaeological prospection (see Watters (2006) for a comparable process used to process GPR data).
Figure 4.4 3D amplitude surface within a GIS. The green lines are bathymetric contours, and allow for the visual corre tion between the anomalies and seabed topography.
Figure 4.5 Segmentation of features of interest from a seismic volume.
Figure 4.6 Wrapping of identified features within seismic data To extract the required volumetric models, the original seismic data was directly segmented utilising picking techniques that are commonly employed in the oil and gas sector (Figure 4.5). A series of user determined lists are generated following segmentation, which contain features of interest. Fully automated selection tools can be utilised
Figure 4.7 Solid model generated by wrapping Figure 4.8 Removal of elements of the solid model within the Avizo package from Figure 4.7 permits visualisation of th internal structure of the system
igure 4.9 Exported solid model within the GIS system. The feature can be seen to be composed of a contour model and a eries of shapes representing the geophysical anomaly at the given time slice. As the volume forming the solid model has real world at- tributes in all three dimensions it becomes possible to gen- erate CAD models that can be imported into a GIS for display and spatial analysis. This mode of representation is more suited to GIS as it is composed of polygonal ele- ments, which, as they wrap the entire anomaly, can visual- ise and facilitate the user’s appreciation of the actual vol- ume and size of anomalies. The results of part of such a process can be seen in Figure 4.9. However, although export of these models from a fully three-dimensional en-
Figure 4.10 GIS Layers display within a fully 3 Dimensional environment - A cube of seismic data (displayed as a voxel volume) and a 3D surface & 3D GIS polygons (interpretation layer)
A distinct east-west trending bathymetric deep, the Outer Silver Pit (OSP), lies at approximately 54°N 2°E on the bed of the North Sea (Figure 5.1). This deep is the largest of a series of offshore depressions in the Southern North Sea (SNS) that are thought to have formed during Quater- nary glaciations, either as the product of subglacial proc- Figure 5.1 40 and 60m bathymetric contours of the Southern North Sea. The major bathymetric depressions are labelled.
Whilst there has been considerable research into the for- mation of the OSP, the localised geomorphology within the depression has been largely ignored despite its poten- tial to provide further insights into the processes that led to the formation of the depression. The availability of 3D seismic data to this study provided an ideal dataset for the investigation of the morphological and _ stratigraphical characteristics of the OSP. This chapter will demonstrate that 3D seismic data can be used to identify a number of distinctive geomorphological features within the OSP, the Figure 5.2 Bathymetric contours (40, 50, 60, 70 and 80m below sea level) of the Outer Silver Pit area; depicted in white are the elongate ridge features
Figure 5.3 Hilbert transform time slice at 0.06 seconds (top) depicting the two ridges. Two arbitrary lines are annotated which pass through Ridges A (X-X) and B (Y-Y).
Figure 5.4 3-D illuminated view of Ridges A and B, with a depression referred to in the text highlighted in red. The ridges are vertically exaggerated.
Figure 5.5 Dimensions of the OSP and Ridges A and B
Figure 5.7 Quaternary geology map of the eastern end of the OSP overlain with contours of the depth to the base of the Holocene sediments (black) and the bathymetry of Ridges A and B (dashed red). (Adapted from Larminie, 1989a and 1989b)
The geology map of the Holocene and seabed sediments (Figure 5.7) reveals many significant properties of the ridges. The contours of the depth to the base of the Holocene sediments in the Silverwell area shows an absence of the ridges in the topography, thus it can be concluded that the ridges are of Holocene age. The Holocene sediments of the ridges consist of the Tershel- lingerbank Member (of the Nieuw Zeeland Gronden Formation), which is defined as open marine sediments and are slightly muddy sands (mean grain size 120- Figure 5.8 An RMS amplitude map from 0.004 to 0.05 seconds (TWT) of the eastern end of the OSP. N.B. the lighter col- ours depict high amplitude response areas 300m) that have been derived from Pleistocene glacial and periglacial deposits (Larminie, 1989a). These sediments are overlain by sands at the seabed and in relation to the sur- rounding areas this is a larger sediment size than present at the seabed of the OSP depression but of the same size or smaller than the seabed sediments on the nearby higher ground. Furthermore, Figure 5.8, an RMS amplitude map of the ridge area, depicts the sand ridges as having a high am- plitude signal commonly associated with sandy sediments.
Figure 5.9 Truncated strata on the bed of the Outer Silver Pit (location depicted in the insert). The red horizon is the Holocene Base reflector (Hebbeln and Meggers, 1999); the blue horizons show the strata that have been truncated
Figure 5.10 Changes in land area with rising sea level based upon the depth to base Holocene map (Larminie, 1989b, Ridges A and B are depicted in red
Figure 5.11 Postulated land configuration at the time when the OSP sand banks were last active. The contours are the bathymetric contours from Larminie (1989a). The map is based on a number of assumptions highlighted in the text
Figure 6.1 (a) Amplitude time slice (0.1 seconds) centred on prominent salt dome with a characteristic concentric reflector pattern. (b) Amplitude time slice (0.1 seconds) with interpretation. A fluvial channel that flows sub-parallel to the salt dome is identified, and it is suggested that salt-related faults have also influenced the direction and geometry oj the fluvial channel. (c) Uninterpreted arbitrary seismic line A-A’, confirming that the concentric feature identified in (a-d) is a salt dome
Figure 6.2 (a) Amplitude time slice (0.076 seconds). (b) As (a) but with interpretation; late Pleistocene-Holocene fluvi channels signified by yellow arrows, Holocene sand waves shown in purple, with the green annotation signifying Pleistocene tunnel valley. (c) Seismic section. (d) Part of seismic section (c) with interpretation
Figure 6.3 (a) Part of BGS sparker profile 81/03/53 that trends east-west through the OSP. (b) Sparker profile 81/03/53 with interpretation. Seafloor reflector and seafloor multiples shown in red. Tunnel valleys shaded in green, Pleistocene sediments in purple and pre-Pleistocene sediments in yellow. Reflections within the Pleistocene succession are picked ir dark purple. Within the pre-Pleistocene succession discernable reflections are marked by dark blue picks, whils: diffractions (which mark the radial scattering of incident seismic energy) are shown in light blue. (c) Close up of boxec region indicated in (b). (d) Close up of collapse graben with interpretation, showing channel development within collapse graben.
Figure 7.2 Primary features identified within the Holocene landscape of the southern North Sea
Figure 7.4 General map of all recorded Holocene landscape features including general topographic interpretation
Figure 7.5 The Holocene landscape and features within the northwestern quadrant
Figure 7.6 Vertical slice through salt dome exhibiting graben collapse
Figure 7.7 The major fluvial channel (blue) can be clearly seen to deviate to respect the topographic rise formed during the Holocene by the underlying salt structure
Figure 7.8 Seismic relief image of the Flamborough Head disturbance, note the visible positive relief it imparts to the Holocene landscape The fact that these salt structures formed enough of a to- pographic expression to produce regional highs and lows strongly suggests that at least some salt structures within this region were active during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene. This evidence is not inconsistent with The underlying geology is also evident in other areas of the quadrant. To the far west, several prominent features may also be observed (Figures 7.5E and 7.8). One is di- rectly correlated with the Flamborough Head disturbance, which appears on BGS mapping as being directly exposed on the seabed. The flanks of this feature are covered by a very thin veneer of Pleistocene material. This would have represented a significant Holocene landscape feature and appeared as a dominating, but low, ridge extending from the present coastline out into the North Sea. Given the thin sediments within this region it is unlikely that exten- sive archaeological sediments are preserved in the area.
Figure 7.9 Western end of the OSP lake showing outflow channel and associated topographic highs and lows
The abandonment of channels is presumably a response to changes in the fluvial regime. In this case, the most likely cause is a response to regional sea-level rise. The final landscape features in this quadrant that require description are a series of bulbous basins that occur next to a prominent fluvial system referred to as the "Shotton River” (Figure 7.11 E, Fitch et. al. 2005). Initially recorded during the pilot project these basins have been interpreted as wetlands or lakes. The correlation between these features and an underlying tunnel valley within the seismic dataset suggests that the earlier depression may have been filled with impermeable glacial fill material leading to lake or marsh formation. Again, such wetland systems could have been gathering points for hunter Figure 7.11 The Holocene landscape and features within the northeastern quadrant As the fluvial systems progress down to the OSP, clear coastlines are observed framing the OSP itself (between B and D (Figure 7.11). These are characterised by a strong response and are often accompanied on the seaward side by tidal scour marks. A number of rivers meet the coastline in this area, widen and form small estuaries (Figure 7.12). The coast (or lakeside) is clearly defined, located between the -40 metre and -50 metre contours and coincide with the contemporary outline topography of the OSP.
Figure 7.12 The junction of rivers and coastline can clearly be seen in the inset seismic image. The river channels can b observed to widen and form small estuaries Figure 7.13 A series of tunnel valleys (green outline) crossing the OSP and observed to underlie the Holocene landscape (coastline marked in orange)
Figure 7.15 Modern Sandwaves directly overlying the Holocene landscape
Figure 7.16 The Holocene landscape and features within the southeastern quadrant
Figure 7.17 Seismic line across the southeastern quadrant. Little landscape variation can be discerned in this area
Figure 7.18 A representative image of "mottling" within the seismic data. Whilst minor channels can be discerned, th clarity of the interpretation is hindered.
Figure 7.19 Cross section (BGS line 80-01-05) over Markham's Hole. This clearly shows the deep incision of this feature (location marked by red line on inset). The inset timeslice of this feature shows the location of the outflow channe. (marked orange)
Figure 7.20 Seismic timeslice image of the palaeochannels within an area interpreted as a salt marsh
Figure 7.21 The Holocene landscape and features within the southwestern quadrant these riverine features, they may well have provided an important route through the landscape, and to and from the coast (Barton and Roberts 2004, 352).
Figure 7.22 Cross section through Well Hole (BGS Line 93-01-81. Note the preservation of the Botney Cut Formation (base marked red on interpreted section)
Figure 7.23 Cross section through the large channels in the southwestern quadrant. (BGS Line 93-01-74A)
Figure 7.24 An image showing the complex structure of a glacial outwash plain. A cross section through this feature (Line A-A') shows that this feature is located deep beneath the seabed (marked on in green)
Figure 8.1 Location of the boreholes in the area included in the 3D seismic survey
Figure 8.2 Location of the boreholes requested from the area and primary features identified during mapping
Figure 8.3 Location of the boreholes inspected from the area included in the 3D seismic surve)
Figure 8.6 Pollen diagram for Vibrocore 34/02/80 Figure 8.5 Pollen diagram for Vibrocore 54/02/215
Figure 9.1 Major topographic or economic zones within the study area
Palaeolithic deposits that underlie the current study area, and which stretch far to the north, must rate as priorities Figure 9.2 Sample seismic data illustrating probable Later Palaeolithic land surfaces adjacent to the Norwegian Trench. The Viking Bank flint illustration is from Long et al. (1986)
Figure 9.3 Seismic data cube illustrating chronostratigraphic relationship between Holocene and earlier features
In contrast, HLC sought to appreciate the overall impor- tance of the landscape itself. No specific part of any land- scape is deemed as more valuable than another within an HLC programme, and all aspects of a landscape are avail- able for classification and therefore management. Land- scape is treated as a contemporary and dynamic entity in- corporating past activity as one contributing factor to the final classification. with other project staff indicated that there were signifi- cant difficulties in applying HLC in areas where early fea- tures were obscured by later sediments (Baker et al. 2007 figure 8.1). In contrast, the scale at which the North Sea project has operated, and the extensive topographic data generated, has a clear HLC application.
Figure 9.6 Cross correlation of major topographic and landscape characterisation zones
Figure 9.7 Potential for preservation
Figure 9.8 Red flag mapping. This figure combines threat and uncertainty data based on distance to feature and depth oj overlying sediment. The lack of sediment cover and direct association with identified features with archaeological potential rate as high threats with little uncertainty. Deep overlying deposits lying further from recorded features rank as low threat areas but with significant levels of uncertainty
Table 5.2 Average dip of the flanks of Ridges A and B 1.13° on the steeper slope of Ridge B. Given that the trends of the ridges are offset the steeper slope of Ridge A faces south east whereas the steep flank of Ridge B faces south west (Figure 5.3 and Figure 5.4). Cross sectional views of the features (Figure 5.3) also reveal that the crests of the ridges are relatively flat. In cross section, Ridge A displays an asymmetry along its major axis and both ridges are asymmetric along their minor axes (Figure 5.3 and Figure 5.4); the asym- metry of the minor axis of Ridge A decreases towards its southeasterly end. The steeper slopes of the ridges are slightly concave whereas the shallower slopes are predominantly convex (Figure 5.3). The dip of the ridges’ flanks are relatively shallow (Table 5.1 and Fig- ure 5.5), reaching an approximate maximum of only
Table 7.1 Basic quantitative data relating to identified landscape features In considering the results of the NSPP mapping exercise it should be stressed that the interpretation provided here is historic in several senses. The 3D seismic data was ac- quired over a period of 20 years at least. The PGS Mega survey does not, therefore, represent a snap shot of any single period of time and the information presented here may not represent the full effect of modern changes to the preserved elements of the landscape. However, the effects of burial and erosion across such a vast landscape are likely to be relatively small given the time period under consideration. As such, the general thrust of this chapter remains valid and the data can, with some caution, be used in support of larger archaeological synthesis and for man- agement purposes. However, it is clear that the results of this mapping will require future ground truthing. Coring is required to provide samples for palaeoenvironmental study and dating, whilst higher resolution survey might usefully
Table 9.1 Primary landscape characterisation zones
Table 9.2 Ranking of features by relative archaeological potential
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Assesing the role of climate change and human predation on marine resources at the Fatu-ma-futi site, Tutuila Island, American Samoa:an agent based model
by Alex Morrison
In the tropical Pacific, climate change has been implicated as a causal variable in the development of a variety of social processes, including resource scarcity, cultural diversification, changes in spatial organization, and conflict.... more
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Late Pleistocene and Holocene depositional systems and the palaeogeography of the Dogger Bank, North Sea
by Vincent Gaffney

2005, Quaternary Research

3D seismic data from the Dogger Bank, North Sea, allow the mapping of Late Pleistocene and Holocene depositional systems in unprecedented detail. The data demonstrate that glacial processes resulted in the development of incised tunnel... more
Figure 1. Map illustrating emergent parts of the continental shelves (red) in Europe during the last glacial maximum. The figure assumes a glacial eustatic lowstand of 120 m below present sea level (Fairbanks, 1989) and does not take into account glacially induced flexural uplift in high-latitude regions adjacent to large ice sheets or neotectonic (Holocene) uplift or subsidence.
Figure 2. Map of the North Sea with Holocene shorelines and the study area indicated. This paper will use 3D seismic data from the Dogger Bank, Southern North Sea (Fig. 2), in order to demonstrate how the use of 3D seismic data, and the techniques developed by the petroleum industry for its analysis, can provide an efficient way of generating regional models for the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. The results of the pilot project described in this paper demonstrate that such an approach provides a detailed temporal and spatial frame- work for the future integration of shallow borehole, environmental and shallow geophysical data. This in turn will provide a valuable resource that may have diverse applications within Pleistocene and Holocene geology, marine engineering (seabed structure and stability) as well
Figure 3. Simplified cross-section (not to scale) of stratigraphy of the Pleistocene and Holocene of the Dogger Bank region, North Sea. Adapted from Laraminie (1989a,b).
Figure 4. A comparison of seismic time slices (140 ms) from the Dogger Bank imaged in different ways. (a) A simple seismic amplitude time slice revealing some Holocene depositional features (channels). (b) Opacity rendering of the same seismic amplitude time slice. Note that the manipulation of the opacity and the careful choice of colour allows improved channel definition. (c) Seismic coherence (semblance) time slice at the same level as panels a and b. Note that coherence provides some additional detail of the channels.
Figure 5. Seismic amplitude volume containing a tunnel valley of probable Weichselian age. Incised tunnel valley systems, ranging in age from the Elsterian to the Weichselian, have previously been identi using 3D seismic data from the Sou fied hern North Sea (Praeg, 1996; Lonergan et al., 2003). Within the study area a tunnel valley was located beneath the maximum width of 2.4 km and a Dogger Bank wit na ength of 23 km being observed as it traverses across the study area (Fig. 5). With a U-shaped cross-section and a gradient to the northeast ( 5) the valley is comparable with d Fig. escriptions of classical
Figure 6. Holocene fluvial features of the Dogger Bank. (a) Seismic time slice (114 ms) containing a major meandering river channel with its associated smaller channels, lakes as well as a later dendritic channel network. (b) Expanded view showing the relationships between the major meandering channel, the minor channels and lakes. (c) Close-up view of part of the major fluvial channel. Note the homogeneous infill of the channel/channel belt. (d) Seismic section across the main fluvial channel showing an infill of accreted point bars deposits. (e) Seismic amplitude volume demonstrating that the dendritic channel network is associated with a higher stratigraphic level than the meandering fluvial channel.
Figure 7. Seismic amplitude volume overlain by a seismic coherence volume. The figure demonstrates that the probable Weichselian tunnel valley pre-dates the meandering river system which is consequently of Holocene age.
Figure 8. Initial palaeogeographic maps for the study area. Seismic time slices on the left and interpretation right.
Figure 9. Seismic amplitude time slice (see Fig. 6a) draped on the current seabed topography. Note that the major fluvial channel, and its tributaries, is no related to the current bathymetry with the channels cross local highs. This highlights the inadequacies of using bathymetry to predict the locations of majo geomorphic features on the Holocene landscape. Although such surveys are optimised to resolve features with burial depths in the kilometre range they are capable of producing detailed images within the top few tens of metres of the sedimentary column. Consequently, as previous reconstructions of the Holocene landscape have relied on the use of bathymetry data (e.g., Coles, 1998) they must now be regarded as obsolete and potentially Although 3D seismic has been shown to provide the best method for mapping Late Pleistocene and Holocene depositional systems in detail, and with relative speed and spatial completeness, this study has also demonstrated the disadvantages of using 3D seismic in isolation. The ambiguities in the interpretation of the fluvial channel systems are primarily the result of the absence detailed lithological and chronological data on the sediments being imaged. Consequently, 3D seismic data need to be integrated with existing or new shallow core and geo- physical data in order to develop a complete model. As the use of 3D seismic data provides the most efficient method of generating a spatially complete model it will allow the
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Roman Art at the Art Institute of Chicago: Cat. 11 Relief of a Falling Warrior, 2nd century A.D.
by Rachel C Sabino
Complete technical report by Rachel Sabino with contributions from Lorenzo Lazzarini follows the comprehensive curatorial essay by Katharine A. Raff.
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Final Report on the Clotilda-Africatown, Alabama Feb.-April 2022 Explorers Club Flag Expedition
by Llewellyn Lew Toulmin

2022, Series of Reports on Clotilda and Africatown Descendants

The “Polee and Rose Allen of the Slave Ship Clotilda and Africatown, Alabama” Explorers Club Flag Expedition took place in February, March and April 2022. This Final Flag Report contains the following sections: • Flag Photos of the... more
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Deep-sea shipwrecks represent island-like ecosystems for marine microbiomes
by Leila Hamdan and 
1 more
Melanie Damour

2021, ISME Journal

Biogeography of macro-and microorganisms in the deep sea is, in part, shaped by naturally occurring heterogeneous habitat features of geological and biological origin such as seeps, vents, seamounts, whale and wood-falls. Artificial... more
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Early Modern European Shipwrecks ShipLAB Report 28
by Filipe Castro and 
3 more
Sergio José Lopez Martín
Ricardo Borrero
Charles D Bendig
This is a seventh draft of a catalogue of early modern European wooden hull remains, part of Charles Bendig' and Arnaud Cazenave de la Roche's research, and an invitation to all interested scholars to collaborate. Our main objective is to... more
Timbers in situ (Miguel Aleluia)
b. Dovetail scarves
a. Frames numbered with Roman numerals
Pepper Wreck keel marks — center and sides — on a floor timber (placed over a keel scarf b. Center of the keel marked in the floor timbers
Pepper Wreck
a. Evidence for rising of the turn of the bilge points b. Evidence for narrowing of the turn of the bilge points
Figure 4. The ‘sternpost assembly’; original scale 1:20, drawn here as 70% of original (1:28-6). Shaded area=rust. (Drawing: author after finds sheet 11)
19 a (en haut). Croisement entre genou et premiere allonge. 19 b (en bas). Serres V 20 et V 22.
Maststep — Mediterranean Floor/futtock connection — shallow hook scarf Planking fasteners — Nails round Caulking — vegetable fibers, covered in pitch/sulfur Sheathing — None WW _ 1/22. .... .. 2 2k 2 2 8 kt TOK. eat 2] Yow ccc Keel/sternpost connection — Vertical scarf
Sudorad, Sipan (Croatia’ San Hieronimo
Mast step — INOTt preserved. Floor/futtock connection — square dovetail joints w/ 3 iron nails Planking fasteners — Nails sq. (2 per frame) Caulking— twisted lead strap covered with two layers of oakum. Sheathing — Lead straps over the seams (lower hull) K eel/cternnost connection — Not nrecserved
Keel/sternpost connection: Post rested on upper surface of keel.
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Los mayas y el mar: arqueología marítima en la Bahía de Chetumal
by EMILIANO RICARDO MELGAR TÍSOC
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Lost Aircraft of Scapa Flow, Orkney .
by Kevin Heath and 
1 more
sandra henry
This report presents the outcomes of side scan sonar and drop camera survey of four missing aircraft in Scapa Flow; A Fairey Barracuda (DP983), a Miles Martinet (MS630), an Airspeed Oxford (Mk1 BG555) and a Blackburn Skua (L2883).... more
Figure 4: Drop camera survey of Contact 07, identified as a Danforth Anchor.
Figure 6: Drop camera survey of Contact 08, identified as a metal trolley. However, none were found to represent evidence of aircraft remains. Contact 08 was identified as a metal trolley, possibly from industrial activity in the surrounding area contact 09 was a Danforth Anchor, contact 10 was an admiralty anchor, whilst contac 11 and contact 12 were concrete blocks. In this search area, it was also noted tha small anomalies were identifiable on the survey data.
Figure 7: Extent of the Side Scan Sonar Survey of the Blackburn Skua crash site.
Figure 8: Drop camera survey of Contact 13, identified as metal sheet plating..
The Miles Martinet (MS360) crash site had previously encountered salvage activities, whereby the winch and propeller were retrieved and donated to Lyness museum. Later diver activity resulted in the spark plugs of the engine being removed (per. Comm. Kevin Heath). The site may have been structurally compromised by such activity. This may have led to the weakening of the wreck site, and dispersal over the seabed. It is also possible, due to the known position of this site that salvage activities may have resulted in the removal of further elements of the aircraft. The Blackburn Skua (L2883) aircraft was also recovered with the two bodies the afternoon after the crash (AIR 13/108). There was no evidence from the survey results to suggest that any remains of the Skua are present on the seabed around the crasf site at the location that the boom defence, buoy site 30 was positioned or on the surrounding seabed. The southern extent of the search area of the Skua site alsc
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PIANC Guidance Document the world association for waterborne transport infrastructure
by Victoria Cooper
In early 2013, PIANC’s EnviCom confirmed the need for a good practice guide to enable the navigation community to deal with features of archaeological and heritage interest in the development of navigation infrastructure projects. Whilst... more
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Untersuchung Grossensee
by christoph mehrens

2012

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Tsunami waves generated by the Santorini eruption reached Eastern Mediterranean shores
by Floyd McCoy and 
2 more
Beverly Goodman
Hendrik Dey

2009, …

Figure 1. A: Regional map; Santorini and Caesarea are shown. Squares represent previ- ously identified Santorini age tsunami deposits at Santorini (McCoy and Heiken, 2000), Crete (Palaikastro, Gouves, and Aminossos; Bruins et al., 2008; Minoura et al., 2000) and Turkey (Didim and Fethye; Yokoyama, 1978). Contour lines represent model-based estimated time- distance tsunami wave arrival times (Yokoyama, 1978). B: Caesarea area with core (1-4) and excavation position (W) where tsunami deposits were identified; msl—mean sea level. Gray area offshore represents Caesarea’s Roman harbor (Herodian period, ca. 12 B.C.E.; Reinhardt et al., 1994). A sedimentary deposit on the continental shelf off Caesarea Maritima, Israel, is identi- fied, dated, and attributed to tsunami waves produced during the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1630-1550 B.C.E.) eruption of Santorini, Greece. The sheet-like deposit was found as a layer as much as 40 cm thick in four cores collected from 10 to 20 m water depths. Particle-size distribution, planar bedding, shell taphoecoensis, dating (radiocarbon, optically stimulated luminescence, and pottery), and comparison of the horizon to more recent tsunamigenic lay- ers distinguish it from normal storm and typical marine conditions across a wide (>1 km?) lateral area. The presence of this deposit is evidence that tsunami waves from the Santorini eruption radiated throughout the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, affecting the coastal people living there. Dates for the tsunami deposit bracket both the so-called “high” and “low” chro- nology for the Santorini eruption. In addition to resolving the question of the extent of tsu- nami impact from the Santorini eruption, the research presented also provides a new means of discovering, identifying, and studying continuous records of paleotsunami deposits in the upper shelf coastal environment. The latter is key to understanding past events, better inter- preting sedimentological records, and creating stronger models for understanding tsunami propagation, coastal management, and hazard preparation worldwide.
Figure 2. Core stratigraphy. Terrestrial-nearshore (T-NS) and W areas are summarized stratig- raphies from those areas and do not represent individual cores or true horizon dimensions (msl—mean sea level). Extended descriptions are available in Figure DR2 (see footnote 1). **Ages summarize the range of all ages for that horizon (C—radiocarbon, O and OSL—opti- cally stimulated luminescence, P—pottery), reported with 20 error (Tables DR1 and DR2). N/A—not available. Dates are from this study and previous reports (Raban, 2008; Reinhardt and Raban, 1999, 2008; Reinhardt et al., 1994). Sea-level curve model (blue zone represents minimum and/or maximum values) from Israel demonstrates that sea-level change would not have altered coastal zones of horizons during past 4 ka (Sivan et al., 2001). Four sediment cores were collected (Fig. DRI in the GSA Data Repository') and one area (area W) was re-excavated with dredges in the sandy upper shoreface (-15 to -20 m below msl) offshore of Caesarea (Fig. 1B), in order to (1) determine the lateral extent of a previously identified second century (C.E.) tsu- namite (Reinhardt et al., 2006), (2) test hypoth- eses related to defining and identifying tsunami deposits using multiproxy methods, (3) differ- entiate the deposit from possible archaeological anthropogenic sedimentation, and (4) determine the appearance of a tsunami deposit sequence Tsunamigenic indicators, as defined by previous tsunami studies (Bruins et al., 2008; Dawson and Stewart, 2007; Dominey-Howes et al., 2006; Donato et al., 2008; Morton et al.,
2007; Reinhardt et al., 2006) (Figs. 2 and 3), included erosional lower contacts, fining- upward particle-size distribution, imbrication of inclusions, individual or groups of molluscs, mixed wear and poor sorting of molluscs,
Figure 4. Particle-size distribution contour maps of core 1 (14.3 m below msl) and core 2 (20 m below msl). Data were plotted using Ocean Data View Software (version 3.3.2). Tsunami and storm events are differentiated based on sorting and size distribution. E rep- resents tsunami events and S represents large storms. Large storm events that left clear dep- ositional markers at core 1 are not visible at the depth of core 2, indicating that water depth at core 2 exceeds depth of wave base.
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GÉOMÉTRIE DES FORMES DE CARÈNE ET CONSTRUCTION «SUR MEMBRURE PREMIÈRE» (Ve-XIIe SIECLES). UNE AUTRE APPROCHE DE L’HISTOIRE DE L’ARCHITECTURE NAVALE MÉDITERRANÉENNE AU MOYEN AGE?
by Eric Rieth
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Where is the SS Telephone?
by Greg Jackson
The steam paddle wheel ferry SS Telephone was a familiar sight on the Georges River in the early years of the 20th century carrying passengers from Como station upstream to pleasure grounds at Lugarno Park and Parkesvale. There is no... more
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Marine archaeology in Israel
by Ehud Galili
previous construction and rock-hewn caves from the Iron Age and Persian period, as well as the topography of the site. A system of drainage channels exposed in area 61 during the 1992 excavation season provides a reliable indication of... more
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Treasure Under the Bench: The Discovery of Carpenter's Marks on the Colonial Gunboat Philadelphia
by Taras Pevny

2010, Colonial Gunboat Philadelphia Preservation Assessment and Conservation Plan (Vol. I), edited by Peter Fix

When working on a conservation assessment of the Revolutionary War gunboat Philadelphia for the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of American History, Peter Fix and I had the opportunity to closely examine the remains of the... more
Fig. 17. Basic beginning steps of a flat bottom dory's construction. The chine/bilge curve has been highlighted in red. (Afer Gardner 1987: 58)
Fig. 1. Model of the Philadelphia. (From Sands 1988: 154) Fig. 2 & 3. Peter Fix working on the stern deck of the Philadelphia. Note the bench/locker on either side of the vessel. Taras Pevny looking for marks under the starboard bench. (Photos by T. Pevny & P. Fix)
I. Summary of Findings
II. Meeting a Need: The Historical Role of Bateaux Gondolas are double-ended boats with flat bottoms. A double-ended hull comes to a point at both ends, thus the complexity of building the stern structure associated with square transoms is avoided (Fig. 5c). The wide flat bottoms result in a large amount of volume within a short height of hull (depth of hull) (Fig. 5a). As a consequence, due to the laws of buoyancy and displacement, these types of hulls can carry a large amount of cargo, men and artillery in the case of the Philadelphia, without floating very deep in the water (shallow draft). In inland and coastal waterways this limited draft allows for traversing over shallow waters or underwater hazards. It also allows the smaller and/or lighter versions of these vessels to be beached — for the night, to make repairs and/or long- term storage — or portaged from one waterway to another (Figs. 6 & 7). vy. , 44%. a. 1.7... 1 ...%4. 1 ££... gh. .*°.. iG Ft lg gl ld 4G lg ge
were often built in remote regions, for specific short-term purposes, by individuals with limited finances, tools, shipbuilding skills and time — in _ short these vessels were appropriate for their building environment. Fig. Sa-c. Overall views of the Philadelphia. Plans by H. Hoffman for the Smithsonian Institution. (After Bratten 1997: 162 &167.
Fig. 6. Flatbottom Mackinaw boat pulled up on a riverbank. (From American Heritage 1961: 108)
Fig. 7. Vessels being portaged between waterways. (From American Heritage 1961: 72)
Fig. 8. A Flatboat being steered downriver. Flatboats, essentially square barges, could not be taken upriver. (From American Heritage 1962: 26)
Fig. 9. A keelboat crew fending off an attack. Keelboats could be poled, rowed or sailed upriver. (From American Heritage 1961: 82)
Fig. 10. Replica of the Lake George bateau. (From Crisman 1988: 131) Our recent discovery of carpenter marks on the Philadelphia opens up a great opportunity to stimulate such research and publication (see Section VI). Additionally exciting is an ongoing effort to study and possibly raise Philadelphia’s sister ship — another gondola that sank along with the Philadelphia during the battle of Valcour Island in October of 1776.'4
Fig. 12. Replica of the gondola Philadelphia. (From Bratten 2002: 153)
Fig. 11. Replica of the James River bateau. (From Crisman 1988: 131)
Fig. 13. Howard Chapelle’s reconstruction drawings of the Philadelphia based on an examination of the remains. (Chanelle 1949: 109) The remains of the Philadelphia were first described in print by Lorenzo F. Hagglund, who discovered and recovered the vessel in 1935 and was its caretaker till 1961, when it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution.45 On the basis of this discovery Howard I. Chapelle generated reconstructed plans of the vessel that were published in 1949 in his book The History of the American Sailing Navy (Fig. 13).!© Subsequently, the overall shape and construction of the hull remains were extensively documented, reconstructed, described and illustrated by Howard P. Hoffman in a set of annotated architectural drawings, as well an article in the early 1980’s (Figs. 5, 18, 23, 34, 62, 75).!7 The construction of the Philadelphia and that of the Lake Champlain gondolas was also researched in the 1980’s by graduate student William A. Bayreuther.'® The discovery and preservation of the Philadelphia, and the historical events associated with it, inspired the construction of a replica by the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum from 1989 to 1991 (Fig. 12).!9 The building of the replica provided an opportunity to once again evaluate the boat’s construction and its performance under sail and oar. The work of Chapelle, Hoffman and Bayreuther, as well as the lessons from building and operating the replica, were incorporated into a dissertation in 1997 and subsequently into a book in 2002 by John R. Bratten, who presented the archaeological remains of this vessel and the associated artifacts in their immediate historical context.?°
Fig. 14. A straight plank’s normal or natural run along the bilge of a hull. (After Greenhill 1988: 137) iene: Sitar” ji ——— ee a ee ae The underlying concept was a desire to quantify the normal or natural run o a plank or ribband (a small temporary plank used during construction, also referred to as a batten) along the length of the hull. A “normal” run is the way a plank, specifically a straight plank, bends along the curvature of a hull without any edge-set — forced bending in an edgewise direction (Fig. 14). Currently, the best archaeological example of the culmination of this design concept is the hull of La Belle, a late 17" -century French vessel, whose design I had the privilege to study.2! La Belle has design marks carved into its timbers along two longitudinal bilge curves (Fig. 15). Its design represents the beginning of the final stage in the development of geometric/arithmetic methods of quantifying hull curvature before the introduction of modern orthographic hull design in the form of the lines drawino or lofted halfemodel cectione
Fig. 15. Isometric drawing of La Belle’s hull remains with every third “marked” frame set depicted. The red lines depict the diagonal design curves indicated by the shipwright’s marks. (Drawing by T. Pevny)
Fig. 16. A French drawing from 1683 depicting the “diagonals” method of design. Note in the profile view the diagonals are depicted as actual ribbands. (Afer Boudriot 1998: 54-55)
Fig. 18. Profile and plan views of the bottom planks and framing of the Philadelphia. The centerline is highlighted in red and the plank seams are highlighted in blue. Adapted from H. Hoffman’s plan for the Smithsonian Institution. (After Bratten 1997: 153) 1.1) The Philadelphia is a double-ended flat bottomed vessel. Its bottom 1 composed of planks laid lengthwise edge-to-edge. The keel less bottom is completely fla with no lengthwise curvature (rocker) or lateral rise (deadrise). In this simple form o construction, the shape of the bottom defines the main shape of the vessel. Because th bottom planks lie in a single flat plane, drawing the shape of the curved edges of the hul is comparable to drawing such a shape on a flat sheet of paper (Fig. 17).
€ Fig. 19. Upside down dory construction. (From Gardner 1987: 71)
Fig. 20. The construction of a replica of the Bevaix boat based on the remains of this Gallo-Roman boat. (From Hocker 2004: 69) Fig. 21. A turf boat under construction in Britain in 1970. Note the bottom is a single slab of timber. (Fro Greenhill 1995: 29)
Fig. 22a-b. “V” scribe mark pointing to the centerline location under the keelson. The mark is highlighted in 22b. (Photo by T. Pevny) Although the Philadelphia’s bottom planking is not laid out symmetrically relative to t he centerline the actual chine curves are mirror images of each other. A chine is an angled bilge instead of a round or curved bilge. To lay out these curves symmetrica centerline. have not id ly on either side of the bottom the shipwrights needed to establish a Presumably a string was stretched between the two end points. Thus far we entified a longitudinal centerline scribed into the wood. Unfortunately, the inboard face of the bottom planking can only to be examined in one location along the centerline. However, in this location we did find a scribed-in “V” mark pointing to the centerline (Figs. 22a-b & 23). There is a good chance that this mark is not unique; only future investigation will tell.
Fig. 23. Plan view of the Philadelphia showing the location of the centerline “V”. In this small area the bottom planks are visible from above. This was probably left open to allow water to be bailed out — a bailing well. Adapted from H. Hoffman’s plan for the Smithsonian Institution. (After Bratten 1997: 157)
Fig. 24. Plan view of the bottom planks and framing showing the main proportions and the positioning of the maximum breadth. Adapted from H. Hoffman’s plan for the Smithsonian Institution. (After Bratten 1997: 153) The intentional proportioning of the bottom’s main dimensions is an indication of the execution of a predetermined design. What evidence supports the use of these basic mathematical relationships, and how can we hypothesize that these were intentionally established by the shipwrights and are not the product of archaeological wishful thinking?
Factoring in the badly eroded state of the timber surfaces, enough floor-scribe marks were identified to strongly support the preliminary conclusion that the floor locations were marked along the entire length of the hull. Traces of such marks were identified at floor divisions #5, #6, #11, #12, #13, #33, #36 & #38. Most importantly, these lateral scribe lines were found in the extreme stern where there are no floor timbers. Fig. 25a-b. Floor scribe line at floor division #38. Frame #38 is labeled in green. Note in this location there is no actua floor, just a marking for its location (i.e. floor division #38). (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 26a-b. Floor scribe line at floor division #36 (Floor #34). Frame #36 is labeled in green. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 27a-b. Floor scribe line at floor division #33 (Floor #31). Frame #33 is labeled in green. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 28. View of the lower port stern of the Philadelphia. The floor scribe mark from Fig. 25 is highlighted. Note the missing chine plank. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 29. Plan view of the bottom planks and framing. Floors are numbered in red. Floor divisions are highlighted and numbered in blue. Frames are numbered in green. Adapted from H. Hoffman’s plan for the Smithsonian Institution. (After Bratten 1997: 153) The Philadelphia has 34 floor timbers spaced at 15 inches from the corresponding edge of one timber to another (room and space) (Fig. 27). Beyond the forward most and aftermost of these floor timbers there is room for two more floor timbers respectively. Given the discovery of lateral scribe lines in the extreme stern where there are no floor timbers (Figs. 25, 28, 29), it seems the shipwrights subdivided the bottom into 39 divisions of 15 inches in length thus giving a theoretical length of 48 feet 9 inches (Fig. 29) versus the documented length of 48 feet 10% inches.?® Bratten notes Hoffman’s suggestion that “the position of posts, floor timbers, and frames could have been marked”.?? Our discovery shows that at least in the case of the floor timbers the positions not only could have been marked — they were marked.
Fig. 30. Cant frames reduce the amount of beveling necessary to fit the outboard curvature of the hull. (After Greenhill 1988: 116)
Fig. 31a-b. Floor scribe line and “V”at floor division #38. Frame #38 is labeled in green. (Photo by T. Pevny
Fig. 32a-b. Floor scribe line and “V”at floor division #36 (Floor #34). Frame #36 is labeled in green. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 33a-b. Floor scribe line and “V”at floor division #33 (Floor #31). Frame #33 is labeled in green. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 34. Profile view from the lines drawing combined with the plan view of the bottom planking and framing. The lines drawing cross-section lines are highlighted in red. Adapted from H. Hoffman’s plans for the Smithsonian Institution. (After Bratten 1997: 153, 159)
Fig. 35. Reconstructed building sequence of the 14" -century AD Bremen Cog discovered in Germany. (After Greenhill1988: 54, 56
Fig. 37. 17" -century French method of frame-first construction. Note the bilge ribband set up early in the early stages of construction. From the Album de Colbert, 1670. (After Rieth 1996: 46) Fig. 36. Two stages in the construction of a 17" -century Dutch fluit. In this building tradition the bottom was built plank-first using temporary cleats to hold the planks together until they were secured with frames. The upper hull was built frame-first. Model by Albert Hoving. (After Hoving 1997: 30-31)
Fig. 40. Reconstruction of the 2 -century AD Blackfriars ship discovered in London. Its construction sequence is very similar to that of the Philadelphia. (After Greenhill 1988: 41)
Fig. 39. Boat under construction in Turkey in 1995 using the ribband method of design. The shape of the vessel was defined using ribbands on one side of the vessel and complete frames were cut to fit. (Photo by T. Pevny) Fig. 38. 18" -century French method of frame-first construction. Note the bilge ribband set up in the early stages of construction. (After Rieth 1996: 49)
Fig. 41. Plans and photograph of the 1* -century BC Commachio wreck discovered in Italy. The seams of the hul planks are sewn together. (After Berti 1990: 36 & 41)
Fig. 43. Process of building a skiff by first bending the side planks. (After Chapelle 1941: 217) Fig. 44. Cross-planked bottom on a small boat. (From Gardner 1987: 5)
Fig. 42. End view of the planking runs of one of the 2™ -century A.D Nemi barges. The seams of the hull planks are joined with mortise-and-tenon joints. (After Ucelli 1950: Plate VIII)
Fig. 45. A plank being bent onto the raised frames on the replica of the Philadelphia. Note the wales were attached first. (After Bratten 2002: 150)
Fig. 47. Diagram showing the proposed method of designing the midship shape. The design lines are superimposed over H. Hoffman’s cross-sectional drawing of the Philadelphia’s hull shape. (After Hoffmar As was already discussed, the knees were canted and there was only a minimal need to trim their outer faces to fit the curvature of the sides, known as dubbing if an adze was used. Once the correct curvature for each of the knees was determined by the shipwrights, the work of cutting and positioning these knees was relatively simple and easy.
Fig. 49. Illustration showing how increasing flare results in greater rise. (After Gardner 1987: 85) Fig. 48. Illustration showing how flare of the sides of a vessel results in the rise at the ends of planks. (After Landstrom 1970: 20)
The shapes of a dory’s planks are a good illustration of the end result of spiling (Figs.51-52). A dory’s hull shape is a smaller version of that of the Philadelphia with more exaggerated curvature. As in a dory, the lower plank(s) of the Philadelphia had to have been spiled (Fig. 53). In the case of the Philadelphia this was done within the span of the lower two planks. Fig. 50. Illustration of the characteristics of the lower plank run of a dory. The differential gap between a parallel- sided plank bent along the hull and the flat bottom is highlighted in red. (After Gardner 1987: 91)
Fig. 52. A partially assembled dory illustrating how properly shaped planks enclose the hull. (After Greenhill 1995: 188) Fig. 51 Photograph of the flattened planks that compose a dory. Note the shape of the lowest side planks. (After Greenhill 1995: 66)
Fig. 53. A view of the starboard stern of the Philadelphia. The lower strakes are highlighted in red. The unfairness in the run of the wale is indicated by the red arrows. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 54. Using a batten to line-off the seams on a more amnlaw hall (A ftar Ceannh:l] 1022: 120)
Fig. 56. Knuckled frames of a Swampscott dory. (After Gardner 1987: 76) Fig. 55. A view of one of Philadelphia’s frames between the inner and outer planking. Note the flats between the seams. (Photo by P. Fix) 49) ine outer surface ofr the hull planks is highly degraded, and, thus far, we have not found any spiling marks. Fortunately, such marks were found elsewhere on the hull (see Section V-3.1). Nonetheless, the marks across the edges of the hull planks at the frame locations seem to directly relate to the process of cutting out and/or shaping the laid-out plank shapes (Fig. 58a-b). A cursory examination of just two seams in the starboard stern revealed 26 such marks at consecutive frame locations. Several possibilities exist as to what construction procedure resulted in these marks.
Fig. 57. Crowning and hollowing of planks to fit the curved surface of a frame. (After Greenhill 1988: 141)
EVEN RN ER IRE CEE WN UR RRR MCR COLE, BE) ABO, OL VED Whe Remains of evident relieving cuts are preserved on the forward face of the Philadelphia’s stem (the centerline timber in the bow) (Fig. 60). At first glance these marks seem to be scribed in draft marks — marks used to indicate how deep the vessel is sitting in the water. However, they are not set at increments in feet nor are they regularly spaced (Fig. 61a-b). These marks are simply cuts made to ease the shaping of the curve of the stem timber. The stem rabbet, like the midship frames, is cut to a 7/4 foot radius curve. The rabbet is the notch into which the ends of the hull planks are fitted. The outer edge of the stem is an 8% foot radius curve.?” Fig. 58a-b. Edge mark across the edge of a hull plank at a frame location. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 60. Closeup of relieving cut marks on the stem of the Philadelphia. (Photo by T. Pevny) Fig. 59. The use of relieving cuts when cutting a curved timber (From Greenhill 1988: 108) The plank edges were angled or beveled to form a wedge-shaped seam for caulking. Caulking is usually some form of fiber, coconut fiber in the Philadelphia’s case, which is driven into the seams with caulking irons to make them watertight.*® Shipwrights usually measure the bevel angles at the frame locations and then cut notches at those angles at corresponding positions along the plank edge. These cuts guide the beveling of the entire edge of the plank. It is possible that the preserved edge marks are the remains of such beveling notches.
Fig. 6la-b. Relieving marks on the stem of the Philadelphia. (Photo T. Pevny)
Fig. 62. Profile and plan views of the deck structures of the Philadelphia. The red arrows point to the benches/lockers. In the profile view the port spiling marks are drawn in red at their approximate locations. In this view the side of the locker is not shown for the marks to be visible. Adapted from H. Hoffman’s plan for the Smithsonian Institution. (After Bratten 1997: 162) 3.1) Fortunately, and quite unexpectedly, we did find probable spiling marks preserved on some of the Philadelphia’s internal planks (ceiling planks). In the stern of he vessel there are two benches/lockers along either side of the hull (see Figs. 2, 62). When we lifted the seat on the port side, we noticed that the plank surface was better preserved than in other places on the hull. Brushing off the accumulated dust and shining a raking light over the inboard surface of the ceiling plank (Fig. 3) revealed five fairly well-preserved “V” scribe marks pointing to the upper edge of the ceiling plank (Figs. 62-69). One of the “V’s” also had traces of a centerline (Fig. 69). We are unaware of any other marks such as these having been archaeologically identified on American shipwreck remains.
Fig. 64. The port spiling marks highlighted in red. Note the curvature of the upper edge of the plank. (Photo by T. Pevny) Fig. 63. The port spiling marks highlighted in red. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 65a-b. Port spiling mark #1 from the stern. Note that the mark is preserved in the very fragile and fragmented outer surface of the plank. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 66a-b. Port spiling mark #2 from the stern. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 67a-b. Port spiling mark #3 from the stern. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 68a-b. Port spiling mark #4 from the stern. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 69a-b. Port spiling mark #5 from the stern. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 70. Compass method of spiling the chine plank on a dory. (After Gardner 1987: 89, 92)
Fig. 71. The starboard spiling marks highlighted in red. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 73. Starboard spiling mark #2 from the stern. (Photo by T. Pevny) Fig. 72. Starboard spiling mark #1 from the stern. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 74. One of the carpenter marks uncovered during the renovation of a 1940’s bathroom. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 75.Profile view of the supporting deck structures of the Philadelphia. The red arrows point to the locations of the beam notches that supported the mortar platform. Adapted from H. Hoffman’s plan for the Smithsonian Institution. (After Bratten 1997: 157) 4.1) The spiling marks were not the only marks preserved on these ceiling planks. Originally the Philadelphia had a higher deck in the stern that supported a mortar cannon.*! Notches were cut in the ceiling planks to fit the beams supporting this deck. After an accident in which the mortar exploded, the gun and the deck structure were removed. However, the notches in the ceiling planks remained (Fig. 75). Originally the shipwrights marked the locations for these notches with scribe marks. Such marks are clearly visible on the same plank surface as the ceiling plank spiling marks (Fig. 76).
Fig. 76. Scribe marks used to indicate the location of one of the beam notches on the port side of the vessel. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 77. A series of chop marks define a straight line running towards the stern post. (Photo by T. Pevny)
Fig. 78. Close-up of the chop marks in the stern deck planks. (Photo T. Pevny)
Fig. 46. Radii used to lay out the Philadelphia’s frames as determined by H. Hoffman. Note that frames 13-30 were determined to have the same radius of 7 feet 5 4 inches. (After Hoffman 1982: Sheet 3) Studying the shape of the standing knees, Smithsonian researcher H. Hoffman came to the conclusion that in the central section of the vessel the knees were all cut to the same radial curve of 7 feet 5% inches (Fig. 46).! This allowed many such knees to be mass produced for all the gondolas under construction, thus significantly simplifying their production.*? Towards the ends of the vessel the curves of the knees were flattened by increasing their radii. This melded the curvature of the sides smoothly into the end posts of the vessel (Fig. 47).
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Antikythera Mechanism The oldest computer and Mechanical Cosmos of the 2 nd century BC
by Xenophon Moussas
The Antikythera Mechanism (originally called Table or Tablet, ΠΙΝΑΞ, ΠΙΝΑΚΙΔΙΟΝ) is the oldest known advanced scientific instrument. It is a dedicated astronomical computer working with gears, constructed by Greek scientists during the... more
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Importuosa litora?
by Davide Aquilano

Considerazioni di Storia e Archeologia 2014

Il falso mito degli "importuosa litora" al vaglio della cultura materiale d'Abruzzo e Molise
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Marthari, M. 2017. Aspects of pictorialism and symbolism in the Early Bronze Age Cyclades: a “frying pan” with longboat depiction from the new excavations at Chalandriani in Syros
by Marisa Marthari

2017, in V. Vlachou and A. Gadolou (eds.), ΤΕΡΨΙΣ. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology in Honour of Nota Kourou, Brussels 2017, pp. 147-160.

A “frying pan” of some interest, since it depicts a longboat, (Syros Museum 1163) was found in a rescue excavation conducted under the direction of the author in the Roussos field at Chalandriani in Syros in 2002-2008. The field lies in... more
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A Marble Disc (ship eye) from a Hellenistic Shipwreck south of Haifa Ehud Galili: Israel Antiquities Authority and Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa Baruch Rosen: Israel Antiquities Authority Avshalom Zemer: National Maritime Museum, Haifa
by Ehud Galili
Fig.2: 2a and 2b: Depictions of Late Archaic warship prows embellished with almond-shaped ship-eyes; 2c and 2d: merchant-ship prows embellished with circular ship eyes (by permission, Nowak 2006: 86, Fig. 3.7)
Fig.3. Marble disc from Megadim: a) convex side; b) flat side; c) detail of chisel marks (E.G.) and fittings (Raban and Galili 1985). Artefacts related to navigation and fishing included a lead sounding- weight and the removable lead stock of a wooden anchor. The assemblage was dated to the beginning of the 1st century BCE, according to the most recent coins dated to 100/99 BCE (Syon et al. 2013, Coin no. 61). The marble ship eye is discoid, carved in white marble (Fig. 3), and weighs approximately 4 kg.
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A PROTOTYPE REMOTE VIEWING METHODOLOGY IN ARCHAEOLOGY
by Stephan A Schwartz
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Spanish Maritime Exploration in the South-west Pacific: the search for Mendaña's lost almiranta , Santa Isabel , 1595: NOTES
by Brad Duncan and 
2 more
Lawrence Kiko
Martin Gibbs
This paper examines evidence for Spanish occupation on Makira (Solomon Islands) and the search for an associated possible shipwreck of Mendanas lost Galleon.
Figure I. Sites mentioned in the text. (Martin Gibbs)
Figure 2. Graciosa Bay site. (Martin Gibbs)
Figure 4. Tracks of actual remote sensing survey undertaken at Pamua. (Brad Duncan)
Figure 5. Humminbird sidescan image snapshot of some of the anomalies around Tauapuna Point, Pamua. (Brad Duncan)
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GÉOMÉTRIE DES FORMES DE CARÈNE ET CONSTRUCTION «SUR MEMBRURE PREMIÈRE» (Ve-XIIe SIECLES). UNE AUTRE APPROCHE DE L’HISTOIRE DE L’ARCHITECTURE NAVALE MÉDITERRANÉENNE AU MOYEN AGE?
by Eric Rieth
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The Polee, Rose and Lucy Allen Lines: Genealogical Descents from Africa, the Slave Ship Clotilda, and Africatown, Alabama to the Present
by Llewellyn Lew Toulmin

2022, Series of Reports on Descendants of the Clotilda and Africatown, Alabama

This report traces eight generations of an historic African American family, the Polee Allen clan, from Africa to the present. Over 160 persons are charted and documented, and in this report and the two Supplements hundreds more are... more
William Ellis and Julia Allen Ellis
A partial family tree image for Polee, Rose and Lucy Allen, on a family reunion T-shirt
Henderson Allen, b. 25 June 1907, colored male in Precinct 9; and image number 900 for Social Security Death Index shows Henrietta Allen, b. 17 May 1912, d. August 1983. (P), [Plateau]. [Apparently the Directory staff did not receive the information that Henderson had died in 1952.]
Miss Viola Allen, the oldest living descendant of the Africatown settlers. Born on July 19, 1891, she is the granddaughter of Polee and Rose Allen, both Clotilde Africans.
Africatown, Alabama and Silver Spring, Maryland April 2022
The Clotilda, painted on tiles near the entrance to Africatown The signature above is on the marriage license of Pole (a.k.a. Polee) Allen and Lucy Turner.
NWIAARNT CHAN DESCENDANTS OF MARY ALLEN & JIM HUDSON
ARTHUR CHART P/R DESCENDANTS OF THEODORE ARTHUR AND DOROTHY CARMELLA ELLIS
| EDWIN CHART P/R | DESCENDANTS OF EDWIN T. ELLIS AND REBECCA A. ALLEN
ROSEMARY FLOYD CHART P/R DESCENDANTS OF ROSEMARY FLOYD FRED PETERS, AND DAVID MURRAY
Marriage license for Pole Allen and Lucy Turner; note the actual signature of Pole Allen in the “SEAL” line.
CELEBRATING 63 YEARS IN MUSIC BUSINESS
“Broadcasting Pioneer Vernon Ford Passes Away,” on-line obituary, available at: https://www.wlox.com/2018/11/26/broadcasting-pioneer-vernon-floyd-passes-away/. Se
Proofs:
Edwin Ellis Ill], who married Sheryl Calhoun, had children: Roland Angelo “Lo” Floyd and
Lineage and heritage organizations celebrate the family heritage of their members, and encourage https://www.pacificwarmuseum.org/join-give/society-sons-daughters.
Broadcasting pioneer Vernon Floyd passes away
Clipping supplied by Vernetta Henson, Mobile Press-Register, n.d.
Clipping supplied by Vernetta Henson, n.d., likely from the Press Register
Undated clipping from Vernetta Henson, likely Mobile Press Register
Clipping supplied by Vernetta Henson; published by Press-Register on May 7, 2004.
all of Mobile, and Dezant Odom of Detroit MI. He is further survived by seven grandchildren, 13 great grandchildren and 15 great, great grandchildren. The family would like to extend a special debt of thanks to his close friend Mr. Jessie Bell of William F. Green Veterans Home as well as to the entire staff of the facility for the kindness, care and friendship shown toward Mr. Taylor during his time there. Homegoing services for Big Daddy Taylor will be held at 1 o'clock Wednesday afternoon, July 8, at Christian Benevolent Funeral Home, 201 N. Hamilton St., preceded by public viewing and visitation beginning at 9 a.m. Interment will be in Oaklawn Cemetery. Arrangements by CHRISTIAN BENEVOLENT FUNERAL HOME 201 N HAMILTON ST. MOBILE, AL 36603. Published by Press-Register on Jul. 7, 2009. JONES, Julia Alfredetta Floyd. Sunrise: May 6, 1926 Sunset: August 21, 2011 Julia Floyd Jones, dead at age 85. She was born May 6, 1926 in Plateau, Mobile County, Alabama, number three of eleven childre to Ora Anna (Ellis) Floyd and Nathan Daniel Floyd. She is a direct descendant of Cudjo Lewis, who came to this country as human cargo in 1853 aboard the last slave ship to the United States, "The Clotilda". She was preceded in death by her only child, Harvey Tyrone Jones who passed away in December of 1999. Affectionately known to family and friends as "Dette", Julia accepted Christ at an early age and became a member of Union Baptist Church in Plateau, Alabama. She was an outstanding student throughout her school years and graduated with honors from Mobile County Training School in Plateat in 1943. Following high school she joined the United States Cadet Corps for Nurses and graduated with her Registered Nurses Degree (RN) in 1946 from Columbus Hospital School of Nursing in Columbus, Georgia. Her first employment was at Tuskegee General Hospital in Tuskegee, Alabama. During her tenure there, she met and married Rupert Saint John Jones of Chicago in 1951. They became the paren of one son.
Homewood woman recalls growing up in Africatown Above obituary is from The Pittsburgh Press, Wednesday, 12 February 1992, p. 20.
Clipping supplied by Vernetta Henson, n.d.
Above from the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Monday 1 November 1971, p. 31 Note that “Pgh” means “Pittsburgh” Above from the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Thursday, 24 February 2011, p. 22.
Eldridge, lowa nurse practitioner mobilized in support of COVID-19
Clipping supplied by Vernetta Henson, n.d.
Clipping supplied by Vernetta Henson, n.d.
Published by Press-Register on May 1, 2009.
Clipping supplied by Vernetta Henson, n.d.
The main driver of these high estimates is the high number of children than Polee had by each wife. Adding in Generation 8 (not addressed below) and subtracting deaths in Generation 6, there are likely more than 1000-1300 potential members for the Clotiida Descendants Association from the Polee lines alone. Probably many of these persons have no idea that they have such an interesting and courageous ancestral line.
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Ancient fishing gear and associated artifacts from underwater explorations in Israel - a comparative study
by Ehud Galili
ABSTRACT: Underwater archaeological exploration along the Israeli coast revealed fish remains, fishing gear and auxiliary implements. These were recovered from submerged prehistoric villages, anchorages, harbors, fishing grounds and... more
A) Fishing net sinkers from Atlit-Yam (J. Galili) and B) recon- struction of a net (after Stewart (1982: 86); S. Ben Yehuda).
Bronze fishhooks from Haifa south beach site: A) flat tying end and B) with grooves on the shank to improve tying (T. Sagiv). classified into those featuring barbed points and those without them, and also according to the line attachment method. No hooks had eyes, their ends being flattened (Figure 4: A) or tapered. Some had grooves at the tying heads and the shank to improve the line grip (Figure 4: B). The assem- blage included mostly medium-sized hooks intended for catching fish weighing between | to 15 kg (Kotzer Adam, pers. com.). The lead added to the aforementioned small hook was intended to sink it when baited (Figure 5: A). Such lead weight hooks are sometimes used by modern fishermen (Figure 5: B). Two large hooks intended for deep- sea fishing of bottom dwellers or for capturing pelagic fish (tuna) were present in the assemblage. These hooks might have belonged to a crew mem- ber who occasionally engaged in fishing. Such practice is still common onboard local merchant ships and yachts. In ancient times, ships were wind-dependent and often anchored for an extend- ed period of time, waiting for a favorable wind. Under such circumstances, maintaining assorted fishing gear onboard must have been common- place. Fishhooks were likewise retrieved from a Late Bronze Age wreck from Ulu Burun (Parker, 1992: 439), and Roman wrecks have yielded sets of fishhooks in wooden boxes (Parker, 1992: 331) or in baskets (Parker, 1992: 444).
Bone tools from Atlit-Yam: A) pierced spatula used for net works, B) net gages C) fishing hook D) points used as barbs of composed hooks, E) a reconstruction of barbed wooden hook (J. Galili, S. Ben Yehuda).
A) a bronze fishhook with lead envelope, B) a modern fish hook with attached lead sinker.
Solid lead tubes fishing sinkers (and a reconstruction) (T. Sagiv). Classification of lead fishing sinkers from the Israeli coast (E. Galili). Dating and reconstructing ancient fishing-gear sinkers: Lead sinkers have not changed since antiquity. Thus dating them must be based on asso- ciated artifacts from a datable assemblage. Mark- ings such as crosses, Greek, Roman or Arabic let- ters which are rarely found can also help in rough dating. Ancient fishing gear sinkers provide infor- mation on ancient fishing tackle. In Israel, groups
Solid cast lead hook-and-line sinkers (T. Sagiv).
Decorated folded rectangular fishing sinkers (IAA). A mold for casting hook and line sinkers from the Sea of Galilee (T. Sagiv).
Reconstruction of lead rings used as net sinkers (T. Sagiv).
Modern cast net and ancient sinkers (T. Sagiv). The function of lead sinkers recovered from the Carmel coast wreckage site: Lead lines can be divided into three groups: 1) Working lines for pulling heavy loads, e.g., lead lines of beach seines and ring seines (Figure 8); and 2) Non-working lines not designed to withstand energetic strains in casting or retrieving the nets. The lead line of the cast net is an example of this group (Figure 12); and 3) Semi-working lines exist between the two stated functions. The diameter of the hole which once enclosed the lead line offers a clue as it fits the diameter of the lead line. In this way, the nature of the net, to which a given sinker belonged, may be deduced.
Modern traditional and ancient netting tools (J. Galili).
Using a netting tool (S. Ben Yehuda).
An Egyptian sailor casting a sounding-weight? (After the Cairo Museum).
Inscriptions on sounding-weight (E. Galili).
A collection of common sounding weights type | from Israel (E. Galili). Typology of Israeli Sounding Weights: Kapitan (1969-71) made the first attempt at creat- ing a SW typology. Later, Oleson (2000) summa- rized previous studies and proposed a general clas- sification system for ancient SW based on 177 SW from the Mediterranean and inland European waters (Oleson, 2008). Recently, a typology of Israeli SW has been established (Galili & Rosen, 2009). There are eight types here: Type 1: The most common in Israel (Figure 18). The suspension lug, usually square or rectangular, is cast with the body. Many have nail holes on the body side and are the only ones bearing decorations. Type 2 (The wide
A) Grapnels from the Carmel coast Israel, and B) a reconstruc- tion of grapnels used for salvaging lost nets (E. Galili, S. Ben Yehuda).
Traditional iron salvage ring in use by fishermen in Akko (J. Galili). Different methods of operating salvage rings (E . Galili). Rosen, 2008b) (Figure 20). Caught fish tend to flee to shelters, often dragging the gear along with them. Pulling the gear by force tears it and causes it to be lost. A salvage ring overcomes such prob- lems. A boat is positioned over the entangled gear, and then the ring, secured by a salvage rope, is dropped down. The tightened fishing-line directs the ring exactly to where it is entangled. The ring works in two ways: It either releases the gear by pulling it downwards away from the rock over- hang or crevice (Figure 21: A) or else repetitive dropping of the ring breaks the rock and releases the gear free (Figure 21: B). Altogether, 14 stone (Figure 22: A) and lead (Figure 22: B) SR have been recovered along the Israeli coast. A tentative typology of SR was suggested by Galili & Rosen (2008b). All have the basic ring shape but are of different external diameters and different weights (i.e. 0.7-25.4 kg). Their cross-sections are round, plano-convex, square or rectangular. Two of the stone SR are executed on limestone, two on local stones (i.e. marble or schist) and one on sandstone. A lead SR from Ashkelon bears an inscription per- haps marking ownership or a charm to ensure suc- cess. The letters and ligature styles of the inscrip- tion are from the 6" to 7 centuries A.D. (Rosa Last, pers. com.). Most SR were recovered from fishing grounds and are hard to date. A lead SR from Haifa is uniquely heavy (Galili & Sharvit,
Salvage rings (SR) for releasing entangled fishing gear: Fishing gear used at sea often gets entangled on the sea bottom at depths inaccessible for divers. Salvage rings (SR) made of various materials have long been used to release it. These are still used by traditional Israeli and Mediter- ranean fisherman (Laures, 1985; Pulak & Townsend, 1987; Oleson, 1994: 73; Galili &
A) Five holed stones for coral harvesting from the Carmel coast, and B) a reconstruction of operating the instrument (E. Galili). Archaeofauna 22 (2013): 145-166 A) Five holed stones for coral harvesting from the Carmel coast, and B) a reconstruction of operating the instrument (E. Galili). Coral-harvesting devices: Four five-holed square stones (Figure 23) were recovered off the Israeli coast (Figure 1). One of them, weighing 92 kg, was made of white, soft limestone snd was found off the Carmel coast (Frost, 2001). Two oth- ers, weighing 38 and 92 kg, were recovered from a 1“—century B.C. Hellenistic wreck off Megadim coast, north of Atlit (Galili & Rosen, 2008b). The last one was reported in 2010 by a fisherman diver off Ashkelon Tell (Yossi Ayalon, pers. com.). Sim- ilar five-holed stones have been found by divers in several north Mediterranean sites. It has been sug- gested that these were used as sinkers of coral-har- vesting devices (Galasso, 1998; Frost, 2001; Galasso, 2001; Purpura, 2005). Red coral (Coral- lium rubrum) is a precious commodity often found in commercial quantities only in the western and central Mediterranean. Corals grow slowly and are easily over-exploited. Consequently, efforts were made to devise instruments that harvested coral at depths beyond the reach of free divers. One such instrument is a cross with nets or net bags hanging from the cross tips, and/or on ropes connecting the tips of the arms (Galasso, 1998: 18-31). Corals
A) Stone salvage rings, and B) lead salvage rings from Israel (E. Galili).
A Byzantine five pronged fishing spear head from Dor, before (A) and after (B) cleaning (E .Galili). coastal site of Dor, occupied since at least 2000 BCE, is located on the central Carmel coast some 25 km south of Haifa (Figure 1). It is situated near one of the best protected natural shelters along the Israeli coast. Rescue surveys at Dor south anchor- age revealed a pile of Kurkar ashlar stones and an assemblage of metal artifacts, including a fishing gear set (Galili & Rosen, 2008a). A total of 27 bronze coins and a «lump» containing an addition- al 53 dated the shipwreck to 659-663/4 AD. The artifacts used for fishing and fishing-related acti- vities included a) Folded rectangular fishing gear sinkers made of lead; b) A striking head of a five- pronged iron spear with barbed prongs and a hol- low, conical shaft housing (Figure 24); c) An iron fire basket for maintaining fire, probably a light- emitting device used to lure marine creatures. This device was formed of a shallow flat-bottomed Light-fishing with harpoon and cast net from the Dor 7 c. AD shipwreck: The ancient
FIGURE 25 Iron fire basket from Dor, Byzantine period, before above and after cleaning (E. Galili).
A Late-Byzantine image of light-fishing using a cast net (After Galili & Rosen, 2008a).
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Chinese Whispers: Zheng He’s Treasure Ships in the context of Chinese Maritime Policy in the Ming Dynasty
by Sarah Ward

2006

Figure 6: Vessel depictions at Angkor Thom, Cambodia Image: Courtesy National Geographic Society
Figure 1: Map of Ming China indicating Zheng He’s (Cheng Ho’s) voyages Image: http://www.chinapage.org/zhenghe.html
Figure 4: Image of a Shachuan vessel Image: (Longjiang Chuanchang zhi) c. 1553 Courtesy of Cambridge University Library Figure 3: Image of a Fuchuan vessel Image: Longjiang Chuanchang zhi c. 1553. Courtesy of Cambridge University Library
Figure 5: Vessel depiction form the AD eighth/ninth century Borobudur Temple, Java. Image: Sir David Attenborough, from McGrail (2001: 303)
Figure 7: Extract from the Catalan Atlas c. 1375 depicting vessels thought to be Chinese Image: Courtesy National Maritime Museum Greenwich from Keith & Buys (1981: 121)
Figure 9: The unexcavated fifth shipyard Photo: S. Ward Figure 8: The sixth shipyard excavations Photo: S. Ward Figure 9: The unexcavated fifth shipyard Figure 8: The sixth shipyard excavations
Figure 10: A map of China locating the ancient capital of Nanjing Image: Courtesy of www.ChinaTravelGuide.com
Figure 11: Longjiang Treasure Shipyard c. 1553 Image: Courtesy of Cambridge University Library.
Figure 12: The 11m rudder Photo: S.Ward 2005.
Figure 14: Liu Chia Harbour, Taichang. Considered the staging post / departure point for Zheng He’s fleet. Photo. S. Ward 2005.
Figure 15: The Quanzhou ship jn situ during excavation. Image: Courtesy Chinese Museum of Overseas Communication (1975
Figure 16: Hypothetical cross-section of the Quanzhou ship. Note V-shaped hull, keel and double/triple planking. Image: Courtesy Chinese Museum of Overseas Communication (1975), reproduced from Keith & Buys (1981: 129).
Figure 17: Simplified plan of the Quanzhou ship. Note paring of bulkheads with frames. Image: Chinese Museum of Overseas Communication (1975), from Keith & Buys (1981: 129).
Figure 18: Sakau wreck /n situ. Note evidence of chunum on the planking. Photo: M. Flecker (2001).
Figure 19: Image of the Lena Shoa/ wreck indicating double hull planking Photo: Courtesy Frank Goddio Society. Reproduced from Goddio (2002: 22).
Figure 20: The 758 kg iron grapnel anchor recovered from Quanzhou Bay in 1982 and dated to the early Ming Dynasty. Photo: G. Li (1982) reproduced from Li (1998: 310).
Figure 21: An arch-shaped limber hole in one of the bulkheads on the PAu Quoc 1 wreck. Photo: M. Flecker from Flecker (2006: 10).
Figures 23 & 24: Top: The seat of the mast and the mast splint are tight against the Bulkhead board to ensure strength and stability of the mast. Bottom: the transverse section. The stanchions make the whole framework very strong. Drawings: X/ Longfe/ 2005.
Figure 26: Bulkhead timbers Takashima wrecks, Japan. Photos: &. Sasaki (2004)
Figure 27: Forging a grapnel anchor c. 1637 Source: Needham 1964, Figure 47. Page not numbered.
Figure 28: Shachuan and Baochuan relative (to Fuchuan) survival probability at various wind-wave conditions. Source: Chen & Hsu 2002 (in Chen 2003: 10).
Figure 29: The imagined appearance of the Zheng He Treasure Fleet. Source: Lin 2005: 23.
Figure 29: Columbus’ Santa Maria at anchor in 1492. Painting by Andries van Eertvelt c. 1628. Source: National Maritime Museum Greenwich
Figure 2: Ship dimensions as reported in Lo Mong-Teng 1597 and other sources. One zhang is approximately equivalent to between 2.70 and 2.80m (Xi & Chalmers 2004: 7) NB: the Length /Width ration has been calculated and included by the current author for the purposes of comparison. Source: Su 2005: 213; Xi 2005: 470.
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City of Sinners: An Archaeological Study of Port Royal, Jamaica
by Thomas Durbin
An overview and evaluation of the archaeological data recovered from the submerged site of Port Royal, Jamaica, with particular focus on the evidence for trade and piracy.
Figure 1: Map of Jamaica showing the location of Port Royal, the Palisadoes peninsula and Kingston Harbour. Map data: Google 2013, compiled by the author. settlement was no more of a success; there were never more than 1500 people living
Figure 3: An onion bottle representing those recovered from Port Royal. Photo: Museums of History and Ethnography, The Institute of Jamaica. sounding equipment was also utilised to map the underwater city (Link 1960, pp. 165
Figure 4: Plan showing locations of Marx and INA excavations. Plan: D. L. Hamilton, Port Royal Project.
Figure 5: Reconstructive drawing of the 5 main Lime Street buildings excavated in the INA/TAMU project. Drawing: O. Cox, Port Royal Project. Ine most extensive and longest-running underwater excavation of Fort Royal rar from 1981 to 1990 and was carried out by Donny L. Hamilton alongside the Institute o1 Nautical Archaeology, Texas A&M University and the Jamaican National Heritage Trust. As an academic project simultaneously used to train nautical archaeology students (Hamiltor 1987) it was a very significant undertaking, even though the initial primary objective was tc simply find out if controlled excavation could be carried out considering the stratigraphic visibility and other problems faced by prior investigators. It was found very quickly tha’ and, more importantly, reinforced its need for extensive future work.
Figure 6: Plan of Building 1. Plan: S. Clifford, Port Royal Project. brick structures not unlike those that would have been seen in London and Boston
Figure 7: Reconstructive drawing of the excavated buildings in relation to Queen and Lime Streets and showing the Building 4/5 complex Lime Street extension. Drawing: D. L. Hamilton, Port Royal Project. pper storey, suggested by the one-and-a-half brick thick main walls (Hamilton 2000b) 17 |t must be noted that due to the nature of the settlement’s destruction, the potential upper storeys of buildings are not immediately visible and their original presence must be determined through other factors, as mentioned below.
Figure 9: Drawing of one of the smaller pair of Fo Dogs recovered from Port Royal. Drawing: H. Dewolf, INA Newsletter 17 (2). 19 Although kiln evidence at Dehua suggests blanc de Chine was first made in the Song Dynasty (960-1279), its distinctive form was established in the 17th century (Litzenburg & Bailey 2003; Valenstein 1975).
Figure 10: Late 17th-century English flower vase. Photo: TAMU, Port Royal Project.
Figure 11: Late 17th-century Dutch plate rim. Photo: TAMU, Port Royal Project.
Figure 13: Fragments of a late 17th-century jar lid. Photo: TAMU, Port Royal Project. Figure 12: Mid-to-late 17th-century English cup. Photo: TAMU, Port Royal Project.
Figure 14: An example of pewter plates (flatware) recovered from Port Royal. These are 3 of the 61 pewter pieces to bear Simon Benning’s mark. Photo: TAMU, Port Royal Project. recovered, the objects bearing these makers’ marks are mostly single mould flatware26 23 pewter plates were found in Room 2 of Building 5 that bore the makers’ mark of
Figure 15: Simon Benning’s mark. Image: TAMU, Port Royal Project.
Figure 16: One of the 47 Type 1.73 kaolin pipe bowls found at Port Royal that display the makers’ mark of Llewellin Evans. Drawing: G. L. Fox (1998, p. 244).
Figure 17: Copper engraving of Bartholomew Roberts. Image: C. Johnson, from his General History of the Pirates, 2nd edition (1724). Ine Welsn pirate Bartholomew Hoberts Is one of the MOst well-Known Tigures of the Golden Age of Piracy, spanning the period from 1650 to 1730 (Rediker 2011, p. 8)*°. Though he is known today as Black Bart, the name was first used as the title of a poem by 1. D. Hooson, a 20th-century Welsh poet (Sanders 2007, p. 18). Though the poem’s portrayal of him as a hero is inaccurate, Roberts has good reason to be famous. Said to be the most successful pirate of the period (Konstam 2002, p. 106) and the 5th highest-
At the time of writing, little work has been done on the Ranger wreck and almos othing has been published. Though no major excavation has been carried out, in June 012 the INA project ‘Pirate Shipwrecks of Port Royal’ led by C. Gulseth of TAMU aimed tc lap and survey the wreck site. A grid of 5 metre squares along a 15 metre baseline -igure 18) was used to take measurements in order to start creating both a physica -igure 19) and digital map of the site and bathymetry readings were taken to generate < (Figure 19) and digital map of the site and bathymetry readings were taken to generate a At the time of writing, little work has been done on the Ranger wreck and almost
igure 19: A plan is drawn of the wreck using the measurements taken. ?hoto: INA, Pirate Shipwrecks of Port Royal.
Figure 20: Digital contour map of the seafloor around the Ranger wreck Plan: INA, Pirate Shipwrecks of Port Royal.
Although the project objective was to record artefacts in situ, it was decided that
Figure 22: C. Gulseth with onion bottle A1, recovered from Ranger. Photograph: INA, Pirate Shipwrecks of Port Royal.
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Dissertation (Univ. of Texas at Austin): Commercial Navigation in the Greek and Roman World
by Dan Davis
To Madeleine and Kie, for the time we shall never recover v Acknowledgements I am grateful to many people for help, both direct and indirect, in seeing this dissertation through to completion. First and foremost is Prof. Joseph Carter, my... more
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Method, Theory, and Maritime Archaeology
by Filipe Castro and 
2 more
Ricardo Borrero
Tânia Manuel Casimiro

2022, 2. Castro, F., Borrero, R., Casimiro. T., 2022. Diving into Theory: Why should we combine Method and Theory in Maritime Archaeology? Nordic Theoretical Archaeology Group. Oslo, April 22, Session 4.

Biology, subsistence, evolution, perception, adaptation, ecology, social organization, power structures, production processes and chains, mobility, ideology, freedom, ideology, death and religion, our relationship with objects (man-made... more
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7th Landscape Archaeology Conference 2022 (10-15 septembre 2022, Iasi, Romania)
by Christophe Morhange and 
2 more
Alexandra Bivolaru
Daniela Cottica

2022, 7th Landscape Archaeology Conference

The call for abstracts of the 7th Landscape Archaeology Conference 2022 is now open. The conference will take place online from 10 th-15 th of September. We hereby invite anyone interested to attend and share their research results in... more
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Overview of Underwater Archaeological Research with Advanced Technologies in Greece
by Theotokis Theodoulou
Underwater archaeological salvage operations in Greece commenced with ‘nude diving’ in Lord Elgin’s wrecked ship Mentor in 1802 at Kythera, continued with hard helmet diving at the Salamis straits in 1877, at Antikythera in 1900 and... more
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The Naval War
by Mark Dunkley

2018, Legacies of the First World War. Building for Total War 1914 -1918

Archaeological summary of the First World War at Sea
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Europe's Lost Frontiers Volume 1 - In Press!
by Vincent Gaffney and 
1 more
Simon Fitch

2022, Europe's Lost Frontiers: Volume 1 Context and Methodology

Worrying about that finding that perfect gift – look no further – Volume 1 of Europre’s Lost Frontiers is now in press. Informative and, even better, open access – the introductory monograph of the project will be published in August by... more
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MEDITERRANEAN ARCHAEOLOGY & ARCHAEOMETRY 20016 VOL 16 No 2 AUGUST
by IOANNIS LIRITZIS
The New Issue of MAA (www.maajournal.com) August 2016 with papers on : GIS, IT, Archaeoastroomy, numismatics, settlement archaeology and more..... FREE DOWNLOAD, REAL OPEN ACCESS....... 1. EXAMINATION AND ANALYSES OF A WOODEN FACE A THE... more
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THE LOST PALACE: Hellenistic Palace of Alexandria Julia Gruhot ARTH 302
by Julia K C Gruhot
Kimberly Cassibry On July 21 st 328 CE an earthquake rocked the Mediterranean, earthquakes are neither uncommon in the seismically active area between the Eurasian and African plates nor was this the most devastating earthquake to strike... more
Figure 5. Pebble mosaic- Lion Hunt, Pella 2" century BCE
Figure 6. Pebble Mosaic- Erostes hunting a Stag, Alexandria Baselia 3 Century BCE
Figure 8. Ptolemy Il, Egypt, 270 BCE Figure 7. Khuienkhufu, Giza, 2407 BCE
Figure 10. Imprint of Upper Egyptian stone block
Figure 9. Archaeologist clearing limestone paving to support buildings
Figure 11. Franck Goddio artist reconstruction of eastern harbor Figure 11. Most recent map of Eastern Harbor
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From Golden Rock to Historic Gem: A historical archaeological analysis of the maritime cultural landscape of St. Eustatius, Caribbean Netherlands
by Ruud Stelten

2019

St. Eustatius, a small island in the northeastern Lesser Antilles, was one of the busiest ports in the eighteenth-century Atlantic World. Contested between the Dutch, French, and English, the island attracted thousands of ships a year and... more
Figure 4.10a Drawing of the northern part of SE-511, where two anchors were found in close proximity to each other. Anchor 20 is laying on a narrow stretch of reef, while anchor 19 is laying in the sand.
Figure 1.1 Aerial image of St. Eustatius, looking south. The Northern Hills are in the fore- ground, behind which is the Quill. The island in the background, only 13 kilometers south of St. Eustatius, is St. Kitts.
Figure 1.2 Map of St. Eustatius made by Alexander de Lavaux in 1741 showing dozens of sugar plantations that dot the island’s countryside. This map depicts a rather peculiar view of the island. The Northern Hills are drawn much smaller than they actually are — an error more historic maps of the island contain. Nevertheless, the network of roads is similar to that of later maps and even resembles today’s road network, so the southern part of the island is fairly accurately depicted. Source: NA 4.MIKO 3.A.2.5.1. — 339.
‘ion spheres that included terrestrial sites and artifacts, and even immaterial aspects. Therefore, it was decided to incorporate the analysis of submerged archaeological re- mains into a study comprising the entire maritime cultural landscape of the island. The terrestrial-underwater dichotomy, which is present in much archaeological work, s one that does not exist historically on St. Eustatius. In its simplest form, describing he physical location of artifacts and sites on Statia is already problematic, in that some sites or artifacts are found on land during certain times of the year and are submerged Juring others. The dichotomy becomes even more ambiguous when looking at social, economic, and political processes and events through time. Shipwrecks do not exist in 2 vacuum; they are inextricably linked with the ports from which they departed and hose to which they arrived. They are part of local, regional, and even global trade and communication networks. Goods, people, and ideas transported on ships continued heir journey on terrestrial roads once they arrived in ports, making water and land 1 continuous part of the maritime cultural landscape that transcended geographical lifferences and boundaries. This is exemplified by the fact that artifact assemblages ‘ound as cargo at shipwreck sites are similar to those found on terrestrial sites. Perhaps he best example in this regard are Dutch yellow bricks called [/sselsteentjes, which were ised as ballast on ships and offloaded on St. Eustatius to make room for locally-pro- duced raw materials. The former ballast bricks were then used in the construction of the warehouses and merchant homes that dotted the island’s leeward coast. When Statia’s economy collapsed, these structures were dismantled and the same bricks were -xported by ships to be used in construction elsewhere. These seemingly trivial artifacts orovide a direct connection between activities on land and sea, and demonstrate the symbiotic relationship between the colony and the mother country. SD ee © i . i, i: CS oI an rs i: re . es |
Figure 4.1 View of St. Eustatius from the northwest as it appeared in 1774. The large building in Upper Town is the residence of Jan de Windt. To the left of the church tower is the town hall. The first building (with the blue roof) at the front of Lower Town is the weighing-house. The building behind the weighing-house is the headquarters of the Dutch West India Company. The topographical details of this image and Figure 4.2 clearly indicate that their maker was on the island and spent an extended period of time at these vantage points. They are two of the most accurate historic representations of the island known to exist. Watercolor by Emants, after a drawing by A. Nelson. Source: SECAR collection.
Figure 4.2 View of St. Eustatius from the southeast as it appeared in 1774. The house left of the church tower, with the flag, is the Governor’s house. Fort Oranje is located between this house and the church tower. Saba can be seen in the background on the left. Most ships are flying the Dutch tricolour, but there are also English flags (the St. George’s Cross) to be seen on the ships. Watercolor by Emants, after a drawing by A. Nelson. Source: SECAR Collection.
Figure 4.3 Polychrome Dutch delftware plate dating to 1730-1740. Eight of these plates, all with the same decoration, were found on top of each other in a ditch on the southwestern side of the slave quarters at Schotsenhoek plantation. The photo shows different plate fragments overlaid. Photo by the author.
Figure 4.4 Locations of archaeological sites mentioned in the text. The red line marks the location of the Eutel trench excavated in 2011; 1. Possible slaughterhouse; 2. Unidentified storage or production vat; 3. Ceramic production site excavated in 2006; 4. Warehouse excavated in 2008; 5. Almost completely intact warehouse excavated in 2013; 6. Oven or rum distillery excavated in May 2013; 7. Oven or rum distillery excavated in March 2013.
Figure 4.5 Watercolor of Lower Town made by Samuel Fahlberg in 1829 from a boat about 500 meters from shore. The large building with the Dutch gables on the bottom left was investigated in 2008. To the left of this building, behind the canoes, is the weighing-house. Source: Rotterdam Maritime Museum, inv. nr. P2192.
Figure 4.6 The oven or rum distillery found in May 2013. Scale: 1 meter. Photo by the author. Several warehouses have been investigated in recent years as well. In 2008, SECAR conducted an excavation in the warehouse next to the weighing house, which is now restored and houses a small gift shop (Labiau 2008). Figure 4.5 depicts the building on the lower left side, recognizable by its Dutch gables. It was built in one phase in
Figure 4.7 The basalt stone foundation piers on top of the nearly intact yellow brick floor from a completely excavated warehouse in 2013. The top of the image shows the slots for the floor joists. Scale: 1 meter. Photo by Pieter Soffers.
Figure 4.8 Drawing of St. Eustatius and its roadstead made by an unknown artist around 1790. Given the details in the island’s topography present in the drawing, it is almost certain that the artist visited the island himself and drew this scene from aboard a ship. The image clearly shows that many ships anchored far offshore. Source: Library of Congress, G5032.S5A35 177-S8.
Figure 4.9 Side scan sonar mosaic of the central, elevated part of SE-510. The higher parts of the reef produce acoustic shadows which provide an indication of relative height above the sea floor. The distance between anchors 25 and 30 is 320 meters. The reef is oriented north- east-southwest. Anchor 30 marks the southwestern tip of the site. of the reef produce acoustic shadows which provide an indication of relative height above the
Figure 4.11a Anchor 17, lost in a 22-meter-deep sandy area in the middle of the historic anchorage zone. It is 306 centimeters long and heavily overgrown with corals and sponges. The fluke in the foreground had become partly detached. Photo by Mike Harterink.
Figure 4.11b Anchor 2, lost on a reef just outside of Jenkins Bay at a depth of 13 meters. This an- chor, measuring 222 centimeters in length, is the only one found in the northern part of the island. Photo by Mike Harterink.
Figure 4.12 Left: Anchor 22, found on top of the reef at SE-511 at a depth of 24 meters. It is 242 centimeters long. Right: Anchor 1030, found inside the reef of SE-510 at 22 meters deep. Of this anchor only one arm remains. The anchor got stuck underneath the ledge in the center of the image. The force of the ship pulling on the anchor caused this arm to break off. Photos by Mike Harterink.
Figure 4.13 Blue beads of the WIIf*(d) type. The beads in the top image were found at Blue Bead Hole. The left bead is 16 millimeters long and 13 millimeters wide. The beads in the bottom image were found in a hoard during an archaeological excavation by SECAR north of the Old Gin House hotel in Lower Town in 2013. Nearly every terrestrial archaeological site excavated on St. Eustatius, with the notable exception of the slave quarters at Schotsenhoek, contains blue bead of the WIIf*(d) type. Photos by the author.
Figure 4.14 Divers measuring ballast piles at Blue Bead Hole. Next to this 8-meter-long pile, an elongated, completely encrusted metal artifact was found that is thought to be a musket. It was left in place due to limited conservation possibilities at SECAR. Photo by Mike Harterink.
Figure 4.15 The cannon in front of battery Nassau which may be part of a wrecked ship. Photo by Mike Harterink. Ye Four dives were made in Tumble Down Dick Bay as part of a commercial project carried out for NuStar by the author in 2014 (Stelten 2014). The aim of this project was to investigate if there were any archaeological remains, particularly those related to shipwrecks, present in close vicinity to NuStar’s jetty or underwater pipes. Several artifacts were found in depressions in the sand around the jetty’s central pilings around 500 meters from shore . These included fragments of ceramic and glass and several pieces of animal bone. The artifacts may have originated from anchored ships or even shipwrecks, but as no remains of ships were encountered, this could not be confirmed.
Figure 4.16 Drawing by S. Weuijster depicting slave traders on the roadstead of St. Eustatius in 1763. Goods and people are being transported between ships and the island by enslaved people in canoes. The ships in the foreground are anchored far offshore. Source: Atlas van Stolk collection, 9583, Rotterdam.
Figure 4.17 The pier and Lower Town in 1910 or shortly after. At this time, the stone docks had already been destroyed by the sea. Source: private collection, St. Eustatius resident.
some point in time it was reinforced with concrete at its base, but the exact year this was done is unknown. The pier made it easier for vessels to load and offload goods as they did not have to go through the swells and onto the beach anymore. The end of the
Figure 4.19 The only known historic drawing of a Statian sugar plantation and provisioning grounds, dating to 1761. In the foregrounds coconut trees, pineapples, and root crops are depicted. Source: Nederlands Scheepvaartmuseum Amsterdam, no. A.1710 (03). ARAL R RR VALID: NERD AM NAEESE R: READE SE MORALE SPY VV ALDEN DED Dane Dy hts The total land area in possession of planters in the 1830s was 1059 hectares, of which 332 hectares was dedicated to sugar cane and 61 hectares to provisioning grounds. Based on cartographic evidence, Gilmore calculated that on average, 22 per- cent of each plantation on St. Eustatius was dedicated to provisioning grounds in 1781 (Gilmore 2004:169). This is slightly higher than in the 1830s, which is to be expected given that, during this time, there were far fewer mouths to feed than half a century earlier.
Figure 4.20 A 265 kg leatherback turtle that was caught at Zeelandia in 1932 when she came up to the beach to lay eggs. She was brought into town by donkey cart and butchered a few days later. Source: SECAR collection.
Figure 4.21 Harvesting yams in the Statian countryside in 1928. Source: SECAR collection. At the turn of the nineteenth century, pigs were roaming freely around the island, even in town. Eleven plantations had been converted into cattle ranches by the 1830s. Statians could choose from a variety of meats. Teenstra noted that the island housed 132 horses, 130 mules, 90 donkeys, 302 head of cattle, 91 calves, 570 sheep, 52 goats, and 55 pigs (Teenstra 1837:350). Chickens were not listed, but these were probably found all over the island. Numbers of livestock increased slowly during the nineteenth
Figure 5.1 Litograph of Upper Town in 1860 by G.W.C. Voorduin. Many buildings shown here are preserved in good condition to the present day. Source: Collection Rijksmuseum, RP-P-1909-1782. provisions and merchandise in the streets and on the market, government officials lived
Figure 5.2 Sketch of St. Eustatius made in 1723 by Jan Stalperts. Source: NA 1.05.01.02, 1182, stuk 14.
Figure 5.3 Examples of features found in the Schotsenhoek slave quarters excavation. Left: post hole indicating the location of one of the posts of a slave dwelling, scale: 50 cm. Right: ditch located in the northwestern part of the site, scale: 2 m.
Figure 5.4 A reconstruction drawing of the Schotsenhoek plantation and slave quarters created after the excavation, based on all available archaeological and documentary evidence. Seven slave dwellings and provisioning grounds are shown in the foreground. The building in the background is the plantation owner’s residence. In the center, from left to right, is an animal mill, boiling house, well, and curing house. Drawing by Andy Gammon.
Figure 5.5 Excerpt of the 1781 map of St. Eustatius made by P.F. Martin during the British occupation of the island. The red polygon marks the boundaries of Schotsenhoek plantation; 1. Plantation buildings; 2. Location of slave quarters excavation in the blue rectangle; 3. Slave quarters in 1781 indicated by tent-like structures; 4. Benners plantation cemetery marked by three trees. This is the most detailed historic map of St. Eustatius known to exist. The map wa: composed by the British occupiers. The map’s road network matches the modern road network closely. Many of the numerous plantation boundary walls depicted on the map are still visible in the Statian landscape today. Attesting to its accuracy, this map has been used by the author successfully in the past to locate archaeological sites such as slave quarters, burial grounds, and specific plantation structures. As is the case with the Schotsenhoek slave quarters, how- ever, the configurations of plantations, depicted so detailed on the map, could change through time. Source: University of Michigan, William L. Clements Library Image Bank, ID 892.
Figure 5.6 The Dutch Reformed church and cemetery. Photo by Mike Harterink. ——————eee ee ee <n e Churches had to be rebuilt every so often as they were frequently destroyed by hurricanes. The Dutch Reformed Church was once located on the outskirts of town, but following its destruction a new one was constructed next to Fort Oranje in 1755 (Attema 1976:65). This second church was destroyed in the hurricane of 1772, but quickly rebuilt. This time, the congregation wanted to rebuild it in such a way that it would be the most impressive religious structure on the island. In historical documents it is explicitly stated that the Dutch Reformed congregation did not want to be second to the Jewish congregation, which had erected an attractive synagogue earlier in the century (Hartog 1976:62). Their effort made an indelible mark. The new T-shaped building was an impressive 27 meters long and 19 meters wide. The church tower reached a height of 21 meters and was plastered white, making it visible from as far away as Saba. The fact that the tower is one of the most visible structures on eight- eenth- and nineteenth-century drawings and watercolors of the island underscores the
Figure 5.7 Synagogue Honen Dalim. Photo by the author. covered by white sand that, besides being aesthetically pleasing and muting the noise of In stark contrast to the Dutch Reformed Church stands the Jewish synagogue, which occupied a completely different position in the cognitive component. The growth of the Jewish community on the island by the 1730s prompted the decision to build a synagogue. Its construction was completed in 1739 and the synagogue was named Honen Dalim, which translates as “she who shows mercy to the poor” (Hartog 1976:58). The building was leveled during a hurricane in 1772 but it was quickly rebuilt. Made of yellow bricks and skillfully cut basalt corner stones, the synagogue is one of the most visually appealing buildings in the center of Oranjestad. The two-story building’s interior measures 12.4 x 7.8 meters. The second story contained a wooden balcony that was accessed by an exterior stone stairway still present next to the ground floor entrance. As men and women were separated during religious ceremonies, the balcony was the women’s area while the ground floor was reserved for men. Excavations carried out in 1983 by archaeologists from the College of William & Mary indicate that the building used to have a wooden floor that was supported by four walls run- ning parallel to each other across the building’s main axis (Barka 1988). The floor was covered by white sand that, besides being aesthetically pleasing and muting the noise of
Figure 5.8 The tomb of former Governor Jan de Windt (1717-1775), decorated with a skull and crossbones and a winged hourglass. Photo by Mike Harterink. quered the island, the Admiral set up his headquarters in the Simon Doncker house.
Figure 5.9 Evidence of alcohol consumption found in the Schotsenhoek plantation slave quar- ters. Top: wine glass dating to the period 1705-1715. Bottom: early eighteenth-century wine bottle fragments. Photos by the author.
Figure 5.10 One of the many clay tobacco pipes in the collection of the St. Eustatius Center for Archaeological Research. Many pipes found on the island are elaborately decorated. This one is decorated with a three-masted sailing ship, underscoring the importance of the maritime world to the people of St. Eustatius. Photo by the author.
The English were the first Europeans to settle on St. Eustatius in 1625, but they moved soon after, probably due to unsuccessful attempts to set up agricultural ventures (Alofs 1997:76). When Pieter Van Corselles and his men took possession of the island for the Dutch in 1636 they found the ruins of a deserted bastion that had been built by the French in 1629. It was on this bastion that they built Fort Oranje. The French tempo- rarily settled on Statia in 1629 because they were afraid the Spanish were going to use the island as a base from which to attack the French settlement on St. Kitts (Hartog Figure 6.1 Oblique aerial view of Fort Oranje in 2014. The fort was restored in 1979. To the right is the Dutch Reformed church. The Quill is in the background. Photo by Fred van Keulen
Figure 6.2 “View of St. Eustatia” by Charles Forrest. This drawing was made in April 1781, two months after the British conquered the island. British men-of-war are depicted on the left while smaller vessels used in the inter-island trade are shown in the foreground. Source: British Library, Ktop CXXIII, 76.
were three regiments of soldiers. Great Britain had just declared war on the Dutch Republic two months earlier (the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War), and Rodney and Hood were ordered to capture the island to put an end to the arms trade between St. Eustatius and the North American rebels (Hartog 1976:84). The capture of St. Eustatius was of paramount importance for the British, as is aptly illustrated by a quote from Lord Stormont in British Parliament in 1778: “If St. Eustatius had sunk into the sea three years before, the United Kingdom would already have dealt with George Washington” (Nielson 2010:IV).
Figure 6.3 The French landing at Jenkins Bay on the night of November 26, 1781. Displayed at Windsor Castle.
Figure 6.5 Shoe buckles found in the Schotsenhoek slave quarters. The left buckle is compose: of a lead alloy, while the right buckle is made of a copper alloy and contains an iron alloy backpiece. Both types date to the period 1720-1800. Photos by the author.
Figure 6.6 Wind mill at Fair Play plantation with the Quill in the background. Part of the mill, including the inscribed keystone, collapsed during hurricane Lenny in 1999. Photo by the author.
All Statian fortifications, without exceptions, were located at highly visible points in the landscape. This served two functions: soldiers in the forts and batteries always had an unobstructed view of their surroundings while, on the other hand, ships sailing past the island were able to see the many works of defense and their artillery pointed at them. Even though a lot of these guns were not fit for service and proved to be more dangerous to the people firing them than to the people they were firing at, and there were never enough skilled soldiers and gunners on the island to operate all pieces of artillery simultaneously, pirates and privateers sailing near the island would not have necessarily known this. From the outside, St. Eustatius and its surrounding waters would have appeared to be an impenetrable stronghold. The fact that all fortifications were located on top of steep cliffs at elevations tens or even hundreds of meters higher than passing vessels meant that these could easily fire at ships, but ships could not fire back at them. Perched on steep cliffs often inaccessible from shore, the natural landscape ensured that the forts and batteries exerted a form of control, power, and dominance over anyone who came within the reach of their guns. This way, their impact stretched much further than the island itself; up to three kilometers of sea around the island — the reach of some of the heaviest pieces of artillery — was added to their sphere of influence. On islands with less dramatic differences in elevation, such as Bonaire and Curacao, fortifications would not have been as imposing and would not have played such a prominent role in the power component. Using SECAR’s digital elevation model, a viewshed analysis of the island’s forts and batteries was conducted
Figure 7.1 Arriving and departing vessels at St. Eustatius in 1787. Over 92 ports of origin and 86 ports of departure were documented. Only those ports involving more than twenty vessels in total are included in the graph. Source: NA 1.05.01.02 - 1330, folio 2965-3264.
Figure 7.2 Arriving and departing vessels to and from St. Eustatius in 1787. Arriving ves- sels totalled 2,755, departing vessels totalled 2,827. The sharp decline in August, September and October is a result of the Atlantic hurricane season. Source: NA 1.05.01.02 - 1330, folio 2965-3264.
Underwater transects surveyed between April 2014 and August 2015. Areas in the yellow rectangles are enlarged on the next pages.
Underwater transects surveyed between April 2014 and August 2015. Areas in the yellow rectangles are enlarged on the next pages.
Underwater archaeological sites and artifacts Archaeological sites on the roadstead. SE-510, SE-511, and SE-512 are lava flows on which many anchors got stuck.
Underwater archaeological sites and artifacts Underwater anchor and cannon distribution. Anchors are represented by red dots, cannon by green dots. Areas in the yellow rectangles are enlarged on the next pages.
Underwater archaeological sites and artifacts
Underwater archaeological sites and artifacts
Extent of the roadstead Extent of the roadstead.
Shipwreck site drawings, 1987-1988
Shipwreck site drawings, 1987-1988
Text reference locations Satellite image of St. Eustatius with topographical features mentioned in the text. 1. The Quill; 2. White Wall; 3. Signal Hill; 4. Bergje; 5. Boven Hill; 6. Gilboa Hill; 7. Little Round Hill; 8. Gallows Bay; 9. Oranje Bay; 10. Tumble Down Dick Bay; 11. Jenkins Bay; 12. Venus Bay; 13. Turtle Bay; 14. Corre Corre Bay; 15. Back Off Bay; 16. Kay Bay; 17. Oranjestad; 18. NuStar; 19. Zeelandia; 20. Halfway Path.
Text reference locations Satellite image of St. Eustatius with archaeological sites mentioned in the text. 1. Battery De Windt; 2. Battery Nassau; 3. Battery Bouillé; 4. Battery Royal; 5. Fort Panga; 6. Corre Corre Battery; 7. Pleasures plantation; 8. Fair Play plantation; 9. English Quarter plantation; 10. Steward plantation; 11. Godet plantation; 12. Benners plantations; 13. Schotsenhoek plantation; 14. Concordia plantation; 15. Princess plantation; 16. Crook’s Castle; 17. Fort Amsterdam.
Text reference locations Satellite image of Upper and Lower Town with archaeological sites and locations mentioned in the text. 1. Harbor; 2. Blue Bead restaurant; 3. Old Gin House hotel; 4. Former weighing house (now Scubaqua Dive Center); 5. Bay Path; 6. Smoke Alley; 7. Fort Oranje; 8. Dutch Reformed Church and cemetery; 9. Synagogue Honen Dalim; 10. Roman Catholic Church; 11. Jewish cemetery; 12. Seventh Day Adventist church; 13. Free black village; 14. Anglican cemetery; 15. Wilhelmina Park; 16. Simon Doncker house (now the historical museum); 17. Government guest house; 18. Godet House.
Table 5.1 Historic population numbers for St. Eustatius. Source: Gilmore 2004:54 Throughout St. Eustatius’ history, most middle- and upper-class citizens resided in Upper Town, the island’s first and main settlement. In the seventeenth century, habitation in this area most likely consisted of scattered farms around Fort Oranje. Urbanization in Upper Town started to take place in the eighteenth century when prosperity and population numbers increased. The built environment of Upper Town was quite different from that in Lower Town and on the plantations. Zimmerman provided a detailed description of typical Statian houses, presumably in Upper Town (NA 3.01.26 — 161). They were usually one story high wooden constructions topped with a shingled roof. Some houses were two stories high and exhibited stone founda-
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Managing the Marine Cultural Heritage: Defining, Accessing and Managing the Resource (ed)
by Julie Satchell and 
1 more
Mark Staniforth

2007, Managing the Marine Cultural Heritage: Defining, Accessing and Managing the Resource

Recent decades have witnessed an expansion of archaeological activity under water and in the coastal zone.There has also been a realisation of the threats to this material from human and natural action. This period of relatively rapid... more
Figure 1.6 Detail of cascabel end of medium iron cannon lying horizontally on the seabed at site of Duncannon wreck in Waterford Harbour
Figure 1.1 UAU archaeological diver recording a large siege carriage wheel on the site of the 1588 Spanish Armada wreck La Trinidad Valencera maps that will also act as location maps for the wrecks around the coastline. This zoned method of repre- senting the possible locations of wrecks has been formulated because a large majority of wreck locations are either approximate or unknown. Zones will now represent the history of wrecking in an area, rather than a single dot denoting a wreck location. Thus, areas of more intense colour will represent areas of high wreck potential. Each zone will be accessible through the GIS database, with various drop-down fields providing key information on each recorded wreck in that particular zone. These zone maps are still at a preliminary stage, but, when finalised, will provide a user-friendly and interactive means to acquire detailed information on potential wreck sites in each zone around the coast. The Shipwreck Inventory of Ireland will be the most comprehensive publication to date on wrecks from around the Irish coast and will be a valuable resource for a wide audience ranging from local divers to archaeologists and from devel- opers to the general public. The Shipwreck Inventory of Ireland and selective survey The UAU is currently focusing its brief on two main areas of activity — the publication of a Shipwreck Inventory of Ireland and the survey of selected sites from around the coast and inland waterways. Work began on the Inventory in 1997 when DEHLG estab- lished a maritime unit to undertake a paper-based survey of all recorded shipwrecks from around the coast of Ireland. This work has progressed steadily over the years and is at an advanced stage. There are over 10,000 wrecks recorded to date and this figure is increasing as research continues. The present plan is that the Shipwreck Inventory will be published in four volumes, with Volume 1 — Shipwrecks from the coasts of Counties Louth to Wicklow — due for publication in 2006 (Brady 2006). Research for the Shipwreck Inventory primarily focuses on historical and carto- graphic material, as well as previously published works on shipwrecks.
Figure 1.2 Side-scan sonar image of Looe Rock with interpretation of identified anomalies Image: Dr Rory Quinn, CMA, University of Coleraine
Figure 1.3 Exposed timbers of a post-medieval wreck on Sutton Strand, Dublin, during sandbagging and stabilisation work As part of the long-term management for the site a monitoring brief is now agreed between the UAU and Dublin City Council to have the wreck inspected and monitored. over the course of each year at specific low tides. At present, following sandbagging, the wreck site is stable and lies almost totally buried on Sutton Strand. However, should the situation change and the site become unstable, it has also been agreed that mitigation in the form of reassessment, testing, or full excavation may be a future requirement.
‘The sheer scale of the main drainage scheme meant that there would be a substantial impact on the bed of the Abbey River. The UAU and Mr O’Donovan liaised closely, with numerous site visits made by the UAU during the course of the works to ensure that the required mitigation was being implemented. The Figure 1.4 Limerick City gold seal discovered in archaeological excavation during main drainage works in Abbey River Photo: Ed O’Donovan, MGL
Figure 1.5 Side-scan sonar data acquired on the Arklow Bank wreck. The black arrow indicates the position of the wreck, showing a two-dimensional shaded relief model of the wreck site generated from multi-beam bathymetric data (Quinn 2006)
Figure 1.7 UAU distribution map of wrecks around the south-east coast of Ireland. Site of Duncannon wreck indicated in Waterford Harbour
Figure 1.8 Skeletal remains of two adult females located next to the River Ward in Swords, Co. Dublin, during archaeological excavation by UAU What was apparent when recording the bank section was that the human remains appeared to be lying within a midden. When a discreet 2m x 4m cutting was opened to recover the skeleton a further adult and two infant skeletons were found, with one being a neonate. The adults were both female and all four remains were lying within a shell midden site (Fig 1.8). The position of the skeletons, which had no defined orientation, suggested that they were deposited within the midden with no particular The effects of coastal erosion on archaeological remains is a major issue, but these effects go largely unquantified. At present resources are scarce to deal with such issues on a holistic level, and each case discovered or reported can only be dealt with on an individual basis.
2.1 Side-scan sonar image of the Colwell Bay wreck site (Isle of Wight), with the wreck outlined in black. The corresponding Chirp section shows the strong acoustic blanking associated with the location of the wreck timbers at shallow depth. Note that this causes a break in the strong, horizontal, geological reflector at 2.5m depth below seabed In tandem with this work there has also been the development of theoretical models, dominated by Biot (1956a and b) and subsequent variants (Stoll 1985), to predict both the absolute values and frequency depen- dence of both compressional wave velocity and atten- uation for different materials. However, much work has still to be done in terms of increasing the number and range of sediments measured, testing the potential frequency dependence of these measurements, and hence the effectiveness of the predictive models (Robb et al 2005). The frequency dependence issue is partic- ularly important as the laboratory-based measure- ments are taken at frequencies of several hundreds of kHz whereas the majority of the swath bathymetry In order to utilise these acoustic parameters to characterise the seabed and the immediate subsurface it is necessary to both measure the actual acoustic properties of different materials in a controlled envi- ronment and secondly to extract effectively the same acoustic properties from seismic reflection data acquired from the field. Laboratory and in situ measurements of the acoustic impedance of sediments suggest it has a strong correlation with a number of physical properties — porosity, bulk density, and mean grain size (Richardson and Briggs 1993). By compar- ison, the published literature concerning empirical relationships between attenuation coefficient and the
Introduction
To date almost 8000 sites of different types have been recorded on the inventory. These include ballast, ecofacts with anthropogenic association, artefacts, ship graveyards, airplanes, balloons, artificial reefs, harbour structures, shipyards, habitats, graveyards, fortresses, bridges, cetariae, kilns, tide mills, salt ponds, and fish traps. Of course shipwrecks are well represented in the inventory, with many references being derived from written and iconographic sources (Fig 5.2). These ships have been lost in a variety of circumstances and envi- ronments including open water, against the coast (or the shore), abandoned in foreshore contexts, and some- times in urban land environments. A model for this inventory was developed by Paulo Monteiro, a member of the Azores CNANS team (between 1997 and 2000); this was based primarily on archival sources. This example now represents around 10% of the total data of the national inventory (Fig 5.3) (Monteiro 2000).
Figure 5.4 The Ria de Aveiro A shipwreck in 1999, at the moment of dismantling
Figure 5.6 The Angra D shipwreck, Angra bay, Terceira Island, Azores
Figure 5.8 The Lima 5 dugout
Figure 5.9 The-full scale model of Ria de Aveiro A shipwreck
Figure 6.1 The excavation of an 18th-century inland trader in Flevoland in the mid-1980s. Archaeology as part of the reclamation project was taken up 1942. It took the form of excavating and documenting ships as found during the process of putting the new land to use. After the Second World War this activity was integrated into the State Service for Archaeological Excavations. In 1954 it was back with the development agency. Excavating one ship after another was considered a technical routine rather than what archaeologists do. It took another twenty years before maritime archaeological research questions and considerations of frugal management of the resource started to influence what happened in the ‘ship-archaeological department’ (photo: RIJP)
Figure 6.3 Fishing for Pleistocene fossils and fresh fish in the North Sea in May 2003. Is maritime heritage an exception to the rule that the local community should decide on the impor- tance of local heritage? (Photo: T. Maarleveld) Unfortunately, curatorial practice deals with partic- ulars and that is not what national government wants
Figure 7.1 York Archaeological Trust Laboratory
diminishing sales for a maturing product can be seen in the figures. In marketing terms, the important point to note is the need to reinvent or remarket a product periodically to maintain sales. Particularly important therefore on this graph are the increases managed in 1995 and 1996, and again in 2002 and 2003. These can be interpreted as being due to the change in ticketing at the Historic Dockyard, as two and three ship tickets were introduced in 1995 and an all-site ticket in 2002. Although these changes substan- tially increased visitors, the income from each ticket was then less, so visitor income was maintained rather than substantially increased. The poor performance in 1994 was partly caused by a period of difficult customer access, as the views of the ship were badly affected by diminishing sales for a maturing product can be seen
Figure 9.3 Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde: visitor numbers 1969-2005. Data source: Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde in Stockholm, although the Vasa Museum has the advantage of being the main jewel in the crown for tourism in Sweden. Visitor numbers for the Vasa are shown in Figure 9.2 and the early years reflect the usual euphoria of opening followed by a decline as the novelty factor wears off. However, numbers then built up steadily again; this is likely to have been through attracting the international tourist market of the whole region rather than just the local area. There was then a major new product to launch in 1990 with the new Vasa Museum. This was preceded by the low figures of 1988-89 due to closure of the museum, as the ship was floated around to the new location and installed. The Vasa Museum has been able to prevent the usual decline in visitor numbers, perhaps through being the major tourist attraction of the region — the equivalent of the Tower of London. However, it has also ensured that there is a steady stream of new displays and exhibits in the museum and this will have helped to maintain visitor interest and satisfaction amongst repeat visitors. Individual peaks in the data can often be attributable to special years such as 1998 when Stockholm was the European Union Cultural Heri- tage Capital. The fall in 2002 is attributed by the museum to the decline in international travel following the September 11 attacks in 2001, while the ensuing rise coincides with a general increase in international tourism to Stockholm — in particular by cruise ships. The excellent visitor figures enjoyed by these museums suggests that a healthy income can be achieved from the maritime heritage, but certainly in the case of the Mary Rose Trust, the income does not nearly approach what is required to keep the operation going. Even maintaining the museum is an expensive operation, let alone the tremendous cost of conserving the ship and all the objects discovered during the archaeological excavations. As a result of this, all aspects of potential funding have to be explored and continually reassessed.
Figure 9.4 Hands-on activity: pupils rowing a replica boat at Roskilde
New markets and new products There is a need to attract the following groups in greater numbers:
Figure 9.7 Activities and reconstructions: cooking at the galley Figure 9.6 Activities and reconstructions: the Tudor Shipwright Project at a festival
Figure 9.8 Re-enactors with the product of the galley experiments during filming for the BBC Timewatch documentary Photo: Ben Lawrie, BBC Timewatch
Figure 10.1 The ROV Hercules is recovered on the back deck of the RV Knorr during the Institute fo Exploration’s 2003 Black Sea Expedition
Figure 10.2 Institute for Exploration’s ROV Hercules examining the stern of RMS Titanic (courtesy of NOAA/IFE/URI), with one of the expedition’s lesson plans and one of many partner websites
Figure 10.3 Image of the U-166’s forward deck gun (courtesy of C&C Technologies) and the Sonsub ROV team, who effortlessly adapted their industry ROV to conduct intricate scientific work. Logos of project partners are provided
Not only are these lesson plans available on the website, but they were also compiled in Learning Ocean Science through Ocean Exploration, a curric- ulum for teachers that was developed for NOAA Voyages of Discovery and the Ocean Explorer (Chase 2003). This compilation provides teachers In 2003, researchers from NOAA's Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary and the National Undersea Research Centre at the University of Connecticut, in partnership with filmmakers from The Science Channel, returned to the newly discovered wreck site of the side- wheel steamer lost in 1898 during a famous November gale. Their goal was to use an advanced ROV to docu- ment the site as well as a few other wrecks recently located in the Sanctuary (Ocean Exploration 2003b). Figure 10.4 Images from the 2003 Steamship Portland Project. Clockwise from upper left: a lesson plan from the Portland project with the Ocean Exploration curriculum in the background; a side scan image of the Portland wreck site (courtesy of Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary); logos of project partners; a section of an advertisement for the Science Channel’s documentary on the Portland legacy
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15th -Century EP1-Canche Wreck (Pas-de-Calais, France): A Fluvio-Maritime Coaster of Cog Tradition in the North of France?
by Eric Rieth
Fig. 1. Group photograph of the participants of ISBSA 12 (Photo: Engin Sengenc). The excavations in the harbour are still ongoing. Thirty-six shipwrecks dating from the 5" to the 11" centuries have been excavated. Their study will make an enormous contribution to our understanding of ship construction and the transition from shell- first to skeleton-first techniques. It will also allow us to re-examine Byzantine trade and the economy of the period. Furthermore, the remains revealing settlements dating back to 6500 BC, will shed new light on our understanding of the history of the an- cient peninsula. The Turkish coastline had already been the site of pioneering underwater excavations since the 1960s. Indeed, nautical archaeology was initiated
Fig. 2. Group photograph of the participants of the Amasra excursion.
Knowing the Landscape of the River Canche — “ Presently, the wreck is located in a 25 m wide me- ander of the river Canche (Fig. 31.2). It is laid out across the river’s minor bed. The tide coefficients in- dicate the depth to be between 2.50 m and 3.50 m. The banks have a small slope. The river current is al- ways strong. The alternative tide currents which are very sensitive, result in fluctuations of one meter or more during the spring. This contemporary land- scape of the river corresponds to a recent evolution of the Canche characterized, in particular, by natural evolutions of the estuary (by silting), and by human modifications of the river. Dated to the post-medi- eval period, 17-19" centuries, these evolutions are mainly made up of earth dykes (2 to 3 m wide and 1 m height minimum) intended to create agricultural polders and still very discernible within the land- scape (Serna 2009). Tha Beer saan ltes At ths: senlagieal Ra Sele Heeoslod
Fig. 31.3. Axonometric reconstruction of the central part of the wreck (Drawing: Bernard Dangréaux).
of 1/154. Various ‘moulds and battens models’, in particular, have allowed us to reconstruct the gen- eral evolution of the shapes and the necessary geo- metrical closing of the sides on a sharp extremity (a stem) from one broken fragment that has been discovered during the last campaign of excavation in 2009. On the level of the midship-frame, the main re- constructed dimensions of the hull are 2.29 m for the interior breath of the bottom, 2.79 m for the upper breath, 1.28 m for the depth over the ceiling and 1.53 m for the external height (Fig. 31.7). Ac- cording to the currently data, the first advanced hy- pothesis locate the overall length around 14 m with a the interior breath of the bottom, 2.79 m for the ral evolution of the shapes and the necessary geo- (a stem) from one broken fragment that has been
breath/length ratio of 1/5 revealing a geometry of the hull’s shape as more fluvial than maritime. 31. 15" -Century EP1-Canche Wreck (Pas-de-Calais, France): A Fluvio-Maritime Coaster of Cog Tradition ... Through advanced research, two hypothesis of the process of “bottom-based’ building sequences were made. The differences affect the first steps of the building. According to the first hypothesis, some L shaped floor timbers were fixed on the bottom planks and used like moulds for the assembly of the two low- er carvel strakes. According to the second hypothesis, the carvel garboard was directly set up and nailed to the edge of the lateral bottom strake without the help of floor timbers used as moulds. It is only after the garboard with some L shaped floor timbers fixed on the bottom planks has been laid out that the second carvel strake is arranged. Through advanced research, two hypothesis of
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Navegação e Portos no Algarve Romano
by Vasco Gil S Mantas
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Late Ptolemaic Assemblages of Metal Artifacts and Bronze Coins Recovered off the Coast of ‘Atlit, Israel, 'Atiqot 87, 2016, pp. 1-35
by Guy Stiebel and 
1 more
Gerald Finkielsztejn
E. Galili, D. Syon, G. Finkielsztejn, Varda Sussman and G.D. Stiebel, Late Ptolemaic Assemblages of Metal Artifacts and Bronze Coins Recovered off the Coast of ‘Atlit, Israel, 'Atiqot 87, 2016, pp. 1-35
Fig. 1. Map of the eastern Mediterranean showing the location of ‘Atlit and other sites mentioned in this article.
Fig. 2. Location map showing the Carmel coast of Israel.
Fig. 3. Location of Hellenistic assemblages in ‘Atlit North Bay (satellite photo from Google Earth). installations, as well as submerged prehistoric settlements, which existed in a period when sea level was lower than today (Galili and Sharvit 1999b). These archaeological remains attest to extensive maritime and coastal activity over the last nine millennia. The earliest evidence for open-sea navigation is provided by an Early Bronze Age pottery vessel containing fresh- water mollusks from the Nile River (Sharvit et al. 2002). During the Middle Bronze Age, around 4000 years ago, sea level reached its present elevation, forming the morphology of today’s coastline, with the two bays and the headland between them. From the Middle Bronze Age onward, the ‘Atlit North Bay seems to have been almost continuously in use, offering shelter for sea-going vessels and local fishermen.
Fig. 4. The ‘Atlit battering ram being hauled from the sea, with the elongated wooden prow beam still attached. Galili and Sharvit 1999b; Oron 2006). 9 m, c. 250 m west-northwest of Assemblages tl Approximately 100 m southwest of Assemblage 2 and some 120 m offshore, a second-century BCE bronze battering ram, with no associated hull in the vicinity, was found at a dept 3.5 m (Fig. 3:5; Galili and Sharvit 1999b: 196:29). When discovered, the remains o ship’s prow were still inserted in the ram a meter long wooden beam protruded h of Fig. f the and from it (Fig. 4). Fifteen fishing sinkers in the form of tubes, two ring-shaped fishing sinkers (or brailing rings) cast of lead, and three raw glass chunks were found near the ram. The ram was widely described and discussed in a volume dedicated to that artifact alone, as well as in additional publications (Casson and Steffy 1991; Galili and Sharvit 1999b; Oron 2006). additional publications (Casson and Steffy 1991;
Fig. 5. Coins from the hoard. 13-30. As No. 4, with details of obverse mostly obliterated.
Fig. 6. Diameter frequency of coins in Group 1. put this group squarely within the diameter depiction of Zeus-Ammon and the two eagles with the snake-like neck. Moreover, looking closely at Gitler and Kushnir-Stein’s catalogue, it can be seen that the features of at least ten coins are much closer to our Group | (Table 1; Fig. 6); they have a “central drilling hole” (i.e., central cavity) rather than a relief ringlet, and most axes are upright.° It is true that their diameter range seems slightly larger, but this is perhaps due to the fact that the coins were measured across the lugs remaining after the casting process, rather than across the circle, adding 1—2 mm to the diameter.° Reducing the published diameters by those measures would put this sroun squarely within the diameter
below). Regarding the mass of the pyramidal artifacts, eleven (Nos. 1-10, 12) weigh between 155 and 166 g; No. 11, bearing a monogram, weighs 136 g. These objects correspond to Type L1.1.3 of Galili, Rosen and Sharvit (2010:88, Fig. 38) and appear to have been cast in four different molds (Table 2: Types A, B, C and D). single mold (A), as are Nos. 9 and 10 (B). On
Fig. 9. Lead pyramidal fishing sinkers from the Levant: distribution by weight.
Fig. 10. Lead pyramidal fishing sinkers from the Levant: distribution by height.
vessel: bronze is more durable than pottery, and the lidded filling hole would prevent the oil from spilling out when the boat was shaken by the waves. The fact that the lamp was found worn and damaged is evidence of extended usage; alternately, it might be the result of post-deposition damage. The broken free-standing ornament at its rear may well bear witness to an attempt to drill a hole at the back of the lamp, probably after the strap handle was broken, in order to provide another means of suspending it. The hinge was most likely worn out as a result of frequent opening and closing. The sealing of the hole in the side vessel: bronze is more durable than pottery,
Fig. 12. Bronze horse bit.
Fig. 13. Lead sling shot. been recovered from several Mediterranean shipwrecks (Beltrame 2002:33-35), all dated Roman contexts. Our example is the first sling shot to be recovered off the shore of Israel, and it would appear, by association, to be part of the Hellenistic assemblage (see below). It may be an indication of the kind of weaponry carried aboard or perhaps the remains of a past battle; alternatively, it could be a remnant of cargo.
Table 2. Characteristics of the Pyramidal Lead Fishing Sinkers slightly thickened at the edge and with a small depression in the center. The conical weights are of a workmanship different from that of the pyramidal artifacts and were made each in a different mold. In addition, they are much lighter in weight than the others (40, 40 and 71 g respectively). base of No. 7 is marred by a melting hole and it is therefore impossible to ascertain whether it bore a device. That of No. 11 depicts a monogram with the Greek letters P, A inserted ina K (alpha, rho and kappa), maybe Kpa(_ or Kap(. Number 9 bears a stylized Sign of Tanit. The device on Nos. 4 and 10 is most probably an imitation of the Rhodian rose. A similar flower may have been depicted on Nos. |-3.
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Stimulantia. Tobaks- och alkoholkonsumtion ombord på flottans fartyg under 1600- och 1700-talen.
by Matilda Jarl

2022, Forum Navale. No. 79.

Ombord på förlista fartyg finns många spår av människor som levt före oss. För att närma sig dem kan vi studera fartygen, rumsligheten, föremålen eller till och med deras faktiska skeletala kvarlevor. Olika fysiska ting bär på information... more
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A 15th-Century Wreck of an Ordnance-Carrying Ship from Atlit North Bay, Israel
by Ehud Galili

Authors: Galili E. and Rosen B.

In 1977, a shipwreck assemblage was discovered off Atlit, Israel. Finds included three iron anchors, a large bombard, four swivel guns, stone and lead shot, and bronze helmets. The bronze bombard (2210 kg, 3.247 m long) contained a... more
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LOOKING FOR HMS FOX (1799): A MODEL FOR APPLYING BARRIER ISLAND GEOMORPHOLOGY TO SHIPWRECK SURVEY
by Melanie Damour
The dynamic growth, migration, and evolution of barrier islands such as St. George and Dog Islands are factors to be considered for archaeological survey and inventory of historic shipwrecks in near-coastal settings. Research examining... more
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ANCIENT COIN HOARDS
by Bekircan Tahberer
It has been said that archaeology stands on a foundation of potsherds, and it would be just as true to say that numismatics stands on a foundation of coin hoards. They provide us with the framework of our classification of ancient coins,... more
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A Portuguese East Indiaman from the 1502–1503 Fleet of Vasco da Gama off Al Hallaniyah Island, Oman: an interim report
by David L Mearns OBE, OAM
Two Portuguese naus from Vasco da Gama's second voyage to India, left behind to disrupt maritime trade between India and the Red Sea, were wrecked in May 1503 off the northeastern coast of Al Hallaniyah Island, Oman. The ships, Esmeralda... more
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World War II Merchant Marine Battlefields in the Gulf of Mexico: Analysis of the SS R.W. Gallagher and SS Cities Service Toledo Using 3D Modeling, Physics, and Battlefield Archaeology
by Eric Swanson

2014

S.S. R.W. Gallagher and S.S. Cities Service Toledo were sunk by German U-boats in the Gulf of Mexico in 1942. They were investigated for their historical significance under a project led by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management... more
Figure 1: The 117 Allied reported WWII U-Boat attack locations in the Southeast A tlantic Region in 1942 (Drawn from Rohwer 1983 and placed by Author in 2013). Attacks considered within the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) are white, while each attack outside the GOM is red with the numbered month within the marker.
Figure 2: S.S. Cities Service Toledo at sea 13 February 1942 (unsourced USCG 1942). commodities for nearly 25 years (U. S. Department of Commerce (USDC) 1942:19) (Figure 2). Cities Service Toledo was 8,192 gross tons, active in the trading of oil-related
Figure 3: S.S. R.W. Gallagher at sea in 1938 (Standard Oil Company 1946:357). mathematically broken down for their initial site formation process. helped in identifying a comparative model in which both sinking events could later be Both Cities Service Toledo and R.W. Gallagher were armed at the time they were
Figure 4: Field archaeological crew and M/V Spree crew on deck in 2010. These data were streamed digitally into computer storage where they were additionally
Figure 5: The 18 recorded WWII U-boat sinking attack locations surrounding the area where S.S. Cities Service Toledo and S.S. R.W. Gallagher currently lie (Rohwer 1983; Wiggins 1995:114-115). S.S. Cities Service Toledo and S.S. R.W. Gallagher are demarcated with a starred pin. base model that may be comparatively applied to other wrecks in similar conditions (Figure 5).
Figure 6: Comparison of the armed guard reports regarding the arming areas and specific armaments 0: S.S. R.W. Gallagher and S.S. Cities Service Toledo. Both were armed in May 1942, when the reports were produced (OCNO 1942a; OCNO 1942b). determined by their area of operation (Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (OCNO) 1942a;
Figure 11: DKM U-67 in Lorient, France, 8 August 1942, after its tour in the Gulf of Mexico (Wiggins 1995:105). protect A llied shipping. Among the 24 U-boats present in the Gulf of Mexico from March 1942
U-158 was under the leadership of K apitanleutnant Erwin Rostin, a U-boat ace who had
Figure 13: Korvettenkapitan Gunther Miiller-Stéckheim on board his DKM U-67 (Bredow 2012). The unfortunate loss of many crew members serving on vessels contracted by the War
The oil tanker was intended to carry oil and fuel along the U.S. coast and across the Cities Service Toledo was built as S.S. J.A. Bostwick in 1918 by Bethlehem Shipbuilding The Attacks
igure 15: Segment of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher original ship's profile plan (Bethlehem Shipbuilding 1938). Image Courtesy of very Munson via Evans et al. 2013.
Figure 16: AB Herman W. Reuss sitting with fellow seamen in Ambrose Light, New Y ork (Reuss 2007). standing with other seamen in Ambrose Light, New Y ork (Reuss 2007) (Figure 16). who manages a website dedicated to his father, details the history of the event that surrounded
Figure 17: Map of each of the 52 recorded sunken merchant vessel sites (Note that the S.S.J.A. Moffett, Jr. was towed in to port, but its point of sinking is still demarcated) in the Gulf of Mexico in 1942. These sites should all be considered war graves and qualify as battlefield sites from World War II (Locations drawn from Rohwer 1983 and Wiggins 1995 documented locations). and inherent war graves can be made (Rohwer 1983; Wiggins 1995) (Figure 17). interpretation of the Gulf of Mexico as a theater of war, the location of 52 specific battlefields
negates Figure 18: Side-scan sonar image fi from the 1989 su survey of the area near the proposed S.S. R.W. Gallagher that named it the S.S. Heredia (Floyd and Callahan 1989). wreck as the S.S. Heredia, later to be corrected in 2010 (Evans et al. 2013:33; Floyd and The United States Coast Guard contracted divers to repair an oil leak reported to be
Figure 19: Side-scan sonar and sub-bottom profiler images from the 1996 survey of the area near the S.S. R.W. Gallagher (Saltus and El Darragi 1996). the site created on the seafloor (Saltus and El Darragi 1996) (Figure 19). provided very poor imagery for the site, aside from identifying the 7.01 m (23 ft.) of relief that Cities Service Toledo was discovered by Laura Landry and Jeffery Thomas during a
casa 5: Figure 20: Side- scan sonar image from the 1992 survey near S.S. Cities Service ce Toledo (Landry and Thomas 1992). He also described the vessel as single-screw driven, missing its propeller, but possessed an intact
report (Church et al. 2007a:197) (Figure 21). Figure 21: Hull profile of Steam Y acht Anona (Church et al. 2007a). Image courtesy of Andy Hall, illustrator. Figure 21: Hull profile of Steam Y acht Anona (Church et al. 2007a). Image courtesy of Andy Hall, liaehtnar Foundation utilized 3-dimensional modeling in constructing an artistic rendering of Anona in the archaeological practice involved in their documentation all serve a critical purpose in
‘esla Offshore, and UWF dive teams as its extensive length made it impractical to examine the
standard for UWF for the trip, and each team was divided into arbitrary groups of two. previous day. Sharar briefed the team on the possible dangers and safety protocols set as
Figure 24: Illustration of the observed hull plating pattern present on the S.S. Cities Service Toledo. Attempts to locate the missing propeller and rudder were given to the final dive teams,
Figure 25: Point-and-line modeling process utilizing to-scale historical ship’s plans for the S.S. R.W. Gallagher. three axis planes in Google Sketchup (Figure 25). Dimensions from historical ship's plans were taken and given a point and line theme located on
Figure 26: Simple draping method in Rhinoceros 3D to verify the site extents of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher for comparative analysis. essential diagnostic features on the wrecks (Figure 27). measurements, in conjunction with the historic plans, showing the potential relative location of
Figure 27: Preliminary simple scale comparison of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher’s historical blueprint to the physical data’s point-cloud “mesh.” Utilizing these data will aid in further advancement of modeling in underwater
Figure 28: Photograph mosaic of the war diary of DKM U-67, written by Gunther Muller-Stockheim during his service in 1942. Stockheim 1942; Wiggins 1995:103-104) (Figure 28).
Figure 29: Photograph mosaic of the war diary of DKM U-158, written by Erwin Rostin during his service in 1942.
Figure 31: Image of sonar data collected on the stern portion of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher site (Evans et al. 2013:41). Figure 30: Image of multi-beam bathymetry data collected on the S.S. R.W. Gallagher site (Evans et al. 2013:43).
Figure 32: Image of sub-bottom data collected on the S.S. R.W. Gallagher site (Evans et al. 2013:44). zone surrounding the wreck (Evans et al. 2013:36) (Figure 32). Magnetometer data indicated a potential debris field, showing significant magnetic Sub-bottom profiler data recovered by Tesla Offshore, LLC. revealed a typical
In addition to the survey that isolated the R.W. Gallagher, sector-scanning sonar was sector-scanning sonar was dropped without an internal compass, so exact direction was not
Figure 34: Image of sector-scanning sonar data collected on the stern of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher site witl 24 ft. offset circles. site (Figure 34) The results of remote-sensing on the Cities Service Toledo site yielded comparable data
Figure 35: Image of multi-beam data collected on the S.S. Cities Service Toledo site (Evans et al. 2013:68).
Figure 36: Image of sonar data collected on the S.S. Cities Service Toledo site (Evans et al. 2013:69).
Figure 37: Image of 3D echoscope data collected on the S.S. Cities Service Toledo site (Evans et al 2013:70).
Figure 38: Image of sub-bottom data collected on the S.S. Cities Service Toledo site (Evans et al. 2013:71). location in the Gulf of Mexico being less impacted by fluvial sedimentary deposition (Evans et al. Magnetometer data was consistent with a massive ferrous shipwreck, indicating that
Sector-scanning sonar was deployed approximately 57.91 m (190 ft.) west of this wreck
Figure 40: Image of sector-scanning sonar data collected on the stern of the S.S. Cities Service Toledo site with 13.72 m (45 ft.) offset circles. Environmental data were also collected on these wreck sites with water and sediment
Figure 42: The bilge keel with white coral and rusticle growth on the S.S. R.W. Gallagher site (O’ Reilly 2010). inhibited precise measurements to be taken of hull plating or rivet patterns along the hull (Figure
Figure 43: The propeller and conditions on the S.S. R.W. Gallagher site (O’Reilly 2010). in the variability of accuracy to historic blueprints and diver-recorded video observations.
The S.S. Cities Service T oledo R.W. Gallagher and at an observed depth of 24.38-27.43 m (80-90 ft.), the environment around
Figure 46: Hull plating with buttonhead rivet on the S.S. Cities Service Toledo site. Figure 45: Profile photographs of the propeller “shaft” on the S.S. Cities Service Toledo site. Scale bar is in 2 cm increments (10 cm total). A small fastener was observed on the lowest point of the rudder brace, which would have
Figure 47: Scale ink drawing (Dr. Greg Cook) drawn from data gathered on the stern section of the S.S. Cities Service Toledo site.
Figure 48: Point-and-line modeling process utilizing to-scale historical ship’s plans for the S.S. Cities Service Toledo. Though the linear geometrical functions that the program uses to create 3-dimensional
Figure 49: Rib construction in Sketchup to form an accurate outer hull on the S.S. R.W. Gallagher.
Figure 51: Rib-formation process and initial hull shape of the S.S. Cities Service Toledo built in Rhino. Figure 50: Initial hull shape of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher built in Rhino.
printed in 3D, and the results were extremely smooth and accurate to the ships’ plans (Figures
Figure 52: Final rendered models of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher and the S.S. Cities Service Toledo.
Figure 53: Historical photograph of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher (Standard Oil Company 1946:357) and the blueprint-reconstructed 3D model.
Figure 54: Historical photograph of the S.S. Cities Service Toledo (unsourced USCG 1942) and the blueprint-reconstructed 3D model.
Figure 55: Rendered multi-beam data from the S.S. Cities Service Toledo site. equipment (Figure 26 and Figure 55). mathematically constructed using the point cloud data collected by the remote-sensing Point clouds collected with the multi-beam echosounder on both sites placed millions of
Figure 56: High-frequency multi-beam mesh revealing visible internal structure on the S.S. R.W. Gallagher site. These data were then virtually wrapped with a mathematically formulated surface that
Figure 57: Comparison of the historical 3D model and remote-sensing data collected at the S.S. R.W. Gallagher site.
Figure 59: Starboard torpedo strikes on the historical blueprints of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher based on historical accounts. the center of where tank number 8 would have been on the R.W. Gallagher (Figures 59-61).
Figure 61: Starboard torpedo strikes on the hybrid 3D model and 3D multi-beam data of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher based on historical accounts and verified through archaeological evidence. Figure 60: Starboard torpedo strikes on the 3D model of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher based on historical accounts.
Figure 62: Archaeological evidence suggesting the location of the historically documented “‘killshot” on the port side of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher. Additionally, the expanded breach toward the port-bow of the wreck could be the direct
Figure 63: Naval grid square system used to identify German positions during WWII (Drawn from Rohwer 1983). U-67 was the only one to record an attack on the DA naval grid square (Rohwer 1983:109) Upon investigation of all four of the U-boats that recorded successful sinking attacks on this day,
Figure 64: Coastguard Cutter Boutwell (left) and Eagle-Class PE boat (right) (Flynn 2012:20; Henson 2007). (Figure 64). escort vessel like the PE-27 from nearly a mile away at a distance of 1,500 m (4,921.26 ft.) The final point of deducing the identity of the U-boat responsible for the sinking of the
Figure 67: Starboard torpedo strikes on the hybrid 3D model and 3D multi-beam data of the SS. Cities Service Toledo based on historical accounts and verified through archaeological evidence. Figure 66: Starboard torpedo strikes on the 3D model of the S.S. Cities Service Toledo based on historical accounts.
ee —e Figure 65: Starboard torpedo : strikes on the historical blueprints of | of the S.S. Cities Service Toledo based on accounts.
Figure 68: Proposed angle of torpedo strikes to explain structural damage direction on the S.S. Cities Service Toledo. time due to the remaining poor structural integrity. fact that the amount of structural damage to the starboard side of the vessel would collapse over
Figure 69: Multi-beam echosounder slice of the major hull breach on the S.S. R.W. Gallagher site (Evans et al 2013:43) in comparison to the major 20 ft. x 30 ft. hull breach in the S.S. Paul H. Harwood in dry- dock ca. 1942 (Standard Oil Company 1946:328). This image is just one of many examples of the damage that torpedoes caused to merchant shipping vessels. This example correlates with the same damage observed on the R.W. Gallagher site. of other oil tankers struck by torpedoes in 1942, revealing several similarities (Figure 69).
Figure 70: Bilge Keel on the S.S. R.W. Gallagher site (courtesy of Colm O’Reilly 2010) compared to the bilge keel on the U.S.S. New J ersey (Landgraff 1999). like that of the torpedo-strike damage being representative of Muller-Stockheim's battle strategy
Figure 71: Propeller images captured from ship’s plans (Bethlehem Shipbuilding 1938), field photograpl (O’Reilly 2010), and ink drawing by Greg Cook of the S.S. R.W. Gallagher and related archaeological site. same dimensions as that on the ship's plans (Figure 71).
Figure 73: Contemporary rudder styles ca. 1942 (Drawn | from Manning 1942:41; Osbourne 1943: 23-2),
Figure 75: Original planned propeller stock and field measurements on the S.S. Cities Service Toledo. The fact that this unbalanced rudder system could be easily removed, exposing the
Figure 77: Illustration of the principles of stability while being acted upon by an example of movement (i.e. waves). Figure 76: Illustration of the basic principles of stability and an example of acting arms of force.
balanced once again (Figure 76 and Figure 77)
Figure 78: Illustration of the principles of stability applied to a block or prism. This same basic principle of stability is applied with the transverse movements of a vessel
Figure 80: Illustration of the principles of stability applied to an oil tanker capsized after an attack Figure 79: Illustration of the principles of stability applied to an oil tanker struck by a torpedo.
weight of saltwater (Figure 79 and Figure 80):
Figure 81: Illustration of the principles of stability applied to a sinking, open-hulled, capsized oil tanker. ship capsized continues to escape into the Gulf of Mexico as the hull deteriorates over time.
Figure 82: Still image of Fraga’s interactive 3D reconstruction of the Santo Antonio de Tanna (2009). methods like this at this time. 3D visual models expedited the analysis for the purposes of this This method also pushes the envelope of developing more advanced methods of 3D interpretation. Bringing this technology and capability to light is only the beginning, as it will
Figure 83: Remote sensing equipment used by Tesla Offshore, LLC. during the 2010 field survey.
BLA Dik AVERAGE SEDIMENT SHEAR STRENGTH AT THE S.S. R.W. GALLAGHER SITI DRAWN FROM EVANS ET AL. 2013. Radioisotope analysis of the core samples implied that a disturbance occurred in the area
AVERAGE SALTWATER ANALYSIS DATA COLLECTED FROM THE S.S. R.W. GALLAGHER SITE, DRAWN FROM EVANS ET AL. 2013. The pH levels within these samples allow for sulfate-reducing bacteria to function in the increased pH at depth may prevent these bacteria from thriving, more alkaline environments can
AVERAGE SALTWATER ANALYSIS DATA COLLECTED FROM THE S.S. CITIES SERVICE TOLEDO SITE, DRAWN FROM EVANS ET AL. 2013. This sample indicates that the previously mentioned sulfate-reducing bacteria will not preserve site integrity longer than that of the R.W. Gallagher. The lower salinity of the site in to the wreck site. The water sample measured a pH of 8.013, salinity of 30.8 ppT, and dissolved
Additionally, no other record could be found for attacks on 13 July 1942 aside from the
aE FINAL CREW LIST FOR S:S. CITIES SERVICE TOLEDO (THOSE KILLED IN ACTION IN BOLD)
FINAL CREW LIST FOR S.S. R.W. GALLAGHER (THOSE KILLED IN ACTION IN BOLD)
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ІСТОРІЯ НА ШПАНГОУТАХ HISTORY ON FRAMES ПРОЕКТ РЕСТАВРАЦІЇ СТАРОВИННИХ КОРАБЛІВ НАЦІОНАЛЬНОГО ЗАПОВІДНИКА «ХОРТИЦЯ» ANCIENT BOATS RESTORATION PROJECT BY NATIONAL RESERVE "KHORTYTSIA", Дике поле, Запоріжжя, 2016, 368 стр.
by Dmitry Kobaliia and 
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Полина Петрашина
Tatyana Shelemetyeva
Дикое Поле
The book is dedicated to the study and restoration of the two ships quite different, at first glance, with their age, design and purpose. The only thing they have in common is that both were once constructed at the Desna river and both... more
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Ταμπάκη, Κ., 2016, «Τα παραθαλάσσια σπήλαια της Λακωνίας.»
by Κωνσταντίνα Ταμπάκη (Konstantina Tambaki)
Η λακωνική γη είναι ένας τόπος με μοναδική φυσιογνωμία, ξεχωριστή ιστορία και παρουσία στη διάρκεια των αιώνων. Βρίσκεται στο νοτιοανατολικό άκρο της Πελοποννήσου, μια θέση όπου έπαιξε καθοριστικό ρόλο για την πορεία και την εξέλιξη του... more
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