Legal Aid

This legal research paper investigates the gubernatorial impeachment motions, proceedings and cases in the Kenyan devolved system since 2013 when the first governments took power under the new Constitution of Kenya, 2010. The constitutional, legal and institutional framework for the removal of county Governors from office through impeachment in the Kenyan devolved system is examined. The removal process of county Governors effectively for the realization of the objects of devolution in Kenya is accessed. Nigerian jurisprudence on gubernatorial impeachment is used because it provides instructive lessons on interpreting the Kenyan constitutional provisions on the removal of county Governors through impeachment.The result of this study is that the gubernatorial impeachment process in the Kenyan devolved system is a three-way process. The starting point is the County Assembly (CA) where the Member of County Assembly can table an impeachment motion against the county Governor.Secondly, should the impeachment motion succeed against the sitting county Governor, the Speaker of the CA forwards the resolution to the Senators who then investigate the impeachment claims made against the county Governor. Lastly, where the county Governor facing impeachment proceedings feels that their rights are being violated and or the CA and Senate are not following the stipulated procedure, they are allowed to access the courts to be granted appropriate reliefs. The jurisprudence emerging from the Kenyan courts has been useful in this research. Nigerian jurisprudence on gubernatorial impeachment has also been useful on providing instructive lessons on how the Kenyan constitutional provisions on the removal of county Governors from office can be interpreted. This legal research paper concludes that for the intended purpose of gubernatorial impeachment to be achieved, the people must not only be informed and involved in the removal process of their county Governors but the CAs and Senators must also demonstrate political goodwill while conducting this constitutional process.This is because one of the ways through which the objects of devolution can be achieved in the Kenyan devolved system is through accountable governance from the State Officers

The paper analyses the Legal Aid Act of Tanzania, and how is it effective in realizing the administration of justice particularly on the right to legal representation.This Act replaces the then Legal Aid (Criminal Proceedings) Act which was applicable only in criminal proceedings the Legal Aid Act goes further even in civil proceedings. The Act also recognizes paralegals which were formerly not recognized by the law. The paper analyzes the contents of the Act by examining their effectiveness in achieving justice in Tanzania.

In common law jurisdictions litigants are free to represent themselves in person. A right to self-representation in civil proceedings has been taken for granted as an obvious expression of the right of access to court. Consequently, no attempt has been made to investigate the theoretical justification of self-representation, and mandatory legal representation has never been contemplated. This article identifies three possible reasons for the conflation of the right to litigate in person with the right of access to court: (1) the long history of self-representation, (2) the conceptual perception of procedural rights as necessarily personal, and (3) the empirical belief that litigants in person are typically poor. The article challenges the capacity of these reasons to justify vesting litigants with an unfettered power to decide whether to represent themselves in person or to instruct counsel. It argues that as a matter of principle the right of access to court does not entail a right to self-representation in all circumstances. When a litigant in person lacks the skills and expertise to conduct his or her case competently and imposes a disproportionate strain on court resources, the court should be entitled to require the litigant to obtain legal representation as a prerequisite for proceeding with the case.

This is a compulsory research work in fulfillment of the requirements of Bachelor of Laws of the University of Dar es Salaam School of Law. The research is entitled, The Right of Education of Street Children; A case study of Kinondoni District -Dar es Salaam.

"This book is devoted to criminal defence in Eastern Europe, based on a research project conducted in Bulgaria, Georgia, Lithuania, Moldova and Ukraine during 2010 and 2011.The book starts with an analysis of the key requirements and standards concerning effective criminal defence according to the European Convention on Human Rights, the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights, and legislation under the European Union’s procedural rights ‘roadmap’. Each country in the study is the subject of a separate chapter describing and analysing laws, institutions, processes, practices and attitudes relating to effective criminal defence, and concluding with recommendations for improving access to effective defence as an essential element of the right to fair trial. The data from the five countries is then subjected to a cross-jurisdictional analysis of compliance with European standards including, where relevant, reference to the fi ndings of the original nine country study.

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"Using evidence from around the world, this book seeks to demonstrate that early intervention by lawyers and paralegals can have a positive impact on pretrial justice in general, and pretrial detention in particular. The evidence shows that early intervention schemes can reduce the use of pretrial detention, improve the performance of criminal justice personnel, lead to more rational and effective decision-making, and increase accountability and respect for the rule of law.

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The handbook is intended as a practical guide to developing and implementing policies and programmes to ensure early access to legal aid, including by implementing the international standards set by the United Nations Principles and Guidelines on Access to Legal Aid in Criminal Justice Systems

En este capítulo, analizaré la estructura y contenido de los derechos a la tutela judicial y a la defensa jurídica. Lo haré desde una perspectiva constitucional, lo que implica que me concentraré en la lectura de los primeros cuatro incisos del artículo 19 Nº 3, así como en la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Constitucional y lo señalado por la doctrina nacional. Por lo tanto, las referencias al derecho internacional de los derechos humanos serán escasas. Asimismo, solo trataré de modo general la legislación que se encarga de llenar de contenido a estos derechos. En primer lugar, estudiaré el derecho a la tutela judicial. Intentaré presentar una interpretación propia de este derecho, apoyada por supuesto en doctrina y jurisprudencia previa, revisando ciertos problemas que se han presentado en la aplicación de este derecho: su denominación (2.1), su existencia o reconocimiento (2.2) y su relación con el debido proceso (2.3). Posteriormente, estudiaré los elementos que a mi juicio constituyen el núcleo de este derecho fundamental (2.4). Finalmente, señalaré algunos aspectos generales respecto de la tutela judicial en contra de los actos de la Administración del Estado (2.5), y presentaré algunos casos recientes en la jurisprudencia constitucional: la mediación previa y obligatoria (2.6.1), el solve et repete (2.6.2) y el discutido derecho a la acción penal del ofendido (2.6.3). En segundo lugar, me referiré al derecho a la defensa y su garantía, la asistencia jurídica. Sobre la defensa jurídica, explicaré su conceptualización y ámbito de aplicación (3.1), su contenido (3.2) y límites (3.3). Explicaré asimismo el caso especial de la defensa jurídica de miembros de las Fuerzas Armadas y de Orden y Seguridad (3.4). Finalmente, analizaré la garantía de asistencia jurídica, en cuanto a su definición y titularidad (3.5.1), contenido (3.5.2), ámbito de aplicación (3.5.3), y el modo en que se concretiza a través de mecanismos de ayuda legal (3.5.4).

This dissertation is a social, political, and cultural history of the organized Chilean legal profession in the first half of the twentieth century. It explores the causes for the creation of the Chilean Bar Association and its Legal Aid Service in the mid-1920s and follows their evolution until the mid-1960s.
The relative success of the Bar Association in imposing its model of lawyering in the first half of the twentieth century allows us to understand why the legalistic framework that Chilean lawyers had inherited from the nineteenth century did not change over the course of the twentieth despite the momentous social and political evolution that both profession and country experienced in this period.
The history of the Chilean Bar Association thus provides an institutional explanation for the continuity of ideas about the law in the face of accelerated social transformations. At the same time, by revealing the tensions and the resistance that this project faced, the history of the Bar also reveals the gears that would eventually lead to the legal profession’s historical change.

This dissertation will seek to address the civil legal aid crisis in Northern Ireland (Hereafter referred to as NI).  It will contend that the current budget is unsustainable and that the proposed reforms are insufficient.  It advocates for the use of mandatory mediation in family disputes as a means of bringing civil legal aid spending within budget whilst providing access to justice. 
It will examine how current family disputes are dealt with and the role of mediation in doing so.  It will contend that an escalating rate of disputing is causing more delays on an already overburdened system. This dissertation will include research gathered from Mary Lynch, Director of Mediation NI and Joan Davis Director of Family Mediation NI to demonstrate the high success rates of mediation and will suggest reasons as to why it is being underutilised. 
The dissertation will argue that mandatory mediation whilst not a panacea has a proven track record and is not, as purist mediators would argue, an affront to the very principles of mediation.  It will address the main arguments against its usage and demonstrate that it is a viable option by drawing upon various jurisdictions and their experiences and examine how these could effectively be used in NI.

Abstrak UU Bantuan Hukum memberi ruang bagi daerah untuk mengalokasikan dana penyelenggaraan bantuan hukum dalam APBD. Apabila daerah berkehendak mengalokasikan dana bantuan hukum dalam APBD, maka pemerintah daerah dan DPRD harus mengaturnya dalam Peraturan Daerah (perda). Sampai saat ini, di Provinsi Sumatera Utara belum memiliki Peraturan Daerah yang secara khusus menjamin terlaksananya hak konstitusional warga negara tersebut, khususnya bagi orang atau kelompok orang miskin. Metode penelitian yang digunakan pada penulisan ini menggunakan metode penelitian hukum normatif, dengan pendekatan yuridis normatif (legal research). Sifat penelitian ini adalah deksriptif analitis yaitu suatu penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan (menggambarkan) tentang fakta dan kondisi atau gejala yang menjadi objek penelitian, setelah itu dilakukan telaah secara kritis. Hasil Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sampai saat tulisan ini dibuat ranperda tentang bantuan hukum belum dilakukan penyusunan, masih sekedar dicantumkan dalam Prolegda 2013. Mengingat pentingnya perda tentang bantuan hukum sebagai landasan hukum bagi daerah untuk memenuhi hak-hak masyarakat miskin dalam mengakses keadilan dan perlakuan yang sama di hadapan hukum, dibutuhkan komitmen kuat dari DPRD maupun Pemerintah Daerah Provinsi Sumatera Utara beserta stakeholder untuk segera mengimplementasikan pembentukan perda Bantuan hukum serta mengalokasikan dana bantuan hukum dalam APBD sebagaimana amanat pasal 19 UU Bantuan Hukum. Abstract Legal Aid Act gives space for the local government to allocate fund to enforce Legal Aid in

Two official enquires and one Private Members Bill are currently grappling with the ever-controversial topic of the operation of sharia tribunals in England and Wales. While these developments are valuable in that there is still a missing evidence base in terms of Sharia tribunals, this narrow focus on Sharia misses the point that a wider reappraisal of family law matters is required. This article contends that the sharia debate points to wider concerns about two areas of family law in particular: the formalities concerning marriage and the privatisation of family justice. It concludes that concerns about sharia tribunals cannot be addressed without paying attention to wider family law developments.

“A presente obra traz contribuições muito valiosas para o atual debate sobre o modelo de assistência jurídica gratuita prestada pelo Estado, inserindo esse tema nos contextos jurídico, político e econômico, nacional e internacional. O renomado defensor público Cleber Alves publica no Brasil dois importantes textos apresentados na Universidade de Londres, durante seu profícuo período como professor convidado, enfrentando os aspectos teóricos e práticos da natureza do direito à assistência jurídica, bem como antevendo o atual debate sobre a ampliação da necessidade desse serviço, por um lado, e a crise de financiamento, que pressiona em sentido contrário. O fundamento democrático do acesso à justiça e da Defensoria Pública são temas centrais das reflexões do jovem e talentoso defensor público Pedro González, analisando as normas constitucionais de proteção às pessoas em situações de vulnerabilidade. Os anexos também são de leitura obrigatória, trazendo para o público brasileiro as reflexões de dois grandes expoentes internacionais sobre o tema, os professores Pascoe Pleasence, da University College London (UCL) e Earl Johnson Jr., um dos principais colaboradores do professor Mauro Cappelletti no famoso “Projeto Florença”, sobre acesso à Justiça, e autor da obra seminal “To Establish Justice for All”.

André Castro
Defensor Público Geral do Estado do Rio de Janeiro

The unmet demand for legal aid generally and for criminal law matters in particular, has grown in tandem with the expansion of crime control and increased restrictions on funding for publicly funded welfare and support services. This article examines the connection between legal aid, legal representation and the right to a fair trial. It presents an in-depth case study of Victorian case law and policy development to illuminate dilemmas in the prioritised allocation of legal aid resources in serious criminal trials. It then compares the Victorian courts' approach to a fair trial with the tenets of current European Court of Human Rights jurisprudence regarding the scope and timing of an accused person's right to access a lawyer. The comparison underlines the narrow definition of fair trial under Victorian common law, relative to Europe, where a fair trial is interpreted more broadly to include the right to legal representation during police and pre-trial investigations. The article questions whether international developments in access to legal aid for criminal trials and the extension of legal aid and representation to pre-trial procedures, most notably through the Salduz case (heard in the European Court of Human Rights), may inspire change in Victoria.

el sistema de asistencia jurídica en Chile ha sufrido importantes transformaciones en los últimos años, al incorporar una nueva forma de comprender la ayuda legal que el estado presta a las personas. sin embargo, todavía se trata de un ámbito en el que se deben realizar profundas reformas, con el objetivo de superar deficiencias relacionadas con sus niveles de eficiencia y su coherencia con la Constitución. Para la discusión acerca de cómo mejorar este ámbito de la actividad estatal, en este artículo se presentan dos elementos que deberían ser considerados en esa deliberación, el derecho a la defensa y los modelos comparados de ayuda legal, y se reflexiona cómo ellos se relacionan con la regulación actual de la asistencia jurídica y en qué medida se insertan en propuestas de modificación.

The book reports the results of a research study on the procedural rights of suspscts and defendants in practice in six Latin American countries: Argentina, Brazil, Columbia, Guatemala, Mexico and Peru. The aim of the book is to inspire a constructive and effective programme of policies and actions for setting standards and guidelines, both nationally in the countries in the study, and regionally within the Organisation of American States and the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights.

PRAXIS - The Official Peer-Reviewed Journal of the Alumni for International Human Rights Law.  This is the official version of the inaugural issue of PRAXIS.  This official version supersedes and/or modifies accordingly any and all versions, descriptor, announcement, communication and/or related matter appearing here and/or elsewhere.

Il presente contributo rappresenta il primo frutto parziale di un più ampio studio sull'evoluzione del diritto alla difesa del povero negli Stati sabaudi, iniziato nell'anno accademico 2008-2009 con un contratto come ricercatore a tempo determinato presso il Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche ed Economiche della Facoltà di Giurisprudenza dell'Università del Piemonte Orientale "A. Avogadro", dal titolo Inquirere et defendere: gli organi 'rappresentativi delle parti' istituiti presso i Senati sabaudi nei secoli XVIII e XIX. 1 Per un commento dell'attuale normativa nell'ambito del processo civile e amministrativo cfr. G. SCARSELLI, Il nuovo patrocinio a spese dello Stato nei processi civili ed amministrativi, Padova 2003; per il processo penale P. SECHI, Il patrocinio dei non abbienti nei procedimenti penali, Milano 2006; su tutti A. BUZZONI, Il gratuito patrocinio spiegato a mia nonna, Gravellona Toce 2010. 2 Risulta indifferente che si tratti del giudice o del pubblico ministero; cfr. A. BUZ-ZONI, op. cit., p. 51.

Since China's reform and opening up started in 1978 and Vietnam's Doi Moi reforms were initiated in 1986, these two East Asian economies have adopted capitalistic models of development while retaining and reforming their socialist legal systems along the way. Tracking the trajectory of socialist laws and their legacy, this book offers a unique comparison of laws and institutional designs in China and Vietnam. Leading scholars from China, Vietnam, Australia and the United States analyze the history, development and impact of socialist law reforms in these two continuing socialist states. Readers are offered a varied insight into the complex quality and unique features of socialist law and why it should be taken seriously. This is a fresh theoretical approach to, and internal critique of, socialist laws which demonstrates how socialist law in China and Vietnam may shape the future of global legal development among developing countries.

O presente artigo pretende resgatar o caminho de transformações percorrido pela Defensoria Pública quanto à sua missão institucional e ao público atendido pela mesma, desde a sua constitucionalização até os dias atuais, com o advento da Emenda Constitucional nº 80/14. De uma instituição inicialmente concebida para a prestação da assistência judiciária individual ao necessitado econômico, até a sua consagração como expressão e instrumento do regime democrático, incumbida da tutela integral dos direitos das pessoas e grupos em situação de vulnerabilidade e promotora dos direitos humanos.

Perlindungan terhadap rakyat adalah tugas pokok negara yang dalam hal ini ditunaikan oleh pemerintah berasaskan konsensus yang di buat antara rakyat dan pemerintah dalam kontrak social sebelum kemudian terbentuk sebagai suatu negara yang berdaulat sehingga penunaian hak baik hak asasi manusia maupun hak konstitusional adalah harga mati yang harus ditunaikan oleh negara, baik melalui regulasi aturan normative maupun tindakan-tindakan. Apalagi jika mengingat hak ikat Indonesia sebagai Negara hukum yang mengakui kedaulatan rakyat, maka hal ini haruslah pula dimaknai bahwa kebaradaan LBH harus pula sejalan beriringan dengan konsep kedaulatan rakyat dimana kekuasaan tertinggi berada ditangan rakyat. Persoalannya kemudian adalah tidak adanya jaminan kualitas bantuan hukum yang diberikan, mengingat bantuan hukum diberikan baru saat di pengadilan, padahal penanganan sebuah kasus hukum membutuhkan keterlibatan seorang advokat sejak awal untuk mempersiapkan penanganan perkara dan pembelaan dengan baik. Konsep pemberian bantuan hukum seperti ini seolah menunjukkan bahwa hukum selalu netral dan berfungsi secara ideal. Padahal faktanya tidak demikian. Belum lagi mengenai keterbatasan anggaran pengadilan untuk menyediakan dana bantuan hukum juga ketersediaan pos bantuan hukum yang ada di pengadilan, belum di semua pengadilan ada pos bantuan hukum. Ini mengakibatkan akses bantuan hukum tidak memiliki jaminan kepastian dan keberlanjutan. Berdasarkan latar belakang tersebut, maka penulisan ini bertujuan, pertama, untuk mengetahui kondisi kekinian aksesibilitas masyarakat terhadap LBH. Kedua, untuk mengetahui konsep demokratisasi LBH sebagai langkah strategis dalam mewujudkan aksesibilitas hukum bagi masyarakat Indonesia dan pembangunan hukum nasional. Adapun metode penulisan yang digunakan yakni menggunakan metode deskriptif  kualitatif. Dari analisis yang dilakukan dibuat suatu solusi yang diharapkan dapat diterapkan oleh pemerintah dalam mewujudkan aksesibilitas hukum bagi rakyat Indonesia dan pembangunan hukum nasional. Data yang digunakan merupakan data sekunder yang kemudian diolah dengan teknik content analysis untuk menghasilkan kesimpulan. Dari hasil penelitian, maka kesimpulan dalam penulisan ini adalah pertama, aksesibilitas masyarakat terhadap LBH masih sangat rendah disebabkan adanya kesenjangan yang dalam antara jumlah masyarakat marginal yang membutuhkan bantuan hukum dengan pemenuhannya. Kedua, pengembalian entitas LBH dilakukan melalui tiga tahapan, yaitu penguatan dan penegasan anggaran dari APBN/APBD, pemberdayaan aparatur desa dan revisi UU Bantuan Hukum dan Advokat. Sedangkan saran dari penulis adalah perlu adanya pengaturan khusus melaui anggaran dari APBN/APBD untuk pembiayaan lembaga bantuan hukum demi menjamin kelangsungan bantuan hukum bagi masyarakat Indonesia serta dilakukannya revisi terhadap Undang-undang Bantuan Hukum dan Advokat untuk melindungi kaum marjinal, pengaturan khusus mengenai sanksi bagi advokat yang tidak memberi bantuan hukum yang tidak optimal, perluasan peruntukkan lembaga bantuan hukum, penegasan anggaran dari APBN/APBD.
Kata Kunci: Aksesibilitas Hukum, Demokrasi, Lembaga Bantuan Hukum, Pembangunan Hukum

Sri Lanka has a rich history of providing access to justice for marginalized and vulnerable populations through the provision of legal aid. The main legal aid provider is the Legal Aid Commission which is present at district level around the country. There are also a number of non-governmental organizations providing legal aid for diverse segments of the population, the most far reaching services provided for women victims of violence by Women In Need. This paper traces the recent history of legal aid in Sri Lanka and outlines the current status of legal aid provision. It is expected to stimulate critical thinking and analysis of the strengths and weaknesses in legal aid as one component in enabling access to justice in Sri Lanka with the aim of promoting and building momentum for positive reforms.

Ce manuel sur la qualité de la justice vient parachever le projet européen "Court Quality Framework Design", qui a visé entre septembre 2016 et août 2017 à examiner les pratiques des juridictions de 5 Etats membres de l'Union européenne (Estonie, France, Italie, Portugal, Slovénie), ainsi que les politiques développées par ces Etats. Ce recueil des pratiques a été suivi d'une phase de systématisation afin d'identifier les instruments et standards communs, permettant alors de définir des indicateurs de qualité de la justice. Le tableau de bord de la qualité figurant dans le Manuel offre une vue panoptique de l'ensemble de la démarche et de ses conclusions.

Ce manuel s'appuie sur les travaux menés par les organisations internationales en matière d'évaluation de la justice (CEPEJ, Union européenne, OCDE, Nations Unies). Il identifie les données manquantes et les travaux qu'ils seraient nécessaires de mener à l'avenir pour offrir des outils opérationnels aux magistrats et chefs de juridiction en matière de pilotage de la qualité.

Los derechos a la tutela judicial y a la asistencia jurídica se encuentran en los incisos 1°, 3° y 4° del artículo 19 Nº 3 de la Constitución. El inciso 1° del artículo 19 N° 3 incluye lo que en este capítulo se denomina tutela judicial. En la doctrina nacional y comparada también se le ha llamado derecho a la acción, derecho a la tutela judicial efectiva y derecho de acceso a la justicia. Sin embargo, en mi opinión es más preciso el concepto de tutela judicial. Su importancia radica en que permite asegurar el ejercicio de los derechos sustantivos, a través de una decisión independiente e imparcial. Por esto, el Tribunal Constitucional (en adelante "TC") ha señalado que corresponde exclusivamente el conocimiento de asuntos contenciosos a la jurisdicción 2. Los incisos 3° y 4° del artículo 19 N° 3 de la Constitución se refieren a la obligación del Estado de otorgar asesoramiento y defensa jurídica a quienes no pueden proveerla por sí mismos, desde una perspectiva general y específicamente con relación al ofendido por el delito y el imputado en el proceso penal. La asistencia jurídica se relaciona directamente con la tutela judicial, y también con el inciso segundo que consagra el derecho a la defensa, pues puede leerse también como una garantía de este último derecho. El tratamiento conjunto de estos derechos se justifica en tanto ambos se encuentra íntimamente vinculados. El TC ha explicado esa estrecha relación, en base a que la posibilidad de defenderse frente a la eventual vulneración de un derecho requiere dos situaciones. Primeramente, la posibilidad de interponer la acción respectiva en forma previa; y, en segundo lugar, sustentar esa acción a través de los medios establecidos por la ley durante todo el procedimiento, para que ella pueda llegar a ser acogida 3. Se puede afirmar entonces que esta íntima vinculación tiene por objeto evitar la indefensión, que se produciría cuando un justiciable no cuenta con asistencia letrada. De allí que los estudios empíricos sobre acceso a la justicia habitualmente analizan el estado de los servicios de ayuda legal que otorga el Estado, pues su no existencia implica un obstáculo, a veces insuperable, para satisfacer adecuadamente una necesidad jurídica 4. En este capítulo, analizaré la estructura y contenido de estos derechos. Me concentraré en la lectura de los incisos citados del artículo 19 Nº 3 de la Constitución, así como en la jurisprudencia del TC y lo señalado por la doctrina constitucional nacional. Por lo tanto, una inevitable limitación de este estudio es que las referencias al derecho

Cómo citar: Cofré, L. 2020. Derechos a la tutela judicial y a la asistencia jurídica. En Contreras, P. y Salgado, C. (eds). Curso de Derechos Fundamentales. Parte Especial. Valencia, Editorial Tirant lo Blanch, pp. 317-346.

Executive Summary 1. The primary objective of the Criminal Case Profiling Study was to provide a background understanding from which contracting and payment systems for Crown Court criminal legal aid work can develop. The research questions addressed issues such as the distribution of legally aided criminal work, the structure of Crown Court cases, and case cost drivers.

Over the last half-century, the United States has developed an increasingly complex web of mechanisms for resolving individual labour and employment disputes. During this period, the percentage of the private sector workforce represented by unions, protected by the “just cause” provisions established by a collective bargaining agreement, and using private labour arbitration to enforce these protections, has dipped significantly. The vast majority of workers are now “at-will” employees. But, as unionization declined, an increasing number of statutory rights were granted to workers, such as guarantees of minimum labour standards or prohibitions on discrimination, and these have been the source of a large number of legal disputes. These statutes often exist at multiple levels – federal, state and local – and many establish a new administrative mechanism to enforce the rights they create. Aggrieved workers can often also enforce these rights directly in the federal or state courts. In part owing to the high volume and costs of litigation, employers are increasingly establishing private mechanisms within the workplace to resolve disputes, such as mediation programmes, and requiring workers to pursue any still unresolved claims through private employment arbitration.

This chapter seeks to unpack this complicated institutional structure by describing how its components function and interrelate, with a particular focus on some of the more uniquely American aspects of the system. Some initial attempt will also be made at evaluating the performance of these various mechanisms in resolving disputes. To this end, the chapter will be guided by the “efficiency”, “equity” and “voice” framework developed by Budd and Colvin (2008, pp. 460–66), while also adding an “access” dimension.

The chapter proceeds in three sections. Section 10.2 sets out the background, discussing the general labour and employment law landscape of the United States, the changing nature of employment relations, and the specific laws and institutions that will be covered here. Section 10.3 analyses and evaluates the performance of the various dispute resolution mechanisms – administrative agencies, the courts and private dispute resolution mechanisms – and how alternative dispute resolution (ADR) is being used in conjunction with each of these. Section 10.4 summarizes and offers some concluding reflections on the analysis that precedes it.

El proceso de negociación de un instrumento regional sobre derechos de acceso en América Latina y el Caribe ha incluido en su actual borrador una disposición sobre el acceso a la justicia en materia ambiental (Artículo 9). En ella, se dispone expresa-mente la obligación de los Estados de contar con mecanismos de asistencia jurídica gratui-tos. En este trabajo se intentará desarrollar esta obligación, reflexionando cómo debiera diseñarse el sistema de ayuda legal en materia ambiental. Para ello, se explicarán las carac-terísticas particulares del acceso a la justicia en materia ambiental. Luego, se analizarán las opciones de diseño de la asistencia jurídica pública, tanto en términos generales, como de la asistencia jurídica en materia ambiental, haciendo referencia a ciertas experiencias latinoa-mericanas. Finalmente, se presentarán algunas reflexiones respecto a cuál modelo (judicare o staff) es más adecuado para responder a los desafíos de la defensa jurídica ambiental.

Authors lay out the debate over the composition and direction of legal education in an era of law school's curriculum reform and limited financial resources. Croatian Legal Aid Act created an opportunity for law students to become more actively involved in delivering primarily legal aid to local community. If law schools are not sufficiently financially resourced, they can hardly equip students with the needed skills to practice law and provide legal aid. Finally, the authors argue who should play a guiding role in financing a clinical legal education in law schools that are focused on educating students as social justice lawyers.

É proibida a reprodução total ou parcial, por qualquer meio ou processo, inclusive quanto às caracte-rísticas gráficas e/ou editoriais. A violação de direitos autorais constitui crime (Código Penal, art. 184 e seus § § 1º, 2º e 3º, Lei da Lei 10.695 de 01/07/2003), sujeitando-se à busca e apreensão e indenizações diversas (Lei n°9.610/98).

This paper explores into the strategies that ought to be taken legal aid is to make sense to those that need it in Uganda and beyond. The strategies are taken from a human rights perspective and consideration is made of the fundamental roles that can be played by Non Governmental Organizations and Civil Society Organizations

Legal aid and awareness can help
disadvantaged groups and marginalized
communities to seek redress for a host of
situations where rights are denied or
violated, such as forced evictions, forced
labour without pay, arbitrary arrest or torture.
Remedies for violations of such rights often
require the services of lawyers and
considerable expenses that discourage those
who cannot afford them from seeking just
remedies. Legal aid can help overcome some
of these barriers.

This report reviews the impact of the UK Government's exclusion of separated child migrants from the legal aid framework. The report considers their exclusion within the international legal context, with a particular focus on the UNCRC and it draws attention to the lived experience of their exclusion. The fieldwork for this research involved children and young people, legal practitioners, social workers and social work managers and advocacy professionals.

There is currently no legislation guaranteeing state provision of legal aid or advice in criminal cases. The only organised provision of criminal legal representation is through the Law Society’s Criminal Legal Aid Scheme (“CLAS”). The purpose of this paper is not just to present the legal issues, but also the political and economic issues involved in state-sponsorship of legal aid and advice for non-capital criminal offences. This paper will examine in three parts not just the legal principles behind state-sponsored legal aid and advice, but also the practical considerations of economic efficiency and implementation.

The first part will begin with the meaning of an adversarial criminal justice system and recommend the political viewpoint with which criminal legal aid and advice should best be viewed from.

The second part will address the practical need for the state to sponsor criminal legal aid and advice by examining the current quality of volunteer legal aid and advice and the means test used under CLAS.

The third part advocates that Parliament acts to extend legal aid and advice to non-capital criminal offences and makes the recommendation that the current Director of the Legal Aid Bureau be responsible for granting criminal legal aid and advice. The operating costs for the Law Society’s Pro Bono Office, which houses the CLAS, operates on a government grant of $300,000 annually plus donations from the public. In contrast, the Legal Aid Bureau, which provides civil legal aid, had an annual budget in 2010 for civil legal aid and advice of about $7.6 million.

This paradoxical situation where civil legal aid is provided but not criminal legal aid should be remedied. As Lee Kuan Yew said in Parliament in 1957, “[i]t is no use telling the people that you have a wonderful democratic machine if you do not offer them the mechanics to operate that machinery for them as and when required.”

Justice is the bedrock of peace and tranquillity in every society. Justice cannot be guaranteed when there is no access to court, fair hearing and fundamental rights due to financial constraint. The people of each country have contracted their power to their government to secure their rights and interests. Therefore it is incumbent on the government to strive towards equality before the law. One of the means to secure this is through availing indigent people free legal aid services. In Nigeria, the Legal Aid Council was established to serve the needy. Aside from the government legal aid service, there are several voluntary legal aid services. Despite the services, the bias of the Nigerian legal system to the detriment of the poor people is not quenched. This work then looks at the background of the legal aid service in Nigeria, challenges and the possible solutions to serve as corrective tools for the lacunae in the present legal aid service in the country.