Legal Aid

Background: India's rapidly aging population faces increasing health, social, and economic vulnerabilities. Although several laws and welfare schemes exist, gaps in implementation and awareness continue to undermine their effectiveness. Aims: This article examines the existing legal framework for the rights and welfare of older persons in India, evaluates its strengths and shortcomings, and recommends reforms for a more inclusive, rights-based approach. Method: An analysis of primary legislation, such as the Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007, the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, and personal laws, was conducted, supported by comparative insights and policy literature. Results: Findings reveal that while legal provisions reflect progressive intent, they suffer from fragmentation, poor execution, and a lack of geriatricspecific healthcare integration. Conclusions: Stronger enforcement, unified elder-care legislation, and a shift in perspective from welfare to legal entitlement are necessary to ensure older adults in India live with dignity, autonomy, and full participation.

In accordance with the first part of Article 9 of the Criminal Procedure Code of Georgia (CPCG), from the moment of commencement of criminal prosecution, criminal proceedings are conducted based on the adversarial principle and the equality of arms. Part two of Article 25 of the same Code states that the collection, presentation, and examination of evidence fall within the competence of the parties, and the court does not participate in this process, except in rare cases. This paper addresses the following issue of whether a court, on its own initiative, may qualify a charge and find a person guilty of an action that the prosecution does not dispute at all. Specifically, when the court independently intervenes in the qualification of the claim, does it violate the principle of CPCG. How should such actions by the court be understood, and, in general, does the court have the right to find a person guilty of an offense that the prosecution has not disputed throughout the entire process?! The study examines both the approach of the European Court on this matter and the practice of national courts regarding the reclassification of the claim, particularly what the court considers a deviation from the charge and the range of the reclassification of the charge. The article also includes a discussion of applicable legal norms and judicial practice and provides conclusions.

Monitoring technologies initially developed for individuals with disabilities carry inherent dual-use risks, especially evident in conflict or emergency scenarios. This article examines the dual-use dilemma posed by technologies whose civilian design objectives can unintentionally facilitate harmful applications in defense contexts. Specifically, we analyze the ethical risks associated with using civilian-generated data and systems, originally intended to enhance care and assistance, for military purposes without adequate safeguards. We argue that effective and ethically sound technological infrastructures require optimized and ethically-informed prompting strategies. These strategies must clearly define how data and system prompts are structured, reducing deployment biases, particularly against vulnerable populations.

Este trabalho realizou um exame sobre o atendimento da Defensoria Pública durante o primeiro ano de pandemia da Covid-19, com o intuito de esboçar um panorama das ações adotadas para manter o acesso à justiça diante das medidas de isolamento e distanciamento social, vez que a exclusão digital se mostra latente no País. Como recorte do trabalho, optou-se por examinar o atendimento da Defensoria Pública do Estado de Goiás, em virtude de Goiás ter sido o último Estado do País a instituir e estruturar a instituição. Para o desenvolvimento do artigo, foi realizada pesquisa bibliográfica, normativa e exploratória nos dados governamentais disponíveis nas fontes de informação de acesso aberto. Observou-se que a suspensão de atendimento presencial pela Defensoria Pública impactou no acesso à Justiça, pois o atendimento virtual ainda não se apresenta como eficaz para a parcela mais vulnerabilizada da sociedade que se encontra excluída digitalmente.

This article explores the evolving landscape of criminal procedure by examining the intersection between statutory law and its real-world application. It unveils how procedural rules-often perceived as rigid legal frameworks are interpreted, adapted, and sometimes challenged in practice. Drawing on case studies, courtroom observations, and comparative legal analysis, the study highlights discrepancies between legal ideals and procedural realities, offering insights into systemic challenges, reform efforts, and the lived experiences of legal actors. The research employs a multi-method qualitative approach. First, doctrinal analysis is used to examine statutory provisions, constitutional mandates, and judicial precedents governing criminal procedure. Second, empirical fieldwork including courtroom observations and semistructured interviews with legal practitioners (judges, prosecutors, defense attorneys, and police officers) provides insight into how these laws operate in practice. Third, a comparative legal framework is applied to assess procedural models across selected jurisdictions, with a focus on Zambia, South Africa, and the United Kingdom. This triangulated methodology enables a nuanced understanding of how criminal procedure functions not merely as a legal construct, but as a dynamic process shaped by context, discretion, and institutional culture. Methodology This study employs a multi-method qualitative research design to investigate the interplay between statutory criminal procedure and its practical implementation. The methodology integrates doctrinal legal analysis, empirical fieldwork, and comparative legal inquiry to provide a holistic understanding of procedural dynamics.

This case examines the High Court of Tanzania decision in Alexander J. Barunguza v. Law School of Tanzania & Others (Misc. Civil Cause No. 1 of 2023) [2024] TZHC 9441. The case arose from the applicant’s challenge against the decisions of the Law School of Tanzania and related bodies regarding his eligibility and academic progression.

The Court analyzed the scope of judicial review under Tanzanian administrative law, particularly in matters concerning academic and professional training institutions. It emphasized the principles of fairness, legality, and rationality, while also reaffirming the limited role of the judiciary in interfering with the internal management of academic bodies.

The judgment underscores the balance between protecting individual rights of students and respecting the autonomy of specialized institutions. It further illustrates how judicial review serves as a safeguard against arbitrariness while ensuring that administrative decisions are exercised within the confines of the law.

This article examines the mechanisms and strategies for ensuring public access to legal information and assistance in the Republic of Moldova. The research analyzes the current state of the legal support system, including digital platforms, state-guaranteed legal aid, and the role of non-governmental organizations. Special attention is paid to four key approaches: development of accessible legal information sources, expansion of free and subsidized legal services, implementation of financial support mechanisms, and state-funded legal assistance programs. The study employs a comprehensive methodology combining various research methods, including systemic, formal-legal, and comparative approaches. The findings indicate that while Moldova has developed a multi-level system of legal support, there is still room for improvement in areas such as digital accessibility, coverage of rural areas, and financial support mechanisms. The article provides practical recommendations for enhancing the effectiveness of legal support systems and improving public access to legal information and assistance.

Subsequent to pronouncement by the European Court of Human Rights of the semi-pilot judgement in case Iacov Stanciu v. Romania and the pilot judgement in case Rezmiveş and Others v. Romania -where the Court found structural problems concerning overcrowding of detention facilities and improper conditions of detention -national authorities were imposed to adopt an appropriate legal instrument in order to eradicate injuries of fundamental rights guaranteed by the Convention. The mechanism established by Law no. 169/2017 amending legislation on execution of punishments and detention measures aimed at achieving a double goal. On the one hand, it pursued to grant compensation to convicted persons executing punishments consisting in deprivation of liberty in improper conditions; on the other hand, it was destined to contribute to relieving places of detention. The purpose of this study is to analyze the degree to which the recently adopted legislation is suitable to fully attain the assumed end. The objectives of the study are to make an analysis of the relevant legal provisions and their impact on prison system and execution of punishment and at the same time of relevant case-law, in order to determine if the present form of the law leads to differentiations in treatment towards those to whom it addresses, incompatible to fundamental law.

Subsequent to pronouncement by the European Court of Human Rights of the semi-pilot judgement in case Iacov Stanciu v. Romania and the pilot judgement in case Rezmiveş and Others v. Romania - where the Court found structural problems concerning overcrowding of detention facilities and improper conditions of detention - national authorities were imposed to adopt an appropriate legal instrument in order to eradicate injuries of fundamental rights guaranteed by the Convention. The mechanism established by Law no. 169/2017 amending legislation on execution of punishments and detention measures aimed at achieving a double goal. On the one hand, it pursued to grant compensation to convicted persons executing punishments consisting in deprivation of liberty in improper conditions; on the other hand, it was destined to contribute to relieving places of detention. The purpose of this study is to analyze the degree to which the recently adopted legislation is suitable to fully attain the assu...

Proses pertama bisa diawali dengan laporan atau pengaduan ke kepolisian. Saya beran i bersa ksi pak, pa k S ekdes memang melakukan k orupsi, beran i samber geledek!! pak, itu ngetiknya kurang titik ... Saya juga beran i bersa ksi, nama saya Marfua h, Kerjaan tan i, dicatat juga pak, ana k saya 3... Coba bayangin pak, dana ba ntuan 10 juta masa yang ditilep 8 juta sendiri... B erisik kalian in i.. ngomongnya satu satu...!! Ini mesi n ketiknya kalau disuruh kerja cepat malahan mace t nanti!

This study examines the legal aid system of Bangladesh. It indicates that the Bangladeshi legal aid system is lacking in terms of both legal provisions and the actual performance of the Legal Aid Services Act. Nowadays, a legal aid can be justifiably said as a crying need to ensure social and legal justice in Bangladesh because most of the citizens are illiterate and they live below the poverty line which incidentally makes matters worse. With special reference to Rajshahi, the study evaluates the present conditions of the legal aid system, identifies the inadequacies in the implementation of the system and thus makes recommendations to ensure effective access to justice for those who are in need of the service.

Equal access to justice for the rich and poor alike is important to the maintenance of the rule of law. The practical actualization of most of the fundamental rights cannot be achieved in a country like Nigeria where millions live below starvation level. In the circumstances of this nature, fundamental rights provisions enshrined in the Constitution are nothing but meaningless jargon to Nigerians living in poverty. What is the value of fair hearing to the poor man who cannot pay summons fee let alone afford the service of a counsel? In a developing country like Nigeria where the illiteracy rate may be as high as 84%, it cannot be doubted that the government and the community must come to the aid of the poor if the administration of justice must have a social relevance. It is therefore essential to provide adequate legal advice and representation to all whose rights are threatened. The paper aims to appraise legal aid as an effective tool in dispensing justice in Nigeria where majority of the populace live below the poverty line. The paper also did a comparative analysis of legal aid systems in other jurisdictions of the world and concludes by proffering recommendations to improve legal aid architecture in Nigeria.

Using a data set of individual labor disputes brought to French courts over the years 1996 to 2003, the authors use variations in local conditions of the activity of the labor courts to assess the effect of dismissal costs on the labor market. First, the authors present a simple theoretical framework to explain the links between litigation costs, judicial outcomes, and firing costs. Second, they regress job flows on indicators of judicial outcomes, using an instrument, based on local shocks in the supply of lawyers. They find that when the numbers of lawyers increase, workers litigate more often, which should increase the firing costs for the firms. This increased filing rate causes a large decrease in employment fluctuations, especially for shrinking or exiting firms. The total effect on employment growth is slightly positive, and this result is more sensitive to the adopted specification.

Tutti i diritti riservati. È vietata la riproduzione anche parziale e con qualsiasi strumento. I testi e l'elaborazione dei testi, anche se curati con scrupolosa attenzione, non possono comportare specifiche responsabilità per involontari errori e inesattezze.

Die Bestellung neuer Verfassungsrichter_innen sorgt derzeit in Österreich für Diskussion. Neben der Ernennung des früheren Justizministers Wolfgang Brandstetter, der in manch künftigem Gesetzesprüfungsverfahren befangen sein könnte, betrifft sie vor allem Andreas Hauer, Wunschkandidat der FPÖ. Hauer ist Universitätsprofessor für Verwaltungsrecht und Verwaltungslehre in Linz. Gleichzeitig ist er Mitglied des „Corps Alemannia Wien zu Linz“, einer schlagenden Studentenverbindung. Mit seiner Ernennung zum Verfassungsrichter erweitert sich der seit der Nationalratswahl 2017 ohnehin steigende Einflussbereich von schlagenden Verbindungen nun auch auf die Höchstgerichte. Die Debatte über das Bestellungsverfahren und die „Eignung“ von Verfassungsrichter_innen erhält vor diesem Hintergrund ihre aktuelle Brisanz, ihre historischen Wurzeln lassen sich bis zur Republiksgründung rückverfolgen.

Albania is in an intensive phase of the process of its integration into the European Union, progressing through the negotiations chapter by chapter. This political process serves as support for the democratization of Albania and the consolidation of the rule of law. A key priority remains the alignment of Albanian legislation with that of the European Union. This study aims to highlight the impact of constitutional reviews of laws exercised by the Constitutional Court, in support of legislative alignment. The Constitutional Court can be engaged in judicial dialogue with the European Court of Justice, as well as apply comparative interpretation of European Union acts to support the harmonization of legislation. The implementation of the Stabilization and Association Agreement also plays an important role. Through monitoring and analysis of the Constitutional Court’s decisions, this paper draws several conclusions regarding the contributions from the Albanian Constitutional Court’s jurisprudence in this area.

The theoretical focal point of the thesis, is to extensively examine all the observable factors, extending beyond negative political influence at the rural-community level, which stimulates mob justice, retribution and lynching in West Africa region. The author's case-study reference is established from the Republic of Liberia and Sierra Leone, with an in-depth enquiry to the alarming rate of the community mob justice at the blind spot of the Police Institution, thou, advocate for Traditional Court Institution for Justice delivery, as a procedural approach to curb the menace at the rural level.

Legal aid is essentially a mechanism that enables the poor and the vulnerable sectors of the society to be able to enforce their legal rights in order to access a fair and equitable justice in the society. Nowadays, a legal aid can be justifiably said as a crying need to ensure social and legal justice in Bangladesh because most of the citizens are illiterate and they live below the poverty line which incidentally makes matters worse. Due to their financial crisis or lack of legal knowledge they are often precluded to access justice. In recognizing the legal aid as a right, the government has enacted some laws. However, unfortunately those laws are full of weaknesses, loopholes, and procedural complexities which have to be judiciously addressed in the proper legal perspectives. As a matter of fact, legally speaking, much has been said and done, but ironically not much has been practiced. Due to these ever unsettling defects, the ultimate objectives of those laws have frequently failed to ensure enjoyment of the legal aid services among the vulnerable sectors of the society. In this research, an attempt has been made to analyze and find out numerous legal the gaps, loopholes and complexities of the existing laws relating to legal aid services in Bangladesh and frame out a comprehensive solution for ensuring the aid program by adopting the qualitative and the analytical research methods.

O recente projeto de reforma do Código Civil brasileiro (Projeto de Lei nº 4/2025) e de seus atuais 1.122 artigos foi apresentado ao Senado no dia 1º de abril de 2025 — visa estabelecer um maior controle estatal sobre os contratos com base nos princípios de confiança, simetria e paridade. A Reforma do Código Civil brasileiro, que está em discussão no Congresso Nacional, visa atualizar a lei nº 10.406/2002, que rege os direitos e deveres dos cidadãos em diversas esferas da vida civil. A proposta, que pretende adaptar a legislação às novas realidades da sociedade, busca maior clareza e segurança jurídica nas relações entre indivíduos e instituições.  A reforma, que altera cerca de 1.122 dos 2.046 artigos do Código Civil atual, é vista como um passo importante para a modernização da legislação civil brasileira, mas também gera debates sobre a pertinência e necessidade de uma reforma tão ampla. Algumas críticas apontam para a possibilidade de retrocessos em alguns aspectos, como a proteção de direitos já reconhecidos pelos tribunais, e para a geração de incerteza jurídica.

Looking at the criminal justice system in Indonesia through the lens of the rights of the accused reveals the irony of unequal access to legal aid, which should be an essential right. A bitter reality that states, especially for marginalized communities and those with economic limitations, often goes unnoticed. Ideally, the right to legal defense, which should be available to everyone, has become mere rhetoric since the start of the legal process. This article aims to analyze and compare the legal aid systems for suspects in Indonesia, the United States and the United Kingdom in order to identify potential improvements to the legal aid system in Indonesia by adopting good practices from other countries, while taking into account the Indonesian legal and socio-cultural context. This research uses a normative juridical method, which places the main focus on a comprehensive analysis of the relevant laws and regulations, including both the legal framework in Indonesia and the applicable regulations in other countries that are the focus of comparison, namely the United States and the United Kingdom. The results of this research firmly underline the crucial role of legal aid for suspects in realizing fair criminal justice and respect for human rights. Learning from the practices of other countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom is important. The US with its adversary system emphasizing process justice, and the UK with its tradition of inclusive legal aid. These are valuable offerings for the Indonesian judiciary to consider and adapt to the legal and socio-cultural context in strengthening the national legal aid system.

This study examines the role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), with a focus on the Women’s Legal Aid Centre (WLAC), in promoting women’s land ownership rights in Kinondoni Municipal, Dar es Salaam. It assesses the effectiveness of WLAC’s initiatives, including legal aid services, community outreach, and awareness campaigns, in supporting women to access, own, and benefit from land. The background of the study highlights systemic challenges such as cultural norms favoring male inheritance, inadequate enforcement of land laws, and low awareness levels among women regarding their land rights. The study also incorporates a theoretical foundation grounded in feminist perspectives, legal empowerment theory, and land tenure systems to understand the structural barriers and contextual dynamics influencing women’s access to land.
A mixed-methods approach was used to collect and analyze data, combining structured questionnaires, in-depth interviews with WLAC staff, and document reviews. Data were gathered from women beneficiaries and legal professionals. Quantitative data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, while qualitative data provided detailed insights into the lived experiences of women and WLAC’s strategic responses. Findings revealed that many women were aware of WLAC’s services and had engaged in legal awareness programs. However, significant barriers remain, including cultural resistance, limited financial resources, and weak implementation of existing legal frameworks.
The study concludes that WLAC is instrumental in advancing women’s land rights, though its impact is constrained by both internal and external challenges. It recommends expanding awareness campaigns, enhancing partnerships with stakeholders, increasing community-level interventions, and securing sustainable funding to strengthen WLAC’s advocacy and legal aid services. The research contributes to a better understanding of how NGOs operate at the grassroots level to address gender inequality in land ownership and provides a foundation for future policy and programmatic improvements in Tanzania.

1 Based on the latest Eurostat data, which shows the number of prisoners for 2016. Eurostat does not show the number of prisoners in Belgium and Scotland for 2016 (yet). See Eurostat, Prison capacity and number of persons held (crim_pris_cap), last updated on 10 January 2019, available at . 2 The ECtHR provides a summary of its most relevant case-law on detention conditions on its website. See European Court of Human Rights, Press Unit, Factsheet -Detention conditions and treatment of prisoners, January 2019, www.echr.coe.int/Documents/FS_Detention_conditions_ENG.pdf. 3 Annual reports and reports of visits to states parties are available online, at .

This is the first part of a series of draft papers describing my experience of institutional violence from Ballarat Clarendon College while attempting to litigate the school for violent child sexual abuse (CSA). After Australia's Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to CSA, this institution has responded with hostility toward members of the school community who have dared to speak out about the culture of the school and the actions taken by the Principal and the Board of Executives in dealing with criminal offences and other abuses that take place within. The school shares responsibility for injuring me in a medico-legal forensic cross-examination in late 2022, in which high-frequency, machine-generated sound was used to facilitate interrogation by forensic psychiatrist Gregor Schutz. The doctor did not specialise or have experience in examining for CSA and should never have been appointed. The school has failed to acknowledge the injury it helped inflict on me, despite that it has known about it for two and a half years. I argue that the school is a provincial, parochial criminal organisation dominated by a pedophile social network containing offenders and supporters of offenders, and disinterested bystanders motivated by self-interest. The school continues to harm students and former students and their families in a ruthless manner, operating like a country-town mafia,  unable to regard its Duty of Care seriously. It remains completely out of step with the recommendations made by the Royal Commission and the new regulations introduced in Victoria in response.

A Benami transaction refers to a financial arrangement in which a property is transferred to or held by one person, but the consideration (payment) for it is provided by another. The person in whose name the property is held is called the Benamidar, and the person who actually paid for it is the real owner or beneficial owner.  In other words benami transactions, meaning transactions conducted in the name of someone other than the person who finances or benefits from them, have long plagued property and asset regulation in South Asian countries. In Pakistan, such transactions were often used to conceal assets, evade taxes, launder money, and defeat creditors. Prior to 2017, there was no legislation to curb the benami transactions. Otherwise the civil courts had jurisdiction to declare that the person who possesses property and gets it benefits is the entitled  to hold and benefit from the property. The transaction was made in the name of someone else who neither hold original documents nor possessed the property in any manner whatsoever since transaction. Recognizing the social and economic harm posed by benami practices, the Government of Pakistan introduced a formal legal framework to curb such transactions through the Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 2017 , hereinafter called as “the Act, 2017” This article discusses the concept, evolution, legal framework, and enforcement mechanism regarding benami transactions in Pakistan.

Environmental pollution can result in different damages on the society. Victims of environmental pollution are expected to have certain legal remedies and one of the remedies is facilitating public interest litigation. The potential environmental pollution of Ethiopia is also expected to be rectified by the existing legal framework of public interest litigation in addition to other ways. However, there is legal framework by which public interest litigation can be made does not mean that public interest litigation would solve the environmental damages. Beyond the legal provision, the existence of practically favorable condition is very important to make public interest litigation. Some of the favorable conditions are the awareness of the public, the presence of NGOs and other personalities which can undertake the public interest litigation, well established jurisprudence in the area of public interest litigation. This research is, accordingly, aimed at investigating the legal framework of public interest litigation in Tigray and practical importance of public interest litigation by specifically investigating the existing legal framework, the situation in which public interest litigation can be undertaken and its practical implication.

La Tercera se reserva el derecho a editar los textos, que no serán devueltos. @aundurragav: "Concejales de oposicion de Recoleta marcan precedente al rechazar renuncia a alcaldesa para que asuma otro cargo: No se abandona a la gente". Alberto Undurraga V., alcalde de Maipú. @silviabaezav: "Tremendo tema el de financiar con fondos públicos a los partidos políticos, interesante propuesta en debate hoy en Comision de Etica Senado". Silvia Baeza, investigadora Libertad y Desarrollo. @frank_sauerbaum: "De acuerdo con una reforma tributaria sólo para Bajar impuestos a la clase media que trabaja 4 meses para el estado y no ve ningun beneficio". Frank Sauerbaum, diputado RN. @marcelomena: "Divertido ese eslogan 'Codelco buen vecino' si es que cada vez que hay problema ambiental te relocalizan. Buen ex vecino?". Marcelo Mena, dir. Centro de Suistentabilidad Unab. @andresamengual: "La Unión Europea y su falta de moral. Libia sí, Siria no". Andrés Amengual. @JosePinera: "Un año de valiosa iniciativa: el 'Defensor del Lector' en La Tercera (). Felicitaciones. ¿Pq no en todos los diarios?". José Piñera.

The Act radically curtailed eligibility for legal aid ‘from most civil law areas’, which prompted Nicholas Lavender, chair of the Bar, to comment that ‘these changes pose a significant threat to effective access to justice for some of the most vulnerable members of society’. This article will provide evidence to substantiate this claim, and demonstrate how the Government were imprudent when drafting this Bill.

This study explores the effectiveness of Adlerian therapy in managing pre-retirement anxiety among Federal Road Safety officers in Edo, Nigeria. Pre-retirement is a significant issue among officers as they are faced with both psychological challenges and uncertainties of the future when approaching the end of their career with the corps. The transition to retirement can be accompanied by anxiety, fear and apprehension about the future. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of AT in alleviating pre-retirement anxiety symptoms, enhancing coping strategies, improving overall psychological wellbeing among Federal Road Safety officers in Edo. The outcome result revealed the effectiveness of AT in managing pre-retirement anxiety of the officers. This study contributes to the development and implementation of evidenced-based interventions for managing pre-retirement anxiety among FRS officers and also aiming to promote a healthier and more supportive transition to retirement for its personnel. This study seeks to provide valuable insights into the implementation of AT in addressing pre-retirement anxiety, filling the existing gap in research and offering guidance for future interventions targeting this occupational group.

The industrial revolution marked a fundamental change in history as physical work became increasingly automated, leading to the replacement of muscle power by machines. However, in the modern era, a new revolution is underway—the AI-powered revolution—which is transforming the nature of work by automating mental tasks. From being mere science fiction in the past, it has now become a real practice, playing an important role in the field of law. This paper will address how legal practitioners conduct research, manage documents, conduct defense, and even how trials are conducted in the courtroom. The research process went through three phases, which included data collection, analysis of the main findings and elaboration using a qualitative research methodology, which includes
literature review, case studies from practice, and aims to present the new opportunities that AI offers.
However, the application of AI also presents new challenges such as algorithmic biases, the fallibility of AI systems, the violation of personal data, and the need for new regulatory frameworks. Questions about accountability, legal liability, and whether AI technology could replace human lawyers and undermine the expertise and judgment that legal professionals bring to their work are causing an intense debate. With the development of artificial intelligence on the rise, this paper aims to further explain what artificial intelligence is and how it is currently being used in the legal field.

The Spanish justice system has been shaken by the economic downturn as many other institutions have. This article addresses in the first place some statistical data that shed light as regards to the number of judges and the costs and length of the procedure in Spain. These figures help to understand, in the second place, the impact of austerity measures on the judiciary, namely, the freeze on the hiring of judges and the establishing of high court fees. While they mainly concern the supply side of justice services, others such cost reductions in legal aid have had, in the third place, an impact on the demand side, driving many citizens to social exclusion and to resorting to self-defence mechanisms. The final part of this article addresses some remedies that may alleviate judiciary's workload, but that fall short of doing it. All in all, the Spanish justice system seems to require a holistic approach to patch up edges, but one in which the role of judge-made justice in a democratic society has to be central again.

Transformasi digital dalam bidang hukum telah mengubah secara mendasar cara kerja profesi hukum, termasuk melalui penerapan teknologi informasi seperti e-court, forensik digital, dan layanan hukum daring. Perubahan ini membawa serta tantangan etika yang signifikan, khususnya terkait prinsip kerahasiaan, akuntabilitas, dan integritas profesional. Artikel ini menganalisis implikasi etika dari praktik hukum berbasis teknologi informasi dengan menggunakan pendekatan normatif yuridis dan analisis kualitatif terhadap peraturan perundang-undangan serta literatur hukum yang relevan. Temuan menunjukkan bahwa regulasi etika profesi hukum saat ini belum sepenuhnya mampu menjawab tantangan yang ditimbulkan oleh digitalisasi. Oleh karena itu, diperlukan pembaruan norma dan pedoman etis yang adaptif terhadap perkembangan teknologi, guna memastikan perlindungan terhadap nilainilai dasar profesi hukum di era digital.

This article examines the problem of accessibility of legal aid in the context of the impact of the legal status and level of professional training of legal aid providers on the effectiveness of their activities. The analysis of the regulatory and factual restrictions applicable to various categories of legal aid providers is carried out, the problem of unauthorized legal practice is considered, and some aspects of improving the system of professional training of legal professionals are explored. In conclusion, measures are proposed to increase the accessibility of legal aid: creating conditions for participation in the provision of legal aid to various categories of persons, eliminating excessive restrictions that hinder the development of technological solutions for lawyers, and improving the training system for legal professionals.

La privatización y subcontratación de los servicios tradicionalmente proporcionados por los Estados ha adoptado diversas formas y grados de intensidad. En un creciente número de países los Estados han delegado ciertas funciones a empresas que suministran servicios, tecnología, equipamiento, conocimiento o infraestructuras. En otros casos esta subdelegación se ha realizado a organizaciones sociales y fundaciones privadas sin ánimo de lucro. También se observa la incorporación forzosa de actores privados en la implementación del control, como en el caso de las compañías de transporte de pasajeros. Las críticas a la privatización se centran en la creciente influencia las empresas de seguridad y de tecnología en la toma de  Esta contribución se ha elaborada en el marco del Proyecto MIND (CSO2014-53680). Puede encontrarse una versión más amplia de este análisis basado en el concepto de "mercados migratorios" en López-Sala, A.

El presente trabajo tiene como presupuesto la especial naturaleza y estructura de la organización administrativa militar como basamento mediante el cual se organizan y vertebran nuestras Fuerzas Armadas. Desde esta perspectiva, la singular configuración de la organización administrativa militar determina que el ejercicio del ius puniendi del Estado en el seno castrense presente especiales características en el orden cualitativo respecto al régimen general de sanciones. Partiendo de ello, profundizaremos en el estudio de la manifestación del derecho de defensa y la asistencia técnica (por abogado o militar) en el ámbito castrense a partir de la recopilación y discusión de las teorías elaboradas por la doctrina y el análisis de la jurisprudencia existente en torno a este tema. Palabras clave: derecho militar, derecho disciplinario militar, derecho administrativo militar, ilícito administrativo militar.

The soul of every democracy is justice, which in this case manifests itself as the very embodiment of equality and fairness. Yet in India, for many marginalized citizens, it is only a dream that is left unfulfilled. Although constitutionally promised under Article 39A and the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987, in practice, the same falls drastically short. Prominent cases like "Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar" cemented legal aid as a basic right, yet only a few percent of those who qualify can be accorded that service, often in late delivery or inadequate measures. These gaps speak to broader institutional inefficiencies, poorly financed structures of legal aid, and community skepticism about a system seen as not working. It is an innovation-based and community-led solutions. Technology, such as e-courts and online mechanisms of dispute resolution, is also presented through which access to justice can be democratized and the limitations that occur in rural regions because of the digital divide can be mitigated. Grassroots-based legal literacy programs have also been suggested as tools for allowing rights access by marginalized communities through programs implemented and delivered along the lines of cultural and linguistic contexts. This means equal justice is not achieved merely through funding but requires sweeping reforms, systemic efficiency, and collective responsibility. It presents an image of a system of justice that bridges the gap between constitutional ideals and the lived realities where fairness is not a privilege but a universal right.

___________________________________________________________________ Mata kuliah praktik secara langsung dan tatap muka tetap menjadi pilihan favorit mahasiswa pada perguruan tinggi yang menggunakan metode pembelajaran jarak jauh, dibandingkan dengan praktik/tutorial online. Pada mahasiswa Program Studi Ilmu Hukum Universitas Terbuka selain diberikan materi teoritis akademis secara mandiri dan terstruktur, juga diberikan pengalaman beracara di pengadilan. Selain praktik dan observasi di lembaga peradilan, mahasiswa juga dibimbing untuk menulis berkas/dokumen yang dibutuhkan dalam proses beracara. Metode penelitian dilaksanakan menggunakan metode kuantitatif dan kualitatif (mix methode) dengan instrumen berupa angket dan wawancara. Data yang digunakan adalah data primer yang didapatkan dari angket/kuesioner dan dari wawancara langsung. Data sekunder dari literasi pustaka buku pedoman mata kuliah Praktik Pengalaman Beracara dan referensi lainnya. Hasil yang diperoleh yaitu 99,81% mahasiswa PPB respon positif tentang pelayanan di UT Semarang, pengadilan sebagai tempat praktik, maupun dari materi dan manfaat yang diperoleh untuk karir pekerjaan. Hasil lain, yaitu adanya evaluasi yang harus dilakukan terkait dengan kendala-kendala yang muncul pada saat pelaksanaan. Evaluasi dilakukan untuk perbaikan pada semester selanjutnya. Direct and face-to-face practice courses remain a favourite choice for students at higher education using distance learning methods, compared to online practice/ tutorials. In addition to an independent and structured academic theoretical study program, the students of the Study Program of Law Sciences at Universitas Terbuka are also given the litigation experience (PPB) in court. In addition to practice and observation in judiciary, the students are also guided to write the files/ documents needed in the proceedings. The research method was carried out using quantitative and qualitative method (mixed methods) with the instruments in the form of questionnaires and interviews. The data used were primary data obtained from questionnaires and direct interviews. The secondary data were from library literacy, the manuals of the Litigation Experience Practice Course (PPB) and other references. The results obtained show that 99.81% or the PPB students have a positive response on the services at UT Semarang, the court as the place of practice, and the materials and benefits obtained for career. The other result is the presence of evaluation that has to be implemented related to the obstacles found in the implementation. Evaluation should be made for improvement in the next semesters.

El presente trabajo tiene por objeto el análisis de los principios y el examen constitucional realizado por nuestro Tribunal Constitucional sobre la cosa juzgada como institución procesal a propósito de la decisión de recursos de inaplicabilidad y los problemas de constitucionalidad resueltos por la magistratura constitucional con motivo de la aplicación de la cosa juzgada en casos concretos

O atual CPC inovou ao positivar regras especificas aplicáveis a ação possessória multitudinária, contudo, tais regras são insuficientes para regulamentar adequadamente este importante tema, assim apesar dos avanços legislativos, ficou o sentimento de que o legislador poderia ter regulamentado melhor e de forma mais ampla a matéria. Isso se deu, em parte, pelo conflito de forças (ruralistas x organizações que defendem a moradia digna universal) com posições conflitantes na elaboração do CPC. Logo, o resultado acabou sendo um meio-termo para que ambas as forças, de alguma forma, se sentissem vitoriosas. Considerando esse cenário, este Livro buscará avançar nos temas contidos pelo legislador, identificando os pontos frágeis das opções legislativas e propondo melhorias na interpretação e na positivação do tema, a fim de que o processo possa apresentar o remédio adequado que o tema necessita.

1Klinika Nadciœnienia Têtniczego i Diabetologii Akademickiego Centrum Klinicznego Akademii Medycznej w Gdañsku; kierownik Kliniki: prof. dr hab. med. Bogdan Wyrzykowski 2Zak3ad Immunologii Akademii Medycznej w Gdañsku; kierownik Zak3adu: prof. dr hab. med. Jolanta Myœliwska Celem niniejszej pracy by3a ocena wiedzy na temat hormonalnej terapii zastêpczej (HTZ) i czêstoœci jej stosowania wœród mieszkanek œrodowisk wielkomiejskich województwa pomorskiego na przyk3adzie populacji 50-letnich kobiet zamieszkuj1cych Gdyniê i Sopot. Materia3: Badanie mia3o charakter ankiety i zosta3o przeprowadzone na 586 50-letnich mieszkankach Gdyni i Sopotu w latach 2002–2003. Wœród nich 269 by3o po menopauzie, a 317 jeszcze regularnie miesi1czkowa3o. Wyniki: W zale¿noœci od wykszta3cenia 56,4 do 93,5% badanych kobiet s3ysza3o o HTZ. Wiêkszoœæ kobiet za najwa¿niejsz1 zaletê stosowania HTZ uzna3a poprawê samopoczucia. Co 5. kobieta wiedzia3a, ¿e stosowanie HTZ zapobiega osteoporozie. Wœród niebezpieczeñst...

In determining the accessibility and affordability of the civil justice system, this article will evaluate the costs regime and litigation funding available in Cyprus in light of the recent proposed reforms to the civil procedure rules. At the time of writing, civil cases in Cyprus are ranked according to their value and governed by fixed costs rules depending on the scale of the claim. Litigation funding, such as legal aid, is available only if the civil case involves the infringement of human rights and is granted under specific circumstances. Furthermore, third-party funding and contingency fees are practically unheard of, as they remain unregulated by the Cypriot legislation. Third-party litigation funding has only recently been examined by the national courts albeit in the context of an application for the setting aside of an order enforcing a foreign judgment. Is the Cypriot civil justice system affordable and thus accessible? Does limited access to legal aid and third-party funding result in violation of the right to access to justice? Will the civil justice reform improve accessibility for litigants? A holistic answer will be achieved by drawing comparisons with costs and litigation funding practices in England and Wales, as well as in Germany, both of which are leading jurisdictions in Europe and especially influential owing to their geopolitical history with the island, representing the common law and civil law systems, respectively.

From the 19th century onwards, several institutional and associational actors became interested in the legal protection of foreigners. This article analyses the initiatives undertaken by Italian diplomacy, as a country of emigration, and by legal aid societies in the United States, as an immigrant context. From these various initiatives, there were several attempts to foster multilateral coordination from the beginning of the 20th Century, attempts that culminated in the creation of a specific committee of experts within the League of Nations and which operated during the 1920s.