History of Paper

Catholicos Grigor Anavarzetsi, who lead the Armenian church between 1293 and 1307, was not only a circumspect political actor but a talented author as well. Though he had authored over 33 cannonized Sharakans, only five of them are known to scholars. The author has uncovered 8 heretofore unknown cannons of catholicos Anavarzetsi one of which is the candle-light baptism cannon; this he has copied from a manuscript stored in the Mashtots Matenadaran of Erevan.
The cannon consists of 31 verses which constitute 7 sharakans. According to the author, these Sharakans can not be considered poetry in the full sense of the word, because most of the best Armenian Sharakans are those which have little to do with biblical events and ceremonies, since the authors do not find themselves restrained with a set of fixed terminology and scenery.

This article studies labour-saving technologies among eighteenth-century pupils, students, and academics by looking at the organisation of paper. The mathematician Colin Campbell of Achnaba (1644-1726), a minister of the Church of Scotland, repurposed the letters which were sent to him, turning them into notebooks by cutting up the paper and reusing the blank spaces for mathematical notes. Following the sources of Campbell's 'letters-as-notebooks', I suggest that the study of reuse should not only trace materials in households but also include their wider circulation in networks beyond the home. Campbell's workplace thus illuminates his mediating role as minister in the confessional culture of the early Scottish Enlightenment.

O papel era essencial ao Império ultramarino português. Suporte para a escrita, era um artefato fundamental para a administração colonial e para as atividades cotidianas de diversos segmentos da sociedade. A proibição da instalação de moinhos de papel na América portuguesa, vigente até 1808 e, posteriormente, a insuficiência da produção local autorizada em suprir a demanda existente, fizeram com que o papel utilizado na colônia fosse importado da Europa. Neste artigo analisamos o comércio e a circulação de papéis estrangeiros em São Paulo entre 1800 e 1822. Para tanto, averiguamos o uso do papel como suporte para a escrita de petições; exploramos inventários post-mortem de agentes mercantis para compreender os produtos vendidos, os locais onde eram comercializados, os preços praticados e os indivíduos envolvidos; e examinamos marcas d’água e contramarcas a fim de identificar os fabricantes de papel cujos produtos se faziam presentes e suas proveniências.

This article applies modern scientific analysis to early nineteenth-century American playing cards from the Winterthur Museum, uncovering new insights into their materials and manufacturing techniques. Through advanced methods such as transmitted light microscopy and FT-IR spectroscopy, the study reveals details about paper types, fiber sourcing, adhesives, pigments, and sizing. The findings illuminate prevailing trends in American card production, such as the transition from laid to wove paper and the use of rag fiber, starch, and kaolin clay. The research not only provides a deeper understanding of period craftsmanship but also highlights analytical methods for distinguishing originals from later reproductions or fakes.

W hen the University of Hong Kong was founded in 1911, at the close of China’s dynastic rule, a library was established in the main campus building to house what was, at first, a rather modest collection of Western and Chinese books. Significant purchases and donations over the following decades enabled the collections to grow. Many rare and unique editions of Chinese books were acquired. In 1932, Mr. Fung Ping Shan donated the funding to construct a purpose-built library for the Chinese collection. Today, the Library’s collection of rare Chinese books (published in or before 1795) is one of the largest in Hong Kong with more than 800 titles in 14,000 volumes including 4 Song dynasty editions, 18 Yuan dynasty editions, as well as block prints from the Ming dynasty and manuscripts from the Qing. The Chinese collection was relocated to the Main Library in the 1960s when it outgrew the Fung Ping Shan building. The Chinese books were administered independently, though the two collection...

Mots Clés: Espace industriel. Industrialisation. Sol industriel. Développement urbain. Tolosa. (*) Este artículo es un breve resumen del trabajo del mismo título, realizado mediante una ayuda a la investigación de Eusko Ikaskuntza-Sociedad de Estudios Vascos. Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk

This article traces the history of the relationship of papermaking and paper to libraries over time. Paper was first made in China and is traditionally considered one of that nation's four greatest inventions, along with gun powder, printing, and the compass. Papermaking was often associated with archives in its early development in China, as well as when it was introduced to Japan, where it came to be a part of some Shinto and Buddhist temples, and later governmental agencies. Under Islam, the availability of paper was linked to increased literacy and growth of libraries. In early modern Europe, before the widespread use of wood in the papermaking process, libraries and archives were part of an "economy of paper" with paper at times being in short supply. In the modern era, the world of papermaking did not intersect much with the world of the library, which made progress with the problem of brittle books, one of its greatest challenges, slow, though recent efforts of government, industry, scientists, and representatives of the library have produced positive results. The damage caused by wood-based paper in libraries was mirrored by the environmental damage caused by wood-based papermaking in communities. The history of papermaking and libraries demonstrates the importance of understanding the technologies which support the library, while also advocating effectively to the representatives of all its sources of support in ways which promote the values of the library and its associated community.

No other decorated paper technique attracted so much attention in its introduction into Europe, even by scientists as the decorated paper known as the Turkish paper did." Both because it had originated in the Orient and it had a rare technique beyond those known in Europe, it emerged as an invaluable technique wrapped in mysteries." As Albert Haemmerle disclosed in his masterpiece "Buntpapier"(Decorated Paper) 1 printed in 1961, the Orient has a rich decorated paper versatility that has always had a great impact on the world of decorated paper in Europe. Developed and practiced as an element of paper arts, these techniques found their place in 16 th century European alba amicorum as part of the history of the European decorated papers and have been widely used since then. Marbling and other Oriental decorated paper techniques made an entrance into European circles under the name of "Turkish Paper" 2 in the second half of the 16 th century during a

Keine andere Technik von Buntpapier hat bei ihrer Einbürgerung in Europa das Interesse-selbst gelehrter Männer-so bewegt und ein so mannigfaltiges Schrifttum hervorgerufen wie das unter dem Namen ‚Türkisch Papier' bekannte Buntpapier. Es erschien-von Geheimnis umwoben-als etwas Kostbares, sowohl wegen der orientalischen Herkunft als auch wegen seiner Seltsamkeit-so verschieden war es von allem, was man in Europa kannte und herzustellen wusste." 1 Wie Albert Haemmerle in seinem 1961 erschienen Klassiker Buntpapier schreibt, verfügt der Orient über eine große Vielfalt an Buntpapieren, die die Papierarten Europas beeinflusste. Die damit verbundenen Techniken, die als Bestandteil der Buchkunst entwickelt und praktiziert wurden, gingen in die Papiergeschichte ein: Sie fanden im 16. Jahrhundert Zugang in europäische Stammbücher und wurden über Jahrhunderte hinweg bis in die Gegenwart verwendet.

Onion skin paper-is it or is it not a tracing paper? This single thought crossed my mind the first time I had to face the conservation treatment of an onion skin paper document. Far from being concerned with nomenclature or classification, I was rather worried about anticipating the setbacks that could arise during the conservation treatment.

The earliest known text in Romanian, the Hurmuzaki Psalter, has not been satisfactorily dated because of the rarity of its watermarks. The manuscript was written on paper of two types: for the first 13 quires, paper marked with a variant of a ship with oars and flag was used, recorded between 1460-1468 (Briquet type 11959); the paper of the last 4 quires is marked with a simple anchor, attested in 1501-1506 (Briquet type 436). The present research examines the known occurrences of the two watermarks and reveals a number of new occurrences of the first watermark, previously overlooked in the discussion of dating the mentioned manuscript. The conclusion is that the ship with oars and flag represents the mark of a Fabriano paper mill active between 1430 and 1476; this paper was predomi-nantly used in Greek and Serbian manuscripts. A re-examination of the whole issue leads to the conclusion that the Hurmuzaki Psalter, which uses mostly paper from the third quarter of the 15th century, was written at the latest between 1491 and 1504.

Статья посвящена импорту бумаги в Московское государство в Балтийском регионе. Известно, что одним из портов поставки бумаги в ранее Новое время был Архангельск, однако в данной статье рассматривается такой важный для Московского государства торговый маршрут, как города Ливонии. Обращение именно к Балтийскому региону, несмотря на тот факт, что по количеству продаваемой бумаги его сложно сравнивать, например, с Нижним Рейном или Голландией, связано с поставками бумаги в Московское государство. В качестве основных центров поставки бумаги на протяжении XV в. служили ганзейские города, Рига и Ревель, однако регистры Зундской пошлины позволяют отметить рост позиций Нарвы. Данный источник содержит сведения о грузах, с которых уплачивался налог в пользу датской короны при прохождении судов через Зундский пролив и охватывают период с 1497 по 1857 гг. В частности, отмечается значительное количество кораблей, идущих в Нарву в период Ливонской войны с бумагой, например, из Дьеппа. Рассматриваемый в статье эпизод из истории торговли данным писчим материалом в период Ливонской войны, показывает яркий пример активизации прямых поставок европейской бумаги в Нарву, в ходе военных событий временно перешедшей под контроль Московского государства и ставшей русским портом. В период Ливонской войны снижается значение Новгорода как бумажного рынка, увеличиваются закупки бумаги у англичан через Архангельск. Это позволяет предположить, что во время правления Ивана Грозного Нарва была одним из важных пунктов поставок французской бумаги.

“Formar profesionales con un conocimiento profundo del ser humano”, es lo
que aparentemente ofertaría un programa en la enseñanza de las Humani-
146
Educación, Comunicación y Humanidades digitales
dades. En efecto, tal apuesta por el conocimiento del ser humano es funda-
mental, más en una época en que quizá lo que menos importa es lo humano,
y más el individuo y lo individual; pero también, preocupa la irrupción de lo
digital enfocado en la inteligencia artificial que amenaza con terminar con
la producción y reproducción del conocimiento humano. Sí, muy preocupan-
te; no obstante, juzgo más relevante centrar nuestra atención en dos aspec-
tos fundamentales: ¿para qué enseñamos? y ¿qué es lo que enseñamos? El
problema no sólo está en este modelo económico, político y social imperan-
te que desmoviliza y despersonaliza desde la educación con una visión meri-
tocrática; también se encuentra en cómo se han enseñado las Humanidades
y cuáles han sido sus contenidos.

Ponendo attenzione sulla materialità della carta e sulla medialità dei disegni, il saggio si concentra su dieci studi preparatori di Michelangelo per le statue delle
Allegorie del Tempo dei monumenti ducali nella Sagrestia Nuova della Basilica di San Lorenzo a Firenze, oggi conservati in diverse collezioni museali: uno al
Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe degli Uffizi di Firenze (Inv. 18719 F recto-verso), due all’Ashmolean Museum di Oxford (Inv. WA1846.55 recto; Inv. WA1846.56 recto),
quattro al Teylers Museum di Haarlem (Inv. A 33 recto; Inv. A 33 bis recto; Inv. A 36 recto; Inv. A 30 recto), due al British Museum (Inv. 1859,0625.569 verso;
Inv. 1859,0625.566 verso) e uno alla British Library (Ms Add. 21907, fol. 1 verso). Particolare attenzione sarà data alla tecnica del disegno con stilo e pietra nera,
e sarà fornita un'approfondita analisi del processo di ricomposizione dei fogli, in particolare del foglio di formato reale con gli studi per la Notte e il Giorno.

Focusing on the materiality of the paper and the mediality of the drawings, this essay examines Michelangelo’s ten preparatory studies for the statues of
the Allegories of Time, designed for the ducal monuments in the New Sacristy of the San Lorenzo Basilica in Florence, now preserved in various museum
collections: one at the Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe degli Uffizi in Florence (Inv. 18719 F recto-verso), two at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford (Inv. WA1846.55
recto; Inv. WA1846.56 recto), four at the Teylers Museum in Haarlem (Inv. A 33 recto; Inv. A 33 bis recto; Inv. A 36 recto; Inv. A 30 recto), two at the British
Museum (Inv. 1859,0625.569 verso; Inv. 1859,0625.566 verso), and one at the British Library (Ms. Add. 21907, fol. 1 verso). Particular attention will be given to
the drawing technique with stylus and black chalk, and an in-depth analysis will be provided on the process of reassembling the sheets, especially the Royalsized
sheet with studies for Night and Day.

Continuando con los trabajos presentados en ediciones anteriores de este congreso, el objetivo de esta comunicación es dar a conocer la historia papelera en la zona situada en uno de los afluentes del rio Anoia, concretamente la riera Mediona-Riudebitlles. Para ello, y siempre a partir de documentos de archivo y bibliografía contrastada, se investiga sobre los molinos papeleros de la zona, y sobre aquellos personajes relacionados, como fabricantes de papel, propietarios y comerciantes. Concretamente con este artículo se pretende ahondar en la figura de un personaje importante dentro del mundo papelero en sus diferentes vertientes, Miguel Elías. Para ello tomaremos como punto de partida la información ya consultada a lo largo de la investigación, ampliándola con documentación que se encuentra en el Archivo de la Corona de Aragón y en archivos comarcales que aún está pendiente de examinar y que con toda seguridad ayudaran a completar el artículo. Miguel Elías i Vilarrubia, natural de Sant Pau de Guardia, provincia de Barcelona, empezó su andadura en el negocio papelero arrendando el molino de su suegro, el Molí d’en Llucià en Sant Quintí de Mediona. Como la mayoría de comerciantes, se desplazó a vivir a Barcelona donde abrió un negocio de importación y exportación. Aunque su propósito inicial era el comercio de artículos relacionados con el papel, al igual que otros comerciantes, importó otros géneros desde diferentes puntos de la península. Juntamente con sus sobrinos constituyó varias sociedades para arrendar molinos, comprar papel y otros productos en ciudades como Málaga. Arrendó molinos de la zona como un molino en Gélida o compró papel con la intención de exportarlo a otras provincias españolas o con destino a América. En muchos de los molinos donde se confeccionó papel para Elías o para alguna de las sociedades en las que participó se utilizaron filigranas con su nombre, lo que dificulta poder confirmar con seguridad qué papelero y qué molino las usaban. Estuvo emparentado familiarmente con Francisco Parladé y Francisco Fontanellas y Calaf, importantes comerciantes de la industria papelera. Con varios miembros de la familia Parladé formaría sociedades comerciales y con Francisco Fontanellas, además de competir en el mercado papelero, también tendría problemas de índole familiar. Uno de sus proyectos más importantes se iniciaría a principios del siglo XIX cuando se asoció con los cónyuges Roca para construir la colonia textil de Can Bros en Martorell a orillas del rio Llobregat. En esta colonia se edificaron diversos edificios, entre ellos un molino de estraza y uno de papel blanco. En el sector papelero, los constantes enfrentamientos por incumplimiento de contratos o por el uso del agua fueron una tónica habitual en esa época. Y como no podía ser de otra manera, Elías y Salvador Roca mantuvieron varias disputas durante unos años acusándose mutuamente de incumplir los pactos firmados en los contratos. Elías estaría, además, involucrado en algún que otro proceso, incluso de tipo testamentario relacionado con la familia Serra. La fortuna que llego a amasar fue tan importante que a su muerte, la familia litigó para obtener parte de su herencia, llegando incluso a solicitar la nulidad del testamento por falsificación y suplantación. En definitiva, el estudio de la figura de Miguel Elías es fundamental para conocer parte de la historia del tercer núcleo papelero de Cataluña durante los siglos XVIII y XIX, y, a su vez, ayudarán a seguir destacando el peso histórico de esta zona papelera.

Le mot filigrane, en français, nous est si familier et sa recherche si importante pour l’histoire du papier et de l’estampe, qu’on est intrigué de constater que nul n’a abordé l’historique du terme, comme si le filigrane du papier faisait partie depuis toujours du vocabulaire du papetier. L’article démontre que cet emploi particulier, désignant une marque translucide dans le marque, n’est guère attesté avant… le XIXe siècle.

The HisTocText Project (ERC grant agreement n°. 788205) covers a corpus of Tocharian paper documents dated between the 4th and 9th CE, stored at the Bibliothèque nationale de France, and submitted to a diverse range of analyses including codicological, macroscopy, microscopy, multispectral imaging, x-Ray fluorescence, raman spectroscopy, and pyrolysis gas chromatography. This presentation will focus on the project’s macroscopic and microscopic analyses which aim to identify the physical evidence left from the manufacturing, the use of the documents, and their conservation from the time of use to modern treatments. The papers were discovered in the oasis kingdom of Kucha, which was renowned for its rich cultural and religious life. The production of paper was closely related to the growth of Buddhism. Buddhism led to the adoption of a writing system and the production of writing supports. Regarding the papers in question, two competing hypotheses persisted relating to their origin: either they were manufactured locally, or they were imported from China. The multidisciplinary HisTochText project proved to be a success by emphasizing the connections between peoples across Central Asia. The resulting conclusions provided information simultaneously about the local paper technology, the formulation of inks, the use of manuscripts (including a Buddhist cult of books, medical texts, repairs undertaken, and conditions of storage) and the history of the papers’ conservation since they entered the Bibliothèque nationale de France in the early 20th century.

Historia de un molino en el municipio de San Rafael del Río en el río Cenia (siglos XVII-XX) como molino papelero (XIX) · Història d'un molí al municipi de Sant Rafael del Riu al riu Sénia (segles XVII-XX) com a molí paperer (XIX) · History of a mill in the municipality of San Rafael del Río or Sant Rafael del Riu on the Cenia or Sénia river (17th-20th centuries) as a paper mill (19th) · Flour Mills, Fulling Mills, Hydroelectric Power Plants, Industrial Architecture, Industrial Heritage, Industrial History, Molinology, Paper and Pulp Mills, Water mills · Santiago Bustos Duatis (mentioned)

Esta obrita, a medio camino entre el libro de artista y una pequeña crónica sobre las filigranas papeleras, es un capricho, una forma de acercanos al maravilloso mundo de la historia del papel, de acariciar sus secretos... Un breve catálogo de filigranas papeleras que duermen en antiguos legajos, a las que acompaña un ameno texto y un poema...con la inestimable colaboración de D. Agustín Hevia Ballina y la ilustradora Nunilo Miravalles.

THE MARTYRDOM OF DAVIT DVNETSI AND ITS
HISTORIOGRAPHICAL VALUE
The long-term Persian-Arabic rule had a profound impact on Armenian hagiographical literature. The persecutions and ideological pressures
of the conquerors compelled the Armenian clergy to devise suitable solutions.
In these circumstances, separate martyrdoms were created concerning the conversion of representatives of the conquered peoples. Surhan
was also one of the Armenian heroes who was named David after being
baptised. It can be recorded that the author of the Martyrdom fulfilled the
order of the bishop of Amatunyatsʻ and the Mamikonian princes. This is
confirmed by the relic symbols found in the Martyrdom, including the
cross and the spear.
David's Martyrdom, with its distinctive allegorical structure and plot,
nevertheless conveys authentic information about the period of Arab invasions and dominions. The Islamic challenge compelled the author to
present David's Martyrdom in a more convincing manner, showcasing
novel religious plots and spatial perceptions.
The Martyrdom contains numerous references that provide invaluable insights into the economic and political life of Armenia in the second
half of the 7th century. The data on the pre-Islamic legal system, in particular the rule of Hudud (Ḥudūd Allāh [God's boundaries]), are also noteworthy.

This document is a brochure to guide young children and their parents as they tour a Oisplay of glass art works from the Corning Museum, exhibited at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Questions are posed about individual pieces and the exhibit in general. Activities for children to do at home also are suggested.

§ Σ. ПЕРЕХОД ОТ ПОВЕРХНОСТНОЧЛОРФОЛОГИЧ.ЕС!{ОГО 11Р2ДСТШЕИИЯ (ПМП) К ЦЕПОЧКЕ хЧЕЧЕРЦЦОВАННЫХ МОРФ (ЦгШ) 147) (D=1)&(Nm₽a)*(Ms=er)V //(m ls e r) 0 , V(D«2)&(Nia»ie)&(Ma»er)V (puar)0, ViD«2)&(Ma»0)4(T<i»0)V (c o n su l)0 , (воа)0 V(D-=2)«(H»-0)&.(l!d»'•) 1-(»aac sin g n o a)-0 (p ar)0, (oa)0,

Paper given at the beautiful Conference "Book of Books. The libro de los Epitomes in context", organized by Joana-Isabel Duyster Borredà, Matthew Driscoll, Alessandro Gnasso, Morten Heiberg, René Hernández Vera and Matilde Malaspina (with the exquisite collaboration of Erika Dell’Aquila and Ingrid Gyldenkærne Døssing). A deep insight into the celebrated collection of Hernando Colon, the organisation ofhis library and his collecting and studying behaviour, along with presentation of intriguing and inspiring case studies of 16th century world.

Victor Jacquemont (1801–1832), a French botanist and explorer,
was commissioned by the Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle
in Paris to carry out topographical, barometric, and botanical
surveys of the Western Himalayan regions. From June 1830 to
December 1832, he travelled extensively in the northern regions
of the subcontinent to fulfil his exploratory mission. While his
contributions to the natural sciences and his boldness were recognized
by his peers, his talent as an epistolary writer was also
widely acknowledged. His letters to friends and relatives, reflecting
his harrowing adventures, are full of fascinating details and
incisive remarks. However, his interest in epistolary materiality
has rarely been analyzed. His comments about the local paper he
procured during his time in India, often written in fervent prose,
not only underline the importance of writing media to Jacquemont,
but also allow us to explore the different types of writing
paper available in northwest India during the first half of the
nineteenth century.

Análise do volume intitulado Cartas de Data de Chãos para Casas e Quintais atribuídas pela Câmara Municipal - 1657 (Traslados) e seus 60 documentos acerca de concessão, concentração e posse de terras na região que se tornaria o centro da vila colonial. Escrita para o Arquivo Histórico Municipal de Jundiaí (AHMJ), analisam-se aspectos da administração colonial em Jundiaí (SP) ao longo do século XVII, muito embora o foco deste estudo seja o exame de elementos de validação destas cartas, tais como rubricas, modelos caligráficos, procedência do papel, marcas d'água e fé pública, como forma de obter uma datação mais aproximada ao momento em que estas cópias foram produzidas e também de prevenir novos equívocos científicos.

Written with the Jundiaí Historical Archive (AHMJ, in its original acronym), this brief analysis focuses on colonial administration in Jundiaí, a Portuguese-colonised village in the countryside of São Paulo in the 17th century, as examined from a manuscript entitled Deeds of land cession (1657-1889). This manuscript contains 60 documents on land cession, concentration and ownership. Even though these deeds lack notarial certification, this study aims to demonstrate that other sources must be incorporated in any research involving those deeds, as it also sheds some light on document analysis by scrutinising elements such as rubrics, certified copies, handwriting models, ink and watermark as a way to allow proper dating and prevent further scientific misconceptions.

William Trumbull the Elder was an efficient English diplomatic agent in the Netherlands, and his papers illustrate the intersection of diplomacy, espionage, and public controversies in late sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century Europe. This article examines a series of samples from his collection of printed pamphlets and the ways in which they relate to his manuscript archive. It therefore lays a path toward further research into Trumbull’s rich collections, which represent a singular hybrid lying at the intersection of manuscript and print, on the one hand, early modern journalism, prose fiction, and political satire, on the other. It focuses on a publishing genre that repurposed private manuscript documents into ostentatiously public political propaganda in print, frequently distributed in translation and in multilingual formats for an international readership. Trumbull’s documents, and the practices that they inform, are all part of the long history of information and knowledge production. As such, they constitute excellent case studies for the panoply of documentary genres used in the competition for political legitimacy conducted in the public arena, many of which resorted to a series of strategies that can be described as the manufacture of truth.

Korean hand papermaking is a renowned cultural tradition in the Korean peninsula. It is still practiced while scientific analysis of paper itself from a large data set is rare. In this study, a set of more than three hundred Korean handmade papers, collected in a reference collection book Hanji: Korean handmade paper, were chemically investigated, and their property data such as colour, pH, grammage, thickness, tensile strength, folding endurance were statistically analysed in order to determine general features for Korean papers. The influence of different paper sheet formation methods (Heullimtteugi vs Gadumtteugi) were revealed by multivariate data analysis and the chemical profiles of raw materials were studied by pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS). The Korean handmade paper samples display colour gamut in the colour space L* (69.9–95.9), a* [(−3)-3], b* (0–20), most have neutral/alkaline pH values. Paper density, fiber orientation and physical properties ...

Kashmiri paper stands out among the many Indian handmade papers by its great fineness and extreme polish. It was used for artistic and literary works by Muslims and Hindus, as well as for utilitarian purposes. This paper re-articulates current knowledge about Kashmiri paper through the study of historical accounts and the description of paper-making in Srinagar provided by Victor Jacquemont, a French botanist and explorer, who visited the region in 1831 and described the craftsmanship behind the distinctive appearance of Kashmiri paper in great detail. His account is the earliest and most comprehensive account of paper-making in the region. The theoretical information is illustrated by examples of documents and artefacts which highlight the multiple uses of this material in Kashmir during the nineteenth century.

soportes de lectura y consulta Cambios en los Introducción A lo largo de la historia, los soportes documentales han sufrido evoluciones y modificaciones provocando adecuaciones en bibliotecas y centros de información. Los espacios dedicados a la custodia y guarda de los documentos han variado en función del formato, tipología, demandas y necesidades de los soportes. Por tanto, las instalaciones, mobiliario y espacios bibliotecarios se han desarrollado y adecuado según la configuración de los soportes y su utilización. Las estanterías, los depósitos, las salas de estudio, los espacios usados por el staff, zonas comunes, la seguridad y las condiciones ambientales como luz, humedad, temperatura, son ejemplos que han ido amoldándose para adecuarse a la variedad de soportes documentales. La información y documentación se ha registrado, a lo largo de la historia, en diferentes soportes cuyos cambios y transformaciones más significativos se producen en las metamorfosis de la tablilla de arcilla al rollo, del rollo al códice, del códice al papel y del papel al formato electrónico y digital. Todas las alteraciones han sido revolucionarias y han provocado modificaciones tanto en la idea de pensar como de transmitirla.

Frank points out a number of ironies in this account of Dutra's life (p. 168). For one thing, even though slavery was an institution based in exploitation and coercion, some former slaves were nevertheless able to make their fortunes once they were emancipated. For another, fortune, like freedom, can be unstable. Economic changes throughout the century brought about rapid deterioration in the fortunes of middle-income groups and led to the concentration of wealth with the development of the coffee economy and the transformation of social institutions. This book is a useful first step toward understanding the development of Brazilian society in the nineteenth century, but the topic awaits further research by historians of the period.