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Introduction of Paper

Profile image of Jonathan BloomJonathan Bloom

2000, Muqarnas 17

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Abstract
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This paper investigates the introduction and development of paper and illustrated manuscripts in Islamic lands from the eighth century onward. It highlights a significant increase in the production of illustrated works, particularly in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries, which was influenced by the adoption of paper over traditional materials like papyrus. The research discusses the implications of paper's widespread use on artistic expression and manuscript illustration, exploring the historical context, key figures, and the cultural transformation that accompanied this evolution.

Key takeaways
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  1. The emergence of illustrated manuscripts in Islamic lands correlates with the introduction and use of paper.
  2. The oldest surviving Islamic manuscript on paper dates to approximately 800 CE.
  3. By 1000 CE, paper had largely supplanted papyrus in Egypt for manuscript production.
  4. Illustrated manuscripts proliferated significantly between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
  5. Scholarly interpretations of early manuscript illustrations suggest limited prevalence in the first four centuries of Islam.

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References (38)

  1. I am using the word "illustration" to refer only to pictures added to the text. "Illumination" is non-representational decoration added to the text. Illuminated-as opposed to illustrated-frontispieces and headings are frequently found on parchment manuscripts of the Koran that may date from as early as the ninth century C.E.
  2. The literature on this subject is vast. See, for example, Richard Ettinghausen, "Painting in the Fatimid Period: A Reconstruction," Ars Islamica 9 (1942): 112-24; Ernst J. Grube, "Fustat Fragments," in Islamic Painting and the Arts of the Book, The Keir Collection, ed. B. W. Robinson (London: Faber and Faber, 1976), pp. 23-66.
  3. Kurt Weitzmann, "The Greek Sources of Islamic Scientific Illustrations," in Studies in Classical and Byzantine Manuscript Illumination, ed. Herbert L. Kessler (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), pp. 20-44.
  4. Oleg Grabar, "The Illustrated Maqamat of the Thirteenth Century: The Bourgeoisie and the Arts," in The Islamic City, ed. A. H. Hourani and S. M. Stern (Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1970), pp. 207-22; idem, The Illustrations of the Maqamat (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).
  5. For a summary of the question, see Julian Raby, "Between Sogdia and the Mamluks: A Note on the Earliest Illustra- tions to Kalila wa Dimna," Oriental Art 33, 4 (Winter 1987- 88): 381-98. The introduction of paper was mentioned by Eva R. Hoffman, "The Emergence of Illustration in Arabic Manuscripts: Classical Legacy and Islamic Transformation," Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1982.
  6. In anticipation of the publication of my book, Paper Before Print: The Introduction of Paper in the Islamic Lands (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), see Jonathan M. Bloom, "Revo- lution by the Ream," Aramco World 50,3 (May-June 1999): 26-39.
  7. Malachi Beit-Arie, "The Oriental Arabic Paper," Gazette du livre mediival 28 (Spring 1996): 9-12.
  8. About two-fifths of the text is missing. See P. M. Voorho Handlist of Arabic Manuscripts (Leiden, 1957), Codi
  9. Manuscripti VII, 2nd ed. (The Hague, 1980), before p. 1 is dated in the colophon on fol. 241b as Dhu'l-Qa'da (Nov.-Dec. 866). Voorhoeve is very cautious: "Apparen the earliest dated paper codex in Europe"; see also D. A Felix, "What Is the Oldest Dated Paper in Europe?" Pap geschichte 2, 6 (December 1952): 73-75; and idem, Levi Warner and His Legacy: Three Centuries of Legatum Warnerian in the Leiden University Library (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1970), 75-76. The script of the colophon is not representative, h ever, of the script in the codex. A more representative t page was reproduced in the exhibition catalogue, Levi Warner and His Legacy, last illustration. I am most grate to J. J. Wiktam for supplying this information.
  10. The shift in Islamic civilization from an oral to a text-based culture has not been fully explored. In the meantime William A. Graham, Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspe Scripture in the History of Religion (1987; rpt. New York: bridge University Press, 1993), and for a parallel cas medieval England, M. T. Clanchy, From Memory to Wri Record: England 1066-1307, 2d ed. (1979; rpt. Oxford: B Blackwell, 1993).
  11. Apart from those papyrus (and paper) documents di ered at such Egyptian sites as Akhmim, Ashmunayn, Aphrodito, the oldest actual documents on paper to survived are the Fatimid decrees preserved at Mt. Sinai, which see S. M. Stern, Fdtimid Decrees: Original Documents f the Fdtimid Chancery, All Souls Studies (London: Faber Faber, 1964).
  12. D. S. Rice, The Unique Ibn al-Bawwab Manuscript in the Chester Beatty Library (Dublin: Chester Beatty Library, 1955).
  13. Geoffrey Khan, Bills, Letters and Deeds: Arabic Papyri of the 7th to 11th Centuries, The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, ed. Julian Raby, vol. 6 (London: The Nour Foundation in association with Azimuth Editions and Oxford University Press, 1993).
  14. Wladyslaw Kubiak and George T. Scanlon, Fustat Expedition Final Report, vol. 2: Fustat-C (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns for the American Research Center in Egypt, Inc., 1989).
  15. Oriol Valls i Subira, Paper and Watermarks in Catalonia, Monumenta Chartae Papyracea Historiam Illustrantia (Amsterdam: Paper Publications Society [Labarre Founda- tion], 1970), pp. 5, 9.
  16. Kurt Holter, "Die islamischen Miniaturhandschriften vor 1350," Zentralblattfiir Bibliothekwesen 54 (1937): 1-34; Hugo Buchthal, Otto Kurz, and Richard Ettinghausen, "Supple- mentary Notes to K. Holter's Check List of Illuminated Is- lamic Manuscripts before A.D. 1350," Ars Islamica 7 (1940): 147-64. I am deliberately neglecting the fragmentary double frontispiece to a magnificent parchment manuscript of the Koran discovered in the Great Mosque of San'a (for which see Hans-Caspar Graf von Bothmer, "Friihislamische Koran- Illuminationen: Meisterwerke aus den Handschriften der GroBen Moschee in Sanaa/Yemen," Kunst & Antiquitlit no. 1 [1986]: 22-23; idem, "Architekturbilder im Koran: Ein Prachthandschrift der Umayyadenzeit aus dem Yeme Bruckmanns Pantheon 45 [1987]: 4-20; idem, "Meisterwe Islamischer Buchkunst: Koranische Kalligraphie und Illum This content downloaded from 74.75.93.2 on Tue, 10 Aug 2021 12:06:18 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
  17. Sanaa," injemen, ed. Werner Daum [Innsbruck-Frankfurt/ Main: Pinguin-Verlag, Umshau-Verlag, 1987], pp. 177-80), because there is no scientific proof for von Bothmer's claim that the manuscript has been carbon dated to the Umayyad period, and a ninth-century date seems more likely on the basis of the script.
  18. Emmy Wellesz, "An Early al-Sufi Manuscript in the Bodleian Library in Oxford: A Study in Islamic Constellation Images," Ars Orientalis 3 (1959): 1-27.
  19. For this manuscript, see Gerald R. Tibbetts, "The Beginnings of a Cartographic Tradition," in Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies, ed. J. B. Harley and David Woodward, The History of Cartography, vol. 2 (Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 90-107.
  20. Leiden, University Library, Cod. Ar. 289 Warn. See Weitzmann, "Greek Sources," p. 252, pl XXXIV, fig. 8; Ernst J. Grube, "Materiellen zum Dioskorides Arabicus," in Aus der Welt der Islamischen Kunst: Festschrift fir Ernst Kiihnel zum 75. Geburtstag, ed. R. Ettinghausen (Berlin: Mann, 1959), pp. 169, 175, fig. 5.
  21. Weitzmann, "Greek Sources," fig. 11.
  22. See, for example, T. W. Arnold, Painting in Islam (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1928).
  23. Mas'udi, Kitdb al-tanbih wa'l-ishrdf (Cairo, 1938), pp. 92 ff., quoted in D. S. Rice, "The Oldest Illustrated Arabic Manu- script," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 22 (1959): 207-20.
  24. Al-Nadim, The Fihrist of al-Nadim: A Tenth-Century Survey of Muslim Culture, ed. and trans. Bayard Dodge (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1970), p. 832.
  25. Ernst J. Grube, "Prolegomena for a Corpus Publication of Illustrated Kalila wa Dimna Manuscripts," Islamic Art 4 (1990- 91): 301-482.
  26. Quoted in Rice, "The Oldest Illustrated Arabic Manuscript," p. 209. There is some doubt as to whether this passage was written by Ibn al-Muqaffa' or by a later editor.
  27. Raby, "Between Sogdia and the Mamluks."
  28. Rice, "The Oldest Illustrated Arabic Manuscript." 27. Ibid.
  29. Jerusalem, Israel Museum, M 165-4-65. Rachel Milstein and N. Brosch, Islamic Painting in the Israel Museum (Jerusalem, 1984), p. 23.
  30. See Stefano Carboni in Tresorsfatimides du Caire, exhibition catalogue, 28 April-30 August 1998 (Paris: Institut du Monde Arabe, 1998), p. 99. As dealers have been known to "em- bellish" or "improve" some genuine medieval pages and drawings to increase their worth on the art market by p viding them with identifying texts or illustrations, it wou be hazardous to use this leaf as evidence for early book lustration.
  31. See Grube, "Fustat Fragments," p. 33; and Gaston Wiet, "Une peinture du XIIe siacle," Bulletin de l'Institut d'Egypte 26 (1944): 109-18. Another well-known drawing of two warriors in Cairo (Museum of Islamic Art, Inv. 13703; see Tresors fatimides du Caire, cat. no. 22) is equally suspicious, although it is repeatedly reproduced in books on Islamic art. The truncated inscription, which reads "Power and prosperity to the commander Abi Mans . . . " was never meant to be complete-an extraordinary and unexplained anomaly. Virtually all of these works appeared on the art market at the same time as the "Buyid" silks, now definitively shown to be modern forgeries. See Sheila S. Blair, Jonathan M. Bloom, and Anne E. Wardwell, "Reevaluating the Date of the 'Buyid' Silks by Epigraphic and Radiocarbon Analysis," Ars Orientalis 23 (1993): 1-42. The drawings, like the tex- tiles, were "authenticated" by the same unsuspecting schol- ars in the same way using the same types of evidence. Tech- nical reexamination of these drawings is essential.
  32. Grube, "Fustat Fragments," pp. 26-27.
  33. A convenient selection of images can be found in Richard Ettinghausen and Oleg Grabar, The Art and Architecture of Islam: 650-1250 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987).
  34. Lisa Volov (Golombek), "Plaited Kufic on Samanid Epi- graphic Pottery," Ars Orientalis 6 (1966): 107-34.
  35. Centuries A.D., The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, vol. 1, ed. Julian Raby (London: The Nour Foundation in association with Azimuth Editions and Oxford University Press, 1992).
  36. For a convenient introduction, see Patricia L. Baker, Islamic Textiles (London: British Museum Press, 1995).
  37. On the technique of drawloom weaving, see The Dictionary of Art, s.v. "Textile," ?11, 1 (ii) (a) Draw loom; and Hans E. Wulff, The Traditional Crafts of Persia: Their Development, Tech- nology, and Influence on Eastern and Western Civilizations (Cam- bridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1966), pp. 205-9.
  38. M. Bernus, H. Marchal, and G. Vial, "Le suaire de Saint- Josse," Bulletin de Liaison du Centre International d'Etudes des Textiles anciens 33 (1971): 1-57.

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