Soft Law

Розглядаються спеціальні принципи міжнародного екологічного права, виявлено взаємозалежність загальних принципів міжнародного права, спеціальних принципів міжнародного екологічного права та принципів міжнародного економічного права.Рассматриваются специальные принципы международного экологического права, выявлено взаимозависимость общих принципов международного права, специальных принципов международного экологического права и принципов международного экономического права.Special principles of international environmental law are considered, the interdependence of general principles of international law, special principles of international environmental law and principles of international economic law is revealed

Artificial intelligence (AI) offers valuable opportunities to improve the analytical processing of complex datasets, enhance predictive capabilities, and streamline procedural tasks. In the field of arbitration, these advantages translate into increased efficiency, particularly in complex and data-heavy cases such as those involving climate change liability. However, the decentralized and rapidly evolving nature of AI raises critical concerns about accountability, the allocation of liability, and transparency, areas where existing legal systems are still largely unprepared. This research explores the application of AI in the arbitration of climate change liability. It focuses on the transformative impact of AI tools on decision-making processes, examines how responsibility is shared among developers, users, and arbitration institutions, and discusses the ethical and regulatory implications of AI integration. Data shows a rising trend in the use of AI in arbitration. In the early stages, only 4-8% of cases employed simple AI technologies, primarily for document review. However, with the development of advanced machine learning algorithms and legal tech platforms, the proportion of AI-assisted cases has increased significantly. By 2018-2019, around 40% of arbitration cases incorporated predictive modeling tools, reflecting growing confidence in AI's ability to detect patterns, predict outcomes, and support arbitrators in delivering fair and informed awards. To harness AI's benefits responsibly, stakeholders must prioritize transparency, adopt international regulatory standards, and address ethical concerns such as bias and accountability. Establishing clear guidelines for AI use in arbitration will be essential to ensure fairness, maintain public trust, and manage the evolving legal landscape surrounding artificial intelligence.

Artificial intelligence (AI) offers valuable opportunities to improve the analytical processing of complex datasets, enhance predictive capabilities, and streamline procedural tasks. In the field of arbitration, these advantages translate into increased efficiency, particularly in complex and data-heavy cases such as those involving climate change liability. However, the decentralized and rapidly evolving nature of AI raises critical concerns about accountability, the allocation of liability, and transparency, areas where existing legal systems are still largely unprepared. This research explores the application of AI in the arbitration of climate change liability. It focuses on the transformative impact of AI tools on decision-making processes, examines how responsibility is shared among developers, users, and arbitration institutions, and discusses the ethical and regulatory implications of AI integration. Data shows a rising trend in the use of AI in arbitration. In the early stages, only 4-8% of cases employed simple AI technologies, primarily for document review. However, with the development of advanced machine learning algorithms and legal tech platforms, the proportion of AI-assisted cases has increased significantly. By 2018-2019, around 40% of arbitration cases incorporated predictive modeling tools, reflecting growing confidence in AI's ability to detect patterns, predict outcomes, and support arbitrators in delivering fair and informed awards. To harness AI's benefits responsibly, stakeholders must prioritize transparency, adopt international regulatory standards, and address ethical concerns such as bias and accountability. Establishing clear guidelines for AI use in arbitration will be essential to ensure fairness, maintain public trust, and manage the evolving legal landscape surrounding artificial intelligence.

L’Union européenne face au MAGA et au technocapitalisme disruptif : quand les valeurs ne suffisent plus
À l’ère de la disruption géopolitique et technologique, l’Union européenne se retrouve dépassée par les dynamiques du pouvoir brut — celles d’un libertarianisme radical américain, porté par le mouvement MAGA, et d’un technocapitalisme chinois, tous deux déterminés à redéfinir les règles du jeu mondial. Alors que Bruxelles persiste à croire en la force du droit, des institutions et des valeurs démocratiques, les États-Unis et la Chine imposent leur hégémonie par la technologie, la finance et la coercition économique.
Ce document démonte les illusions européennes :
Pourquoi l’UE ne comprend pas la radicalité du projet MAGA, qui fusionne nationalisme, dérégulation extrême et privatisation de l’État ?
Comment les GAFAM et les cryptomonnaies sapent la souveraineté européenne, tandis que l’UE se contente de régulations symboliques ?
Quels scénarios attendent une Europe dépourvue de champions technologiques, dépendante des États-Unis et de la Chine, et paralysée par ses divisions internes ?
À travers une analyse sans concession, ce texte montre que l’Europe n’a plus les moyens de ses ambitions. Il ne s’agit plus de savoir si elle déclinera, mais comment elle peut encore limiter les dégâts — et quels acteurs (États, villes, citoyens) pourraient incarner une résistance, même locale.
Une lecture indispensable pour comprendre pourquoi les valeurs ne suffisent plus, et comment l’Europe pourrait — peut-être — éviter de devenir un simple protectorat technologique.

Homelessness as a violation of human rights – Criminalisation of homelessness – Insufficient international and European protection of the rights of homeless persons – American charters of the rights of homeless persons as a source of inspiration – Model European Homeless Bill of Rights – FEANTSA – Human rights instrument – Positive and negative rights of the homeless person – Right to exit homelessness – Right to carry out practices necessary to survival within the law – Adoption and implementation of the Charter by Human Rights Cities in Spain, Slovenia and Poland – Soft law – Perspectives for the protection of the rights of homeless persons

Ce document propose une analyse pragmatique et disruptive des conflits contemporains (Gaza, RDC, Ukraine, Sahel, crise climatique), en identifiant leurs mécanismes économiques, technologiques et géopolitiques. Face à l’échec des solutions traditionnelles (ONU, CPI, accords diplomatiques), il explore des stratégies hybrides combinant :
Sanctions ciblées contre les complices (entreprises, banques, trafiquants).
Mobilisation citoyenne décentralisée (boycotts, tribunaux citoyens, réseaux sociaux).
Technologies résilientes (blockchain pour certifier les preuves, DAO pour financer les actions, outils open-source pour contourner la censure).
Originalité :
L’approche se distingue par son ancrage dans l’action concrète (ex. : boycott de Glencore en RDC, tribunaux citoyens en Colombie) et son utilisation innovante des technologies (blockchain, IA, réseaux décentralisés) pour documenter les crimes et organiser la résistance.
Applications :
Ukraine : Sanctions contre les oligarques et les banques russes, traçabilité des flux financiers.
Sahel : Boycott de l’or lié à Wagner, tribunaux citoyens contre les complices locaux.
Climat : Désinvestissement des énergies fossiles, campagnes contre le greenwashing.
Public cible :
Militants, chercheurs en géopolitique, droits humains et innovation technologique, décideurs politiques, citoyens engagés.
Pourquoi lire ce document ?
Il offre une boîte à outils concrète pour repenser les réponses aux conflits, en combinant rigueur analytique et solutions opérationnelles. Une lecture essentielle pour ceux qui cherchent des alternatives aux approches traditionnelles.

La contabilidad, a lo largo de la historia, se ha visto influenciada por su entorno. Dicha influencia se ha desarrollado a través de la construcción de una interrelación que le ha permitido tener la capacidad de respuesta para reflejar los cambios que allí suceden, como también la capacidad de incidir en aquellos. Del anterior enunciado se puede desprender las siguientes preguntas: ¿Cuáles son los elementos del entorno considerados por la contabilidad? ¿Cuál es la incidencia de aquellos elementos en su desarrollo? Y por último, ¿la educación contable considera aquellos elementos del entorno? En búsqueda de respuestas a los interrogantes planteados, este trabajo se centra en la identificación de los elementos del entorno y su relación con el desarrollo de la contabilidad y su inclusión en la educación contable. Para ello, se busca su identificación, su fundamentación teórica, así como su incorporación a los procesos contables.

Sambor M.A. The axiology of the right to freedom of peaceful assembly in Ukrainian society. The article analyzes the axiological understanding of the right to freedom of peaceful assembly through the understanding of law in its historical context. The point of view is that the value characteristics of the right to freedom of peaceful assembly have axiological features of law as a whole, but the right to freedom of peaceful assembly has a significant impact on the axiological system of law. As a result, the position on the mutual rights of the law as an integral system and the right to freedom of peaceful assembly are defended. The right to freedom of peaceful assembly has extremely high axiological indicators. The right to freedom of peaceful assembly, as an integral element of law and its value, is influenced by the nature of law, its historical development, as well as atropocentric understanding of law. As a result, the axiology of law is an axiomsystem of society, and the axiology of the right to freedom of peaceful assembly is an element of the axiology of law, which has all of these value characteristics, such as law. Understanding the axiology of the right to freedom of peaceful assembly is inextricably linked with the established doctrine of the value of law as a whole, since the separate right to freedom of peaceful assembly is an element in a complex system of law, influencing the latter on the content of the right to freedom of peaceful assembly, This is because the right to freedom of peaceful assembly has its own value, which significantly influences the general understanding of the legal axiology.

1.1 Historical Background of Nigeria's Oil Fiscal Regime • From the 1970s, Nigeria's petroleum contracts (Joint Ventures, Production Sharing Contracts, Service Contracts) were designed around two variables: • Cost recovery (operators recouping exploration/production expenditure). • Profit sharing (government and International Oil Companies (IOCs) sharing residual oil/gas).

The principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibility (CBDR) has emerged as a principle of International Environmental Law. CBDR is a guiding principle of international cooperation and solidarity. The paper argues soft law character of this principle, therefore the CBDR does not represent a legal obligation, but it has provided the legal and philosophical basis for the existing legal obligations including the instruments designed to achieve various objectives through international environmental acts, facilitating the initial agreement in certain areas that are difficult to be accepted, being more flexible in making States to accept changes.

Cette étude s’inscrit dans une série d’analyses approfondies du même auteur visant à éclairer les mécanismes par lesquels les libertés fondamentales, l’État de droit et les principes démocratiques sont progressivement érodés en France et dans l’Union européenne .
À une époque où le technocapitalisme, incarné par les géants technologiques (GAFAM) et leurs partenaires, étend son emprise sur les infrastructures numériques, les données personnelles et les processus décisionnels, il devient impératif d’identifier, de comprendre et de dénoncer les atteintes systémiques qui en découlent.
Cette analyse s’inscrit dans une démarche plus large de défense des valeurs démocratiques et des droits fondamentaux. Elle cherche à armer les acteurs de la société civile, les juristes, les militants et les citoyens engagés avec les outils nécessaires pour comprendre les enjeux, saisir les recours disponibles et promouvoir des alternatives souveraines et éthiques.
Dans un contexte où les équilibres démocratiques sont de plus en plus fragilisés, elle entend contribuer à la construction d’une réponse collective, informée et déterminée.

El capítulo introduce inicialmente el vínculo entre las relaciones públicas y la universidad y, con posterioridad, se extiende en una versión moderna de los aspectos esenciales que una institución de enseñanza superior ha de considerar en las relaciones públicas a través de la revisión de cinco aspectos ―dos relacionados con su gestión y tres con los objetivos que ha de perseguir―.

Entre los primeros aspectos se indican la correcta gestión de las relaciones públicas desde la universidad ―respondiendo a la necesidad de profesionalizar el desempeño en este campo― y la integración de las nuevas tecnologías en el desarrollo de las relaciones públicas ―algo que obedece a transformaciones estructurales e implica cambios en la naturaleza y dinámicas comunicativas―.

Entre los aspectos vinculados con los objetivos se tratan la estimulación de un clima adecuado para la captación de fondos y la obtención de un trato favorable por parte de la administración ―donde se hace especial hincapié en el fundraising―, el impulso de la competitividad de la institución universitaria desde las relaciones públicas ―resaltando que el aumento de los centros de educación superior requiere que las universidades exploten su marca en su entorno de competencia― y el fomento de la retroalimentación a diversos públicos con diferentes propósitos ―aspecto en el que se destaca la incidencia de la responsabilidad social en las relaciones públicas realizadas desde la universidad― .

El soft law ad intra.-III. El soft law ad extra.-IV. El soft law en cuanto avance del hard law.-V. El soft law en cuanto alternativa al hard law.-VI. El soft law en cuanto complemento del hard law.-VII. El soft law en cuanto parámetro de interpretación del hard law.-VIII. Los efectos jurídicos del soft law.-IX. La impugnabilidad del soft law.-X. Un significativo ejemplo del alcance del soft law comunitario en el Derecho español: la STC 224/1999, de 13 de diciembre, sobre acoso sexual.

This research explores the rise and proliferation of transnational soft law initiatives as regulatory tools in managing the environmental and social consequences of mining in Sub-Saharan Africa. The rise of such initiatives can be attributed to a governance gap within the management of mineral resource development in Sub-Saharan Africa, where hard law mining Ole Pedersen, for his tireless help, advice, guidance, patience and wisdom. He always kept his door open to me regarding all matters of life during the course of my PhD, and for that I am eternally grateful. I am also grateful for his meticulous comments and constructive criticisms which made it possible for me to complete this degree. It has been a great privilege and honour to work with Dr Ole Pedersen and I hope we will collaborate further in the future. I am also very grateful to my second supervisor, Dr James Upcher who was an extraordinary academic with a great eye for detail. He provided me with detailed comments that significantly improved this thesis. Beyond his exceptional contribution to my thesis, James was a great mentor who was always there to provide me with counsel regarding personal development and career choices, and it is unfortunate that he will not be here at the conclusion of this journey. I hope this thesis meets his very high standards and is one he would have been very proud of. My gratitude is also extended to my colleagues and friends for their academic support and all the fun we had in the last four years of my life in Newcastle. My special thanks to Abdullah, Richard, and Samet for enlightening me on issues regarding the PhD and beyond. I am also grateful to Christel for her perseverance in reading many drafts of my chapters in the midst of completing her own PhD. I am also indebted to Rebecca for sacrificing her time to proof read my thesis, and must also thank Gugu, Buhari, and the NMFUK Newcastle chapter for making my stay in Newcastle very pleasant. I wish to extend my warmest thanks to the Newcastle Law School and Library staff particularly Prof Christopher Rogers, Gemma, Jane, Richard, Catherine, Alison and Joanne for assisting me in many different ways during my academic study. Outside of Newcastle a special recognition goes to my close friends, Ishaq, Sadiq, Rashid, and Saddique for their encouragement. My greatest thanks also goes to Suleiman for the stimulating discussions, encouragement, and support throughout the course of this PhD. I am also eternally grateful to the former Governor of Katsina State H.E. Barr. Shehu Shema and his family for the support and grant given to me to pursue this research. v I cannot, however, conclude these acknowledgements without expressing my greatest appreciation to my family. To my siblings, Abbas, Farida, Jamila, and Mahadi, I thank you and your families for your never ending patience and support throughout my life, you are the best siblings one could ever wish for. I would also like to especially appreciate Alhaji Aliyu Gambo, who always encouraged me to excel in my academic studies and to pursue my PhD.

The politics of working time are experiencing a return to historical form, with proposals for a four-day working week, a right to disconnect, and other similar policies being taken more seriously than they have in decades. But in comparison, the normative side of this programme has been neglected. Justifications for individual policies aimed at working time sit uncomfortably with one another, and an extremely wide range of purported benefits have been canvassed. Here, I want to make a case that remains undeveloped in the literature: that the increase and protection of non-work time would reduce the domination of workers by their employers and should be supported on that basis. After surveying the existing normative literature, I argue that the promotion of nondomination gives us direct and indirect arguments for reducing working time, and for protecting the boundary between work and non-work time.

Con base en un marco normativo internacional especializado y en una metodología analítica-propositiva, la presente investigación tiene como objetivos: a) identificar el core rights, los derechos humanos que han sido reconocidos como parte del ius cogens a nivel internacional; b) justificar la utilidad de la codificación del ius cogens en derechos humanos en el sistema regional interamericano, y c) proponer un mecanismo dentro del sistema interamericano de protección de los derechos humanos que ayude a hacer efectivas esas prerrogativas imperativas. De esta forma, los Estados en la región podrán cumplir con la noción erga omnes --general-- de garantía colectiva subyacente en los tratados internacionales de derechos humanos y con la opinio iuris cogentis  que se traduce en la aceptación de las cualidades especiales de esas normas inderogables como normas generales del derecho internacional.

Finansal hizmetlerin sunulduğu pazarların dijitalleşmesiyle birlikte, geleneksel aktörler ve geleneksel rekabet dinamikleri tamamen değişmektedir. Geleneksel aktörler olarak bilinen bankalar ve sigorta kuruluşları, yalnızca birbirleriyle değil, dijitalleşmenin meydana getirdiği pek çok farklı sektörde pek çok farklı aktörle rekabet etmektedirler. Dolayısıyla, dijitalleşmenin meydana getirdiği olguların rekabet hukuku anlamında analiz edilmesi ve uygulamadaki problemlerin tespit edilmesi gerekmektedir. Tez kapsamında; dijital finansal hizmetler pazarlarında ortaya çıkan yapısal ve davranışsal rekabetçi endişeler, ağ etkileri, self-preferencing (kendini önceliklendirme) uygulamaları, dijital finans alanındaki yeni aktörler, çok taraflı pazarlar, büyük teknoloji teşebbüsleri (BigTech) ve büyük teknoloji teşebbüslerinin pazar gücünü finansal hizmetler pazarına aktarması, pazara giriş yönündeki engellerin rekabet hukukuna olası etkileri ve geleneksel rekabet hukuku araçlarının finansal hizmetlerin dijitalleşmesi sürecinde ortaya çıkan işbu sorunlarla mücadele etmedeki yetersizliği üzerinde durulacaktır. Tez çalışmasında, FinTech ve FinTech ekosistemindeki rekabetçi endişelerin giderilerek rekabet ortamının tesis edilmesi ve tüketici refahının korunmasının teşvik edilmesi için dinamik, yenilikçi, disiplinler arası ve iş birliğine dayalı bir rekabet hukuku politikasının geliştirilmesi gerekliliğini savunmaktadır. Nitekim; dijital finansal hizmetler pazarındaki dinamikler, serbest piyasanın inisiyatifine bırakılamayacak kadar değerli olup devletin proaktif müdahalesini gerektirmektedir. Anahtar kelimeler: Dijitalleşme, Finansal Hizmetler, FinTech, BigTech, Hâkim Durumun Kötüye Kullanılması, Açık Bankacılık

This study examines the implementation of Triple
Bottom Line (TBL) sustainability practices—
economic, social, and environmental—in
selected budget hotels (Chanel Paris Hotel Corp.,
Microtel Inns and Suites by Wyndham South
Forbes, and Herbel Apartelle) and their impact on
customer satisfaction, loyalty, and repeat

visitation. Using a quantitative descriptive-
correlational design, data were collected from

250 respondents (210 guests and 40 employees)
via purposive sampling. Results indicate that
employees perceive TBL practices as highly
implemented (mean = 3.47), with environmental
sustainability scoring highest (mean = 3.51).
Guests reported high satisfaction across service
quality dimensions (mean = 3.42), particularly in
reliability (mean = 3.47) and empathy (mean =

3.43). Notably, social sustainability showed the
strongest correlation with customer satisfaction
(*r* = .661, *p* < 0.05) and loyalty (*r* = .569,
*p* < 0.05), while generational and gender
differences influenced perceptions of
sustainability practices. Based on these findings,
a 5-year strategic plan was proposed, integrating
digital innovation (e.g., AI-driven chatbots, CRM
systems), eco-certifications, and community
engagement to enhance competitive advantage.
The study underscores the strategic value of TBL
practices in fostering sustainable hospitality
operations and customer retention, offering
actionable insights for budget hotels aiming to
align profitability with planetary and social
responsibility..

From December 5-7, 1997, the International Economic Law Interest Group ("IELIG") of the American Society of International Law ("ASIL") sponsored a conference on linkages, titled Linkage as Phenomenon: An Interdisciplinary Approach. While the fact of linkages between trade and other areas of social concern is not new, 1 the number of linkages asserted, studied, advocated, es-Assistant Professor, Florida State University College of Law. As Dr. Frieder Roessler points out in his article, links between trade and labor, for example, were explicitly recognized at the formation of the post-war trade system, and this and other links had been discussed considerably earlier. See also Virginia Leary, Workers' Rights and International Trade, in 2 FAIR TRADE AND HARMONIZATION 177, 183 (agdish Bhagwati & Robert E. Hudec eds., 1996)(notingthe link between trade and labor rights raised in mid-1 8th century); David P. Fidler, The Globalization of Public Health: Emerging Infectious Diseases and InternationalRelations, 5 IND. J. GLOBAL L. STUD. 11, 24 (1997) (noting that the relationship between trade and public health, involving the spreading of diseases throughinternational commerce, was recognized as early as at least 1851).

Este trabajo aborda la pregunta sobre la razonabilidad de un sistema unitario de efectos de la terminación contractual en un sentido amplio, esto es, como consecuencia de causas intrínsecas como extrínsecas relativas. Para ello se analiza, comparativamente, la regulación de los efectos de la nulidad y de la resolución por incumplimiento en dos modelos normativos. Uno “tradicional”, el Código de Bello; el otro, “moderno”: los Principios UNIDROIT sobre contratos comerciales internacionales. Como conclusión, se sugiere que mantener un régimen diferenciado, como hacen ambos textos, es adecuado y, por lo mismo, sostener doctrinalmente una noción tan amplia de “terminación contractual” no es útil, ni como base de un sistema conceptual, ni como base para un régimen normativo.

Despite the OECD being one of the world's pre-eminent organizations, little is known about how it influences its members. Moreover, of the existing literature on the OECD, scant attention has been paid to Spain. This paper provides fresh research, by analyzing the example of the establishment of the Spanish Welfare State in the context of the OECD policies. It finds that, whilst the OECD can be credited for reshaping economic policy in Spain, it was less effective in influencing social developments.

The norms of international "soft law" (ISL) have explicitly gained a certain importance in the legal system of the Russian Federation. Although soft law does not have legal force, its norms have become widespread within the framework of domestic jurisdiction. The present article reflects the outcome of the holistic legal analysis of the impact of ISL as a regulatory instrument on different component parts of the domestic legal system, such as positive law, law-enforcement practice, legal theory, legal consciousness of non-state actors. A conclusion has been formulated about the development of a definite tendency that the international component part of the Russian legal system is not only limited to "the universally-recognized norms of international law and international treaties and agreements", as it is stated in part 4 of article 15 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. An increasingly important role is played by international norms of a non-legal nature. This appears outstanding in view of the peculiarities of "soft law".

Celem niniejszego opracowania jest próba rekonstrukcji pojęcia szkody antymonopolowej, którego genezy poszukiwać należy w Dyrektywie 2014/104/UE z 26 listopada 2014 r. w sprawie niektórych przepisów regulujących dochodzenie roszczeń odszkodowawczych z tytułu naruszenia prawa konkurencji państw członkowskich i Unii Europejskiej oraz implementującej ustawie z dnia 21 kwietnia 2017 r. o roszczeniach o naprawienie szkody wyrządzonej przez naruszenie prawa konkurencji. Ze względu na specyfikę przedmiotu regulacji ustawy w opracowaniu odwołano się do orzecznictwa unijnego oraz krajowego, uwzględniając dorobek doktryny z obszaru prawa cywilnego materialnego. W pracy podjęto próbę oceny przyjętych regulacji, w szczególności ich celowości pod kątem poprawy sytuacji poszkodowanych deliktem antykonukrencyjnym. W prowadzeniu analiz wykorzystano metodę dogmatycznoprawną oraz w ograniczonym zakresie prawnoporównawch.

Na tle przeprowadzonych analiz kształtuje się wniosek, że szkoda antymonopolowa w ogólnej konstrukcji nie odbiega od szkody w ujęciu cywilistycznym. Jednak należy zwrócić uwagę na domniemania wprowadzone w przepisach ustawy o roszczeniach o naprawienie szkody wyrządzonej przez naruszenie prawa konkurencji, które miały uatrakcyjnić prywatnoprawny tryb dochodzenia roszczeń z tytułu naruszenia prawa konkurencji; w szczególności na domniemanie szkody antymonopolowej na skutek naruszenia prawa konkurencji oraz przerzucenia nadmiernego obciążenia.

In recent years, legal options (ex ante and ex post choices created by law) have gained acceptance in the European Union. Notwithstanding the move toward soft law measures, the EC's appetite for options or pro-choice company law provisions remains unclear. There are significant barriers to the EC's ability to promote efficient regulatory choice due to interest group pressures, diffuse control over the agenda-setting process, and a limited capacity to anticipate and meet a wide range of Member State demands. This article shows that bringing options to the forefront of company law reform can reduce costs for small and medium-sized firms and provide clear benefits to companies that differ in their ownership and control structure from most large public corporations. Switching to a company law regime with different sorts of options can have a good effect on stakeholders as well. As a regulatory strategy, we advocate a step-by-step change, beginning with the adoption of a limited number of opt-in provisions.

RESUMEN: En este artículo, se explora algunas de las colaboraciones entre Sindicatos y Organizaciones Comunitarias de Acción Social (OCAS) que han tenido lugar en el País Valenciano a través de las campañas que han promovido, concretamente, las condiciones bajo las que se ha constituido y ha funcionado las coaliciones y los resultados que se han obtenido en las campañas. Asimismo, las reservas o discrepancias que han podido surgir en esas campañas o en otras con los mismos actores sociales. Para ello, se utiliza la información procedente de entrevistas en profundidad a responsables de Sindicatos y OCAS que han protagonizado esas colaboraciones; también, la documentación que han aportado. Se trata de una exploración eminentemente descriptiva. Los principales resultados de sus acciones han sido la visibilización de los problemas abordados, la aprobación de medidas por algunos gobiernos para atajarlos, la mejora del clima político; y el reforzamiento organizativo de las coaliciones. También, ha habido recelos entre sindicatos y OCAS cuando en su interacción se ha visto afectada la función representativa de los sindicatos.

Dans cet article, j'examine une tension à la fois complexe et délicate entre, d'une part, la monétisation des données à caractère personnel en tant que bien commercialisable, et d'autre part, leur protection stricte en tant que droit fondamental de l'individu. Cette analyse s'articule autour de deux approches juridiques contrastées : la patrimonialisation et l'extrapatrimonialité des données personnelles. Dans la première approche, les données personnelles sont traitées comme tout autre bien négociable, ce qui favorise leur valorisation économique et crée des opportunités tant pour les individus que pour les entreprises. Cependant, une telle perspective pourrait compromettre la sécurité des données et renforcer l'hégémonie des grandes entreprises aux dépens des individus. À l'inverse, la seconde approche considère les données personnelles comme des extensions de la personnalité de l'individu, nécessitant une protection rigoureuse en tant que droit fondamental inaliénable. Bien que cette approche protège les droits individuels en matière de vie privée, elle pourrait limiter l'innovation et réduire la compétitivité des entreprises en restreignant l'exploitation commerciale des données personnelles. Pour relever les défis de la gouvernance des données personnelles, l'article propose une approche hybride, combinant l'exploitation économique permise par la patrimonialisation avec une réglementation rigoureuse inspirée de l'extrapatrimonialité pour protéger la vie privée de l'individu.

El greenwashing es una práctica engañosa que intenta hacer parecer que una empresa u organización es sostenible o ambientalmente responsable. Parafraseando el lenguaje clínico, en esta breve nota compilamos una serie de indicadores y señales para reconocer el greenwashing, a fin de contar con herramientas simples para identificar este tipo de práctica, que no solo perjudica a consumidores o usuarios, sino que también a quienes intentan desarrollar una mejor gestión ambiental.

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 was adopted by United Nations (UN) member states on 18 March 2015, at the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction held in Japan. The Sendai Framework went on to be endorsed by the UN General Assembly in June 2015. The Sendai Framework is wide in scope. This paper uses many resources of already published material to enable the reader to access a more complete summary of the science and technology commitment to the implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. In this paper on the role of science and technology engagement to provide evidence to inform policy and practice where possible, the author considered it important to emphasis the partnerships and learning she has been a part of and all significant statements that  are included in this  paper are in italicized quotes. The author is grateful for the many opportunities to engage at many levels with colleagues who also contributed so much...

Le présent document présente les résultats issus de requêtes formulées aux assistants virtuels Mistral AI / Le Chat et ChatGPT en vue d’établir aussi « artificiellement » qu’«intelligemment », pour le monde, puis pour l'Europe, les grandes orientations d’un projet de société pour le milieu du siècle qui participe à réduire les fractures géopolitiques, stratégiques, idéologiques, politiques, économiques, culturelles, technologiques, éducatives, sociales, sociétales qui déchirent aujourd'hui les différents espaces d'équilibre et de stabilité.

Le premier volet expose les réponses esquissées par Mistral AI / Le Chat, assistant virtuel pensé et conçu par des européens, et le second celles esquissées par ChatGPT, assistant virtuel pensé et conçu par des américains.

En conclusion, Mistral AI / Le Chat en dégage leur philosophie générale ainsi que les points de convergence et de divergence.

Balanço dos avanços conceituais e práticos e das limitações ainda existentes, de ordem legal ou política, à proteção universal dos direitos humanos, ressaltando a construção progressiva dos instrumentos disponíveis - as convenções centrais - e o papel das conferências e das cortes regionais de defesa dos direitos humanos.

El presente artículo enfatiza la importancia de la gestión integral de riesgos tributarios para asegurar el cumplimiento de objetivos y la estabilidad financiera de una empresa. El tipo de investigación es documental basada en la normativa legal, los estándares internaciones sobre riesgo, cumplimiento tributario y control interno COSO. El análisis empleado es el analítico-deductivo para aplicarlo al caso específico del marco legal de Nicaragua en materia de impuestos. La investigación considera un límite temporal hasta el año 2025, lo que implica la inclusión de la normativa y los criterios aplicables hasta esa fecha. A lo largo del artículo se trató de integrar los principios de gestión de riesgos basándose en marcos teóricos reconocidos, como las normas COSO, e ISO 9001, 19002 y 31000, para proporcionar una herramienta robusta en el entorno fiscal.

The Niger Delta, one of Africa’s most ecologically diverse and oil-rich regions, has experienced decades of environmental degradation due to intensive oil exploration, frequent spills, and persistent gas flaring. This study provides a multidimensional assessment of the ecological, socioeconomic, and institutional impacts of petroleum-related pollution in the region. Adopting a qualitative mixed-method review design, the research integrates data from Nigeria’s National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA), court rulings, legal instruments, including the Petroleum Industry Act of 2021, and peer-reviewed studies in the literature published between 2010 and 2024. Oil spill data from 2021 to 2024 were thematically and comparatively analyzed across six oil-producing states, with Rivers, Bayelsa, and Delta emerging as the most affected. Findings reveal widespread soil, water, and air contamination, biodiversity loss, and adverse health outcomes driven by regulatory lapses and poor enforcement. Traditional livelihoods have collapsed, gender-based vulnerabilities have intensified, and community displacement has become more frequent. Although mechanisms such as the Nigerian Gas Flare Commercialization Programme and Host Community Development Trusts exist, their implementation is weakened by institutional capture, bureaucratic inefficiency, and limited community involvement. Anchored in the frameworks of ecological injustice and institutional capture, the study recommends reforms including institutional restructuring, integrated environmental monitoring, inclusive remediation planning, and climate-resilient development pathways. These interventions are essential for redressing historical injustices and promoting sustainable environmental governance in the Niger Delta.

We lost Prof. Dr. Atilla Bir, who had foregrounded his identity as an engineer in his official professional life, yet sustained a profound intellectual and academic engagement with the history of science for 48 years, on October 7, 2024, following a period of illness. We bade him farewell with the funeral prayer held at Levent Afet Yolal Mosque on Thursday, October 10, timed to follow the moment when the gnomon of a sundial —an instrument he was particularly devoted to throughout his 48-year involvement— cast its shortest shadow. He was laid to rest in Section Five of Ayazağa Cemetery. This article has been written by one of his students, who came to know him during the final chapter of his life, with the intent of documenting his life, work, character, and comportment.

Social enterprises have gained importance in European and national policies in recent years. There is a growing awareness that they create sustainable and inclusive growth and stimulate social innovation. Moreover, the question can be raised as to whether social entrepreneurship and, more precisely, legal forms available for social enterprises can make an impact on sustainable development. The United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), is committed to eradicating poverty and achieving sustainable development worldwide by 2030. In the run-up to the adoption of the 2030 Agenda, the European Commission worked closely with the European Union (EU) Member States to ensure an ambitious global outcome. The European Commission committed to mainstreaming the SDGs into EU policies and initiatives. Amongst different tools for the implementation of SDGs, social entrepreneurship or social business can contribute to this process both nationally and internationally. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the current situation and capture best practice in the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) and the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden), through comparison of the legal forms available for social entrepreneurship or social business.

Esta conferencia tiene como objetivo desmitificar el tema del pluralismo jurídico examinando la relación entre el pluralismo jurídico, el pluralismo normativo y la teoría normativa general desde una perspectiva global. El tema central es que tratar el pluralismo jurídico como una especie de pluralismo normativo descentraliza al Estado, vincula el pluralismo jurídico con un rico cuerpo de literatura y ayuda a mostrar que algunos de los principales enigmas que rodean el tema pueden verse útilmente como cuestiones mucho más amplias en la teoría general de las normas y la teoría jurídica. Un segundo tema es que el llamado “pluralismo jurídico global” es en varios aspectos cualitativamente diferente de las antiguas cuentas antropológicas y sociojurídicas del pluralismo jurídico y se basa en gran medida en un conjunto diferente de preocupaciones.

The modern international legal system has historically developed a normative framework based on certainty, binding force, and enforceability. However, the post-World War II era has witnessed the emergence of a multi-actor governance system, rapidly evolving global challenges, and multilateral diplomacy processes, all of which have expanded and transformed this classical framework. Within this transformation, a new set of rules known as "soft law" has emerged as a guiding mechanism. Although soft law instruments inherently lack binding enforcement mechanisms, they possess guiding, influential, and transformative power. Ranging from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, from UN General Assembly resolutions to multilateral good governance principles, these instruments gradually attain normative character, often intermingling with, or paving the way for, hard law rules. This thesis comprehensively examines the formation of soft law, its normative evolution, its impact on multi-actor governance, its reflection in judicial decisions, and the critical role it is likely to play in future norm-generation processes. The aim is to transcend the conventional view of soft law as a byproduct or normative deficiency and to present it as a foundational component of the global legal architecture in the 21st century. Classical theories of international law define a legal norm through the criteria of clarity, enforceability, and the direct manifestation of sovereign will. Nevertheless, the institutionalization of multilateral legal systems, particularly after World War II, has introduced texts and principles that challenge rigid frameworks and broaden the normative domain. Instruments such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Rio Declaration, though lacking definitive enforcement mechanisms, have become central to multi-actor governance, guiding decision-makers and carving out a distinct field within legal theory. The international legal system has thus evolved from a structure solely composed of states into a complex, multi-layered, multi-actor, and multi-centered field of governance. Within this framework, soft law has institutionalized itself as a pivotal element, opening the door to a multi-actor normative process. The Concept of Soft Law: Theoretical and Historical Background By its very nature, soft law does not rely on a strict enforcement mechanism, but instead offers a framework that is directive, influential, and capable of triggering norm development. When evaluated within the spectrum of Hart's system of rules, Kelsen's institutionalized norm hierarchy, and Dworkin's theory on the interplay between principles and rules, soft law instruments may be considered as "intermediate norms" or as part of the transition between norm formation and binding norms. Yet, the normative evolution of soft law is not confined to theoretical constructs. Numerous instruments, from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to the Rio Declaration, provide concrete examples that reinforce this theory in practice.

There is general agreement that some form of regulation is necessary both for AI creators to be incentivised to develop trustworthy systems, and for users to actually trust those systems. But there is much debate about what form these regulations should take and how they should be implemented. Most work in this area has been qualitative, and has not been able to make formal predictions. Here, we propose that evolutionary game theory can be used to quantitatively model the dilemmas faced by users, AI creators, and regulators, and provide insights into the possible effects of different regulatory regimes. We show that achieving safe AI and user trust requires regulators to be incentivised to regulate effectively. We demonstrate two effective mechanisms. In the first, governments can recognise and reward regulators that do a good job. In that case, if the AI technology is not too risky, some level of safe development and user trust evolves. In the second mechanism, users can condition their trust decision on the effectiveness of the regulators. This leads to effective regulation, and consequently the development of trustworthy AI and user trust, provided that the cost of implementing regulations is not too high. Our findings highlight the importance of considering the effect of different regulatory regimes from an evolutionary game theoretic perspective.