Radical Reformation

The first section of the present article provides a condensed outline of the origins, the theological distinctives, and the development of early modern Schwenckfeldianism. The second part presents an extensive corpus of exegetical lectures held by Valentin Krautwald at the short-lived university of Liegnitz between 1526 and 1530. The erudite humanist Krautwald (rather than the eponymous Caspar Schwenckfeld himself) was the theological mastermind of nascent Schwenckfeldianism. Krautwald's newly discovered expositions of the Epistles of Paul, the Gospels of John and Matthew and Acts reveal the importance of academic Bible exegesis and thorough study of the Church Fathers for the formation of Schwenckfeldian theology, which can duly be characterized as a form of evangelical nonconformity from patristic sources.

1546), a theologian who belonged to the Order of the Hermit Augustinians, was the initiator of the Protestant Reformation. The term Lutheranism refers to the body of Luther's doctrines and those of his followers and to the phenomenon of their diffusion, which spread particularly rapidly from the 1520s onwards not only in the German and Northern European areas, but also in the Mediterranean world, especially in Italy and Spain (whereas France was rather a battleground conquered by Calvinism). It called into question Catholic and papal hegemony and triggered the repressive response of the Inquisition.

March 1604), more commonly referred to in English by his Latinized name Faustus Socinus, was a radical theologian and heretic, an exile religionis causa, who exerted his influence on the antitrinitarian or Unitarian Polish Ecclesia minor, giving rise to a theological current known as Socinianism, which proved particularly fertile despite the dispersion of the Polish Brethren with the full affirmation of the Counter-Reformation in Poland in the 17th century.

E-Epilogue Yʰ.27.15: The Primacy of Human Apprehension of the Divine
Yʰ.27.15 delves beyond linguistic structure to illuminate a core philosophical inquiry: the nature of divine apprehension. This cantus shifts the theological focus from God's singular knowledge of humanity to humanity's active capacity for recognizing the Divine.
It portrays the spiritual journey as a reciprocal engagement, where individuals, through conscious effort and engagement with the sacred, achieve profound insight into the cosmic order. This emphasis on human agency in knowing God lays a philosophical groundwork for understanding how belief translates into lived experience and spiritual transformation within the Zoroastrian tradition.
Within this broader philosophical context, the specific interpretation of this verse dives deep into the relationship between God and the believer. It raises a significant question: What's more profound? Does God know the believer, or does the believer know God? This is precisely where the word 'vaētʰā-' plays a crucial role, and thus, how we interpret it.

A imagem do “Grande Confinamento” ilustra a leitura de Michel Foucault sobre as concepções clássicas e exclusões históricas a partir da loucura. O internamento sem precedentes a que Foucault se refere operou a partir do século 17, tempos de domínio do Absolutismo e do acender da racionalidade Iluminista. Esse amplo sequestro assumia faces institucionais e, não tardaria que “pedintes”, “pequenos infratores”,
“vagabundos”, “prostitutas” estivessem, desordenadamente, sob o mesmo teto que “doentes”, “velhos”, “coxos” e “lunáticos” ou, melhor dizendo, entre os que, segundo a racionalidade burguesa, eram cidadãos disfuncionais e tinham em comum a ociosidade. E a loucura, antagônica da razão moderna, não “funciona”. Eis a essência da irracionalidade (Porter, 1990, p. 47-49).
O conceito de “desrazão” em Foucault captura com precisão a alienação ontológica e social do “louco” no discurso iluminista: desocupado e pouco útil, era também um animal selvagem, um não-humano (Porter, 1990, p. 49). Essa dita irracionalidade ameaçava a razão do século 18. Que fosse, então, a insanidade confinada, silenciada, desvendada, controlada e, se possível, revertida o quanto antes. A influência puritana estreitava a margem de tolerância e, assim, mulheres menos submissas e homens que se masturbassem compulsivamente, por exemplo, estariam circunscritos à loucura. Interessa para esta análise a atuação das comunidades quakers, pois a relação da experiência religiosa com a loucura já era uma preocupação no século 17, quando o quakerismo surgiu entre os grupos sectários da reforma radical, não-conformistas face à Igreja e ao establishment da Inglaterra. Foram apelidados quakers ou “tremedores” devido às expressões e performances de suas falas enfáticas, experiências místicas ou pelo temor que eventualmente provocavam em expectadores. Emergem nos arredores da Revolução Inglesa e mais tarde se organizam oficialmente como Religious Society of Friends ou Sociedade Religiosa dos Amigos (Góis; Alencar, 2021, p. 5).

Starting in 1419, the widespread Hussite reform movement in Bohemia began to face its most serious existential threat, the unified and determined opposition of a hostile king and church leadership.1 As devoted reformist communities desperately looked for respite from the ensuing persecutions, one unique solution was discovered by Hussites in the countryside, to congregate en masse on remote hilltops in the wilderness and revive the ideal vision of the primitive apostolic church themselves in situ. As the situation of these "Táborites" grew more dire and alienated, their worldview quickly radicalized. Soon their leaders interpreted their community's deteriorating situation in apocalyptic terms, frantically summoning all true Christians away from the midst of the sinful, and into the Táborite communities as the special strongholds of the faithful prophesied to resist God's cataclysmic vengeance. Beginning in early 1420, this same confident sacred identity would even drive Táborite armies to roam the countryside and mass-murder the members of the Antichrist, meaning priests and monks, and even entire towns. For them, this was not simply a punishment for sin, but the performance of divine purgation based on certain knowledge of the categories of the elect and the damned.2 A similar knowledge was also at the core of another revolutionary movement led by Thomas Müntzer, which took place a century later in the German lands. Müntzer's discursive environment was the Wittenberg reform movement, but from the outset his reform project differed significantly from that

Nel marzo del 1545, a Lutero fu consegnata una lettera stampata in italiano, che conteneva la notizia della sua scomparsa in circostanze inquietanti. Fece una traduzione tedesca del documento, che pubblicò con alcune osservazioni: "Copia di una lettera dell'ambasciatore del Cristianissimo Re, riguardo ad un orribile segno che si è verificato, in seguito alla vergognosa morte di Martin Lutero. Un orribile e inaudito miracolo, che il Dio benedetto ha compiuto in occasione della vergognosa morte di Martin Lutero, che andò all'inferno, anima e corpo, come potrà essere chiaramente compreso da un capitolo della lettera dell'ambasciatore del Cristianissimo Re, per la lode e la gloria di Gesù Cristo e la conferma e il conforto dei fedeli. Martin Lutero, dopo essersi ammalato, desiderava il santo Sacramento del corpo di nostro Signore Gesù Cristo. Egli morì immediatamente dopo averlo ricevuto. Quando vide che la sua malattia era molto violenta, e che stava per morire, pregò che il suo corpo potesse essere posto su un altare e che venisse adorato come Dio. Ma la bontà e la provvidenza di Dio, avevano già deciso di porre fine al suo grande errore, e di zittirlo per sempre. Di conseguenza, Dio non omise di compiere questo grande miracolo, che era molto necessario, per indurre le persone a desistere dal grande, distruttivo e rovinoso errore che il detto Lutero aveva causato nel mondo. Non appena il suo corpo fu posto nella tomba, si udì un brontolio e un rumore terribili, come se l'inferno e i diavoli stessero collassando. Tutti i presenti furono presi da una grande paura, terrore e paura, e quando alzarono gli occhi al cielo, videro chiaramente la santissima ostia del nostro Signore Gesù Cristo, che a quell'indegno uomo era stato concesso di ricevere indegnamente. Io affermo, che tutti i presenti videro la santissima ostia, fluttuare visibilmente nell'aria. La santissima ostia, fu afferrata molto devotamente e con grande rispetto, e collocata in un posto appropriato nel santuario. Quando ciò fu fatto, non si udì più quel tumulto e brontolio infernale. Tuttavia, nella notte seguente, nel luogo in cui era stato seppellito il cadavere di Martin Lutero, fu ascoltato un baccano, molto maggiore rispetto alla volta precedente. Le persone si levarono e radunarono insieme, con grande paura e terrore. All'alba andarono ad aprire la tomba, dove era stato collocato il malvagio corpo di Lutero, e videro chiaramente che non c'erano corpi, né carne né ossa, né vestiti. Un forte puzzo sulfureo si levava, al punto che tutti coloro che stavano attorno alla tomba, si ammalarono. A causa di questo miracolo, molti hanno riformato la propria vita, ritornando alla santa fede cristiana, all'onore, alla lode e alla gloria di Gesù Cristo, al rafforzamento e alla conferma della sua santa chiesa cristiana, che è un pilastro della verità." Le osservazioni di Lutero sono le seguenti: "Ed io, Martin Lutero, prendo atto di queste informazioni, e testimonio che ho ricevuto questa racconto rabbioso, riguardante la mia morte, il ventunesimo giorno di marzo, e che l'ho letto con notevole piacere e gioia, tranne la parte blasfema del documento, in cui questa menzogna è attribuita alla sovrana Maestà di Dio.

Nessuno mi convincerà mai-né Paolo, né un angelo dal cielo, e nemmeno Filippo-a credere nelle predizioni dell'astrologia, che sono così spesso errate che nulla è più incerto. Infatti se fanno una previsione giusta anche due o tre volte, lo segnano; se hanno torto, lo nascondono.' Allora qualcuno disse: 'Dottore, come si risolve questo argomento: c'è la divinazione in medicina, quindi esiste anche in astrologia?' 'I medici', disse, 'hanno certi segni, dagli elementi e dall'esperienza, e spesso centrano il bersaglio, anche se talvolta sbagliano; ma gli astrologi molto spesso sbagliano, e raramente hanno ragione' ". 1

All but unknown in the Western narrative, the radical German theologian, preacher, and revolutionary Thomas Müntzer (c. 1489-1525) became one of the most incendiary figures of the early Reformation. While Martin Luther is universally remembered as the father of Protestantism, he sought to reform the Church within the bounds of feudal authority. Müntzer envisioned a complete social revolution, making him a precursor to later communist thought. His leadership in the German Peasants' War (1524-1525) and his theological departure from Luther reflect the volatile mix of theological and social ferment that defined early 16th-century Europe. The idea omnia sunt communia ("all things are to be in common") first appeared in a radical context during the German Peasants' War (1524-1525), particularly associated with Thomas Müntzer and other revolutionaries who sought social and economic equality and was widely linked with the revolutionary demands of the peasants. The Latin phrase encapsulates a foundational principle of radical egalitarian thought that predates Marxism, expressing a demand for collective ownership and the abolition of private property. Drawing from much older Christian communist traditions-such as the communal practices described in the Acts of the Apostles (2:44-45 and 4:32-35)-omnia sunt communia reflects a vision of shared property and collective life. This principle re-emerged during the English Revolution (1649-1650), when the Diggers, or True Levellers, led by Gerrard Winstanley (above), declared that "the earth was made a common treasury for all." Marx and Engels built on these historical movements, showing that class struggle and communist ideals were not novel inventions but deeply rooted in earlier popular uprisings against exploitation. Thus, omnia sunt communia may be seen as a bridge between early radical traditions and the development of modern communist theory.

This essay examines the peculiar role of King Frederick I of Denmark in the Flensburg Disputation of April 8, 1529, a key event in the Reformation of Schleswig-Holstein. The disputation aimed to exclude spiritualist tendencies from the northern church’s formation, steering the duchies towards Lutheran orthodoxy. Considering its importance, Frederick I’s absence raises questions. While he officially convened the disputation, he delegated its oversight to Crown Prince Christian, remaining nearby on the Duburg and informing himself about the proceedings through notaries’ records. This behavior is often overlooked by historians, yet it may hold deeper significance. The essay argues that Frederick’s actions represent performative behaviour, where absence communicated strategic intent. Frederick’s seeming passivity was deliberate, influenced by his complex relationship with the Reformation and figures like lay preacher Melchior Hoffman. By exploring Frederick’s nuanced position and his use of indirect presence, the essay reinterprets his role as a calculated political manoeuvre. The analysis also places Frederick’s actions within the broader religious and political context of the period, showing how rulers navigated the volatile landscape of early Reformation Europe. Frederick’s strategy reflects a broader pattern of balancing support for reformist ideas while maintaining traditional power structures, a delicate act of political survival and influence during significant religious upheaval.

This volume provides its readers with an analysis of György Enyedi’s (third bishop of the Antitrinitarian Church in Transylvania, 1555-1597) exegetical publications and manuscripts in the 1590s. While developing his brilliant views on New Testament criticism against the background of Antitrinitarian theology, Enyedi relied on the auxiliary sciences of classical philology and philosophy. The joint use of Humanist lexicography and Late Renaissance Aristotelian philosophy (J. Zabarella) resulted in Enyedi’s unique conception of literal sense. As Enyedi’s criticism had to wait until the Enlightenment era for real appreciation, the volume follows up the traces of Enyedi’s reception until the 18th century (R. Simon, J. LeClerc and minor authors).

The ethical motifs entrenched in the 95 theses of Martin Luther has left some lasting implications on modern Christianity; the historic rot in the 16 th century Catholic Church which undermined the very heart of Christianity and the core Christian values, paved way for immorality Simony and abuse of office threw the Church into centuries of bleakness and prolonged darkness. Godliness became a means of financial gain as Tetzels sold indulgence in the name of salvation. Today prosperity messengers, miracle-seed merchants and money doublers brazenly display their skills on "sacred" altars. Witchdoctors now disguise as 'prophets' and 'powerful men of God misleading many into heresy and apostasy. Syncretism and obscurantism are common while ritualism have taken public space in media hyping. More than ever before, Christianity is mingled with paganism, superstitious beliefs; compromise, apostasy, pride, arrogance, worldliness and impurity have replaced the humility and simplicity of Christ and his followers. This paper adopts the multidimensional approach, drawing insights from the historical and theological methods. Findings show that the same case scenario which Luther's 95 theses addressed is prevalent in the Church today. The paper therefore, recommends a reformation that would rid the church of these worrisome vices that have bedeviled Christianity.

The monograph explores Christian Francken's encounter with atheism as philosophical position in his works written around 1590 in Transylvania. The volume presents the edition of the manuscripts attesting to Francken's radical criticism on then-contemporary philosophical theology. The interpretation of the sources concentrates on the theoretical reconstruction of Francken's criticism within the context of radical protestant thinking in Early Modern Eastern Europe.

LUDWIG HÄTZER from Bischofszell (Switzerland) is considered one of the most remarkable Christian Hebraists of the early Reformation due to his translation of the Prophetic Books of the Old Testament, which he published together with Hans Denck in Worms in 1527. As a young priest, Hätzer became a vocal adherent of Ulrich Zwingli’s reform efforts in Zurich in 1523. Soon later, he sided with the group around Conrad Grebel and Felix Mantz, with whom the Anabaptist movement began in Zurich in 1525. As an itinerant scholar, Hätzer translated Reformation writings from Latin into German for several printers. In the few years leading up to his execution in Constance in 1529, Hätzer’s theological thinking evolved into increasingly radical conclusions. Coming from biblical humanism and the Swiss Reformers, he arrived at Anabaptist, Spiritualist and ultimately anti-Trinitarian views. The bio-bibliography by ANEKE DORNBUSCH comprehensively documents the sources and research literature on Hätzer’s life and work. For the first time it provides a complete overview of the works authored, translated and edited by Hätzer, including the Theologia Germanica.

The name MARTIN SEIDEL is associated with a treatise on the origins of Christianity, dated 1587, which circulated in manuscript among radical Enlightenment circles in the eighteenth century. Recent research has confirmed that Seidel’s treatise, which anticipates fundamental ideas of Deism, indeed goes back to the sixteenth century. Seidel came from Ohlau (Oława) in Silesia and was enrolled at the University of Heidelberg in 1564. In 1573, Seidel gave up a position as a teacher at the Heidelberg Paedagogium. Little is known about the rest of his life. His application for a position as a teacher at a school run by the Polish Brethren in Cracow in 1584 was unsuccessful. Between 1573 and the 1590s, Seidel produced various handwritten versions of his proto-deistic critique of Christianity. In 2021, PABLO TORIBIO discovered an extended, apparently autograph manuscript version of this extraordinarily remarkable text. The dossier offers the first comprehensive documentation of the sources and research literature on the biography, work and reception of Martin Seidel.

Martin Luther is a turning point both historically and in terms of Christian theology. He made very serious reminders to the Catholic Church with his works and the "Theology of the Cross" that he announced. It is possible to see the traces of this reminder in the social and liturgical life that changed with Luther. In this study, first the pre-Luther period will be mentioned, and then Luther's theological studies and discourses against his contemporaries, the Theology of the Cross and the Theology of Glory will be examined comparatively, and Luther's perspective on the concept of "grace" will be scrutinized.

Few today think in terms of limiting our lives as followers of Christ to a mode of existence that differentiates us on every level from the unregenerate culture around us. Secondly, this consideration never goes to the level of being more able to be light, truth, and a reality the world can't be for itself. Christians today are about "belief in a belief" that requires nothing of them and offers nothing in transformative difference. This section draws attention to these issues.

This paper offers a radical reappraisal of the Protestant Reformation, interrogating its theological, ecclesial, and socio-political limitations in light of contemporary global and Filipino realities. While the Reformation ignited a movement of renewal and resistance against ecclesiastical corruption, it also left unresolved tensions—particularly in its complicity with colonial expansion, its fragmented ecclesiology, and its insufficient engagement with marginalized voices. Rev. Eric P. Baldonado argues that to truly honor the Reformation’s spirit, one must radicalize it: reclaiming its prophetic impulse while transcending its historical inadequacies. Drawing from postcolonial theology, contextual Reformed thought, and ecumenical praxis, the paper calls for a renewed ecclesial imagination—one that embraces justice, inclusion, and spiritual vitality beyond denominational boundaries. By engaging historical critique and constructive theology, this work contributes to the ongoing task of reformation as a living, liberating, and unfinished project in the service of God’s mission today.

This paper offers a radical reappraisal of the Protestant Reformation, interrogating its theological, ecclesial, and socio-political limitations in light of contemporary global and Filipino realities. While the Reformation ignited a movement of renewal and resistance against ecclesiastical corruption, it also left unresolved tensions—particularly in its complicity with colonial expansion, its fragmented ecclesiology, and its insufficient engagement with marginalized voices. Rev. Eric P. Baldonado argues that to truly honor the Reformation’s spirit, one must radicalize it: reclaiming its prophetic impulse while transcending its historical inadequacies. Drawing from postcolonial theology, contextual Reformed thought, and ecumenical praxis, the paper calls for a renewed ecclesial imagination—one that embraces justice, inclusion, and spiritual vitality beyond denominational boundaries. By engaging historical critique and constructive theology, this work contributes to the ongoing task of reformation as a living, liberating, and unfinished project in the service of God’s mission today.

Christian Francken’s (ca. 1552 – after 1611) Disputatio inter Theologum et Philosophum de incertitudine religionis Christianae is one of the most radical texts of early modern philosophy of religion in Europe. Despite the active and deep involvement of its authors in the virulent network of then-contemporary Antitrinitarians in East-Central Europe, the Disputatio provides its readers with an application of scholastic themes to a theoretical position that went far beyond even radical Protestant criticism that constituted Francken’s intellectual environment. My paper examines the metaphysical conflict between two conceptions of rational theology in as much Francken developed his criticism on cosmological tuned rational theology against the background of God’s description according to formal ontology approach.

This paper provides an overview of the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Church's response during the late medieval and early modern periods. It examines key figures such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, who challenged the Catholic Church's practices and doctrines, leading to the fragmentation of Western Christianity into various Protestant denominations. The paper also explores the Catholic Church's Counter-Reformation efforts, including the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition and the Index of Forbidden Books, aimed at suppressing dissent and maintaining orthodoxy. Additionally, it highlights the persecution of reformers like Jan Hus and William Tyndale, who faced severe consequences for their efforts to reform the Church and translate the Bible into vernacular languages. The paper concludes by reflecting on the lasting impact of these religious and intellectual conflicts on Western Christianity and the broader cultural and political landscape of Europe.

Oh, Mom, please, don't sing that old stuff!" Having just returned from California, I was walking my daughter to school recently, just behind a Korean mother with her son, perhaps seven or eight years old. She was singing a Korean song softly, with evident enjoyment; he wriggled and hopped about in an agony of embarrassment, repeating his opening plea in-as I later learned-both English and Korean. I said brightly, "You can sing it to me anytime: I'll learn it! "-and we began a conversation. My seven-year-old daughter chimed in disgustedly, "Oh, Mommy! Come on! You've just been home for a clay and you're already doing yucky ethnomusicology !" Why does my daughter so much like to sing the well-known Korean song "Toraji"? 1 Why did a group of Grade Four children sing this song as they walked home from school last spring? Why am I even aware of it being a well-known Korean song? Recently, I was awarded a small grant from the Ontario Arts Council's Ventures Fund to work on what I called a "community concert." Palmerston School's then Vice-Principal, Peter Hall, had tried to assemble a concert in which children and other members of the school community would participate. Almost all the musical contributions were in English, and I wondered what had happened to the school's considerable non-English speaking population. Did they not understand the notice which had gone home? Did they lack confidence? Were they simply accustomed to being relegated to marginal, after-school, "Heritage" programming? I decided to attempt a little "applied ethnomusicology." My original, rather grandiose vision was of a concert that would be the fruit of months of collaboration between me (the understanding, dialogically oriented ethnomusicologist/parent) and several other components of the school c()mmunity: parents, chilldren, grandparents, teachers, support staff. It would not be merely a one-time production; on its own momentum, this event somehow would become a regular part of school life. To a modest

L’Ecclesiaste è senza dubbio un libro scritto per i nostri tempi. Parla delle cose che ci sembrano importanti, ma non lo sono. Ci fa riflettere su ciò che è veramente significativo nell'universo. E alla fine scopriamo che tutto è legato a Dio e al nostro rapporto con Lui.
Questi otto capitoli ti incoraggeranno a riflettere sul tuo rapporto con il mondo e con le persone che vi si trovano. Sarà una grande opportunità per fermarsi a pensare, e per pensare in prospettiva.

The earliest Anabaptist communities in Zurich and Zollikon committed themselves to displaying the love of God as manifested in Jesus Christ as a defining commandment. This article traces the implementation of this conviction culminating in the proscription against any use of the sword in the Schleitheim Brotherly Union of 1527.

Qui connaît les imposantes silhouettes des Réformateurs du mur de la Cité de Calvin conviendra qu'il en manque peut-être quelques-unes… Des Réformatrices, peut-être ? C'est pour faire entendre leurs voix que cet ouvrage collectif rassemble non seulement les portraits, mais aussi des extraits des écrits de femmes théologiennes, intellectuelles et engagées, portées par la Réforme et porteuses de son esprit. Du XVIe au XXIe siècle, chacune se fait l'écho d'une protestation positive motivée par une volonté de changement. Un livre essentiel pour qu'on ne voie plus (seulement) le mâle partout.

500 Jahre nach dem Tod Müntzers lade ich diese 10 Jahre alte Hausarbeit hoch, die mir wieder in die Hände gefallen ist. Sehr nah an den Quellen Müntzers habe ich damals angeschaut, welche Theologischen Vorstellungen von Friedrich Engels über Müntzer belegbar sind und welche nicht.
Timo Versemann - Winter 2025

Uno degli aspetti forse meno noti ai cultori de Il Trono delle Spade è la Fratellanza senza Vessilli. Lontano dai complotti politici di corte, questo gruppo sfida sia le dinamiche feudali di Westeros, sia i modelli tradizionali di “fare politica” nell’universo creato da George R. R. Martin. In un mondo dominato da alleanze tra casate nobiliari, lealtà imposte dal lignaggio e scontri tra grandi schiere di uomini sotto le bandiere dei loro signori, la Fratellanza emerge come una guerriglia decentralizzata con una missione singolare: proteggere gli innocenti e cercare giustizia per i più oppressi.

The Anabaptists, alongside the Lutheran and Reformed churches, were the third major current in the sixteenth century Reformation movements. From their beginnings, the Anabaptists were highly diverse and yet they shared some central beliefs and practices for which they were quickly persecuted – for example, defenselessness and nonresistance, the refusal to swear oaths, and the separation of church and state. Ideal for both teachers and students, this book provides a comprehensive and scholarly account of the history and development of the Anabaptists, alongside the Mennonite, Hutterite, and Amish traditions that emerged from their movement.

Anabaptists: From the Reformation to the 21st Century shows the cultural diversity of the Anabaptists over five centuries as they moved between persecution and toleration, isolation and social integration, and tradition-alization and renewal. Amidst these tensions, the Anabaptist story is told here anew based on the current state of the field on the eve of its 500-year anniversary. Written by an established scholar of Anabaptist history, and expertly translated into English by Victor Thiessen, this comprehensive study appears in the Anabaptist and Mennonite Studies series, edited by Maxwell Kennel, and published by Pandora Press.

PD Dr. Astrid von Schlachta is a Lecturer at the Universität Hamburg and head of the Mennonite Research Center in Weierhof, Germany.

This paper presents an English version of Narcissus Marsh’s treatment of definition and division in his Institutio Logicae (1679), a text that Marsh prepared for his students at Trinity College, Dublin, and published in a cheap edition by a local Dublin bookseller. In turn, Marsh’s text is a version of Philippe Du Trieu’s Manuductio ad logicam (e.g. 1675), barely adapted to circumstances of Irish students. I know of no other translations of the Latin of Du Trieu or Marsh into English.
This piece will eventually find its place in my Defining Definition: Volume 6, The Seventeenth Century (1651–1700), an historical anthology of writings on definition. As such, it presents text from the two chapters of Marsh’s Institutio Logicae that specifically discuss definition and division. The Latin text is taken from pages 116 through 124.

IULIOMAGENSE r527 edidir Christian ScnnronccER THE SYNOD AND,4ATTCLES OF SCHLEITHEIM 1527 On 2.4 February ry27 in Schleitheim some of the leading exponents of the Anabaptist movement took part in a Synod that was probably presided over by Michael Sattler. The assembly claimed doctrinal authority in the firm conviction that they had recognised God's will. They formulated seven articles

The temporary activity of the Roman Inquisition in Constantinople remained episodic. Antonio da Venezia’s sojourn in 1558 to 1561 had the main task to suppress an heretical network built up by Jacobus Palaeologus and Giovanni Battista Zeffo. Fra Antonio's suggestion to establish a permanent presence of the Holy Office in the Ottoman Empire with wider geographic competencies including not only the Latin communities of Constantinople, but also of Thrace, Bithynia, and Cappadocia, was not followed by Rome. The only other documented case of a visiting inquisitor sent to Constantinople was Antonio Giustiniani in 1567 to 1569. His efforts to reconcile Catholic captives who had converted to Islam with the Catholic church were met with very limited success.  All in all, the examined documents illustrate a somehow experimental stage of Catholic confessionalization in the Ottoman Empire. Only in the following decades, Rome established more effective agencies of intervention in the Levant under French diplomatic protection.

Die Vorlesungen Krautwalds aus den Jahren 1526-1530 lassen erkennen, dass der Liegnitzer Gelehrte in denselben Jahren, in denen er in umfangreichen theologischen Ausarbeitungen die Grundlagen einer eigenständigen Theologie formulierte, ein immenses Arbeitspensum als Exeget bewältigte. Krautwalds Glossierungen sind, wie die Analyse ergibt, Frucht ausgedehnter Lektüre patristischer Originaltexte. Es hat den Anschein, dass Krautwald während seiner vierjährigen Tätigkeit als Professor der Liegnitzer Hochschule das ehrgeizige – und zweifellos außeror-dentlich kostspielige – Projekt verfolgte, das zu dieser Zeit auf dem Buchmarkt erhältliche patristische Schrifttum so umfänglich wie möglich im Hinblick auf seine exegetische Relevanz zu sichten. Es dürfte daher angemessen sein, Krautwalds vom Abendmahlsstreit des Jahres 1525 ausgelöste intensive theologische Arbeit – und damit die Anfänge der schwenckfeldischen Lehrbildung – als das Vorhaben einer Erneuerung der Kirche aus den Quellen der Bibel und der Kirchenväter zu charakterisieren.

In Zürich wurde ab 1523 innerhalb weniger Jahre die Kirche zu einer kostengünstigen staatlichen Religionsanstalt umgestaltet. Der Stadtrat beschlagnahmte den kirchlichen Besitz, die Klöster wurden aufgelöst, Bilder und Altäre wurden aus den Kirchengebäuden entfernt, die Messe wurde abgeschafft und durch einen schlichten deutschen Gottesdienst ersetzt. Die Maßnahmen folgten dem theologischen Programm Ulrich Zwinglis, des populärsten Predigers der Stadt. Zwingli forderte die Abschaffung von Aberglauben und Götzendienst, die im Laufe der Jahrhunderte eingerissen seien. Da die Kirche zu korrupt sei, um sich selbst zu reformieren, sei die Durchsetzung einer gereinigten Form der christlichen Religion Aufgabe der Obrigkeit. Alle Untertanen wurden zum Gottesdienstbesuch gezwungen. Abweichende Meinungen wurden verfolgt. Zürich zur Reformationszeit. Rechts oberhalb des Großmünsters sieht man die Neustadtgasse ("Nuwstatt"). Dort stand das Haus der Familie Mantz, in dem die erste Taufe stattfand (Ausschnitt aus einem Holzschnitt von Jos Murer, 1576). Aus der Sicht einiger Unterstützer Zwinglis gingen die Reformen einerseits nicht weit genug und andererseits in die falsche Richtung. Um zwei junge Intellektuelle, Konrad Grebel und

Transylvania's religious history features a significant Sabbatarian movement from the 16th century until the Second World War. Members of this group stood out and were persecuted due to their unique beliefs about the Sabbath and other practices. Beyond understanding how they decided to observe the Sabbath, exploring their core beliefs is essential. They created manuscripts containing their literary works, such as psalms, sermons, letters, and songs. Notably, 15 educational hymns offer valuable insights into their core beliefs and practices. This study seeks to identify and analyze key beliefs and primary practices, tracing their development from a Christian perspective to a Unitarian faith, and finally, to their distinctive Christian-Jewish faith.

A transcription of the Recognitions of Clement, translated into Latin by Rufinus Aquilensis and edited by E. G. Gersdorf:

Ernst Gotthelf Gersdorf, ed., Bibliotheca patrum ecclesiasticorum latinorum selecta, S. Clementis Romani Recognitiones, vol. 1 (Leipzig: Sumtibus Bernh. Tauchnitz, 1838).

Eschatology, the study of end times, is a significant aspect of Christian theology that encompasses interpretations of the final events of history, the destiny of humanity, and the establishment of God's kingdom. Different Christian denominations possess distinct eschatological perspectives shaped by their theological foundations, scriptural interpretations, and historical contexts. This paper explores the eschatological views of various major Christian denominations, including Roman Catholicism, Protestantism (focusing on Baptist, Lutheran, and Reformed traditions), Eastern Orthodoxy, and Adventism. By examining these perspectives, we hope to understand their implications for believers and the broader Christian community.