Postmodern Ethics

According to René Girard, an act of collective violence lies at the origin of all human cultural institutions and especially religion. Out of this "essential" violence, of the spontaneous violent mechanism that brings communal violence to an end, and of the desire to avoid the repetition of that violence, culture was born and homo sapiens sapiensis became human. We may call this recurring origin, for it happened more than once, constitutive violence. However, modern crowd violence does not share many of the fundamental characteristics of these founding events; especially the violence of modern, or perhaps better of contemporary crowds, in spite of what often constitutes the explicit goal of its perpetrators, is generally not culturally creative, but apparently destructive only. What explains these differences? In this chapter I wish to enquire both about what modern crowd violence can tell us concerning Girard's hypothesis on constitutive violence and about what the theory of constitutive violence can tell us about contemporary crowd violence.

The aim of this study is to determine the function of imitation through a comparative study of several perspectives: philosophy, social science, and neurophysiology. A significant aspect of the communication field, imitation is the study of mimicking, specifically in the development of languages, human behaviors, and human interactions. This mimicking nature of humans also relates to work being done on nurturing technology, such as in twenty-first century robotics research and development. In this comparative study on imitation, I explore imitation in its contemporary manifestation: neurophysiology. By drawing on the work of neurologists Rizollatti and Sinigaglia, who explore the function of mirror neurons in humans in their text Mirrors in the Brain. I also compare the definitions of imitation through such authors as Plato, Aristotle, and Tatarkiewicz. Prior to defining imitation, however, I outline of my methodology. Following this outline, I look at the importance of imitation in social communication, the development of social life, and its influence on technology. Through my comparative study, I aim to study mimesis or imitation within the context of social communication. I conducted my study over the course of two semesters. In the first semester, I studied the philosophical approaches to

Don Cupitt's non-realist thought is an important part of the ongoing story of radical theology. This article surveys some of the most important recent figures and trends in that story to assess the current state of the field. It sets out ways in which Cupitt's attack on dualistic and dogmatic thought is strongly echoed by thinkers such as John Caputo, Richard Kearney, Catherine Keller and Grace Jantzen, and how major materialist philosophers like Slavoj Žižek still show a fascination with the emancipatory potential of Christianity. The article argues that some of Cupitt's positions need to be challenged in the light of the contemporary ecological and metaphysical concerns of radical theology today.

Th is paper interprets the rhetoric and social phenomena of "taking sides" and "scapegoating" amidst radical societal division. Exploring the social mechanics of unity and division, I visit the work of René Girard and Chantal Mouff e, who off er a lucid ambivalence regarding the dilemma that neutrality is a practical impossibility. And in turning to implications of their shared paradox-that to be genuinely "peaceful" may require graceful divisiveness-I consider cases and theory on nonviolently fomenting confl ict. In contrast with certain liberal social theories of transcending division, this paper treats the desire for politics beyond hegemony-or politics without a scapegoat-as something of an eschatological ideal, toward which Girard, Mouff e, and others off er a tension-fi lled, crypto-Augustinian, agonistic pluralism.

In much of the theological discourse concerning human evolution, the emergence of the human "soul" is commonly treated as off limits from any naturalistic analysis, lest one reduce human uniqueness or the immortality of the soul. This article offers a naturalistic approach to the "soul's" emergence in conversation with Catholic theological commitments, using René Girard's mimetic theory. I argue that locating "religion"-defined as the taboos, culture, and rituals that contained early human violence-as prior to cognition and language better orients our conceptions of what we mean by the human soul and how we evolved into our current form.

Myth flourishes in life situations associated with war, illness, loss of loved ones, aging and epidemics, transforming dangerous situations into something bearable. Man cannot tolerate violence, and tries to find a rationale for it, although violence may become self-perpetuating. Thus, violence and the threat of violence is what motivates mythmaking. The more violent a culture becomes, the more it needs mythology. Modern psychiatry seems to confirm the thesis that violence mythologises a person's experiences. In encounters with danger, men become transformed into gods and demons; and nature, in the eyes of those threatened, becomes bewitched. It is from the dangers of life that notions such as ethics, providence and immortality arise. In order to make sense of the dangers in life, people turn to narratives and rites. In this way, the sacred works as a protection against chaos.

Individuals  and  communities  grew  and  developed  through  ups  &  down  from  state  of  nature and  law  of  nature.  The  cities  were  built  and  fell,  famed  and  destroyed,  honored  and  enslaved,  so as  individuals  and  families  and  these  were  linked  to  morality  and  integrity  of  individuals, communities  and  societies.  All  the  changes  are  made  by  state  of  nature  (without  laws  or barbarism  that  destroy;  or  without  laws  but  Virtuosity  that  is  molded  by  Theological  beliefs,)  or by  law  of  nature  by  setting  rules  and  laws  that  shaped  as  well  the  “virtuous  man.”  And  the  rules and  laws  that  really  works  for  virtuosity  of  individuals  are  associated  with  Christian  ethics, Deontology,  Social  Contract,  relativism  and  objectivism  based  on  contextual  cultures  and geography.
        My  proposition  that  claims  “morality  and  integrity”  (how  the  people  should  live)  are important  characteristics  of  every  human  being  that  affect  one’s  behavior  and  decision-making that  are  critical  to  build  and  preserve  families,  communities  and  societies  based  on  the  theories presented,  facts  and  scenarios  revalidated  the  grounded  theories  of  ethics  as  factors  affecting  the preservation  of  society,  and  Criminal  Justice  leadership  career  success  and  helped  shaped  (and destroyed  as  well  by  Moral  Consequentialists    &  utilitarians  and  destroying  the  Moral  Imperative theorists)  &  and  preserve  the  social  institutions  and  society  in  general.  And  developed  emerging theories for  further studies supported by  empirical  data and evidence, tested  and validated.

This paper asks whether there are grounds for viewing Girard’s work as a tragic vision, and explores the criteria and contexts that might figure in such an investigation. Mimetic anthropology is built on references to the tragic per- spective, but its tragic aspect is complex and diaphanous in respect of its struc- turing and dynamics. Its framework is difficult to explore without engaging with contemporary Christian theological thought—something that significantly affects its implications. As for the latter, the transformative potential of Girard’s tragic anthropology, directly engendered by its critical approach to its own theses, tends to shatter the stability of its assumptions. Therefore, from the earliest interpreta- tions of ancient tragic drama, through the pitfalls of the notion of sacrifice and the dialogue with the philosophy of existence and dramatic theology, all the way to the so-called apocalyptic phase in Girard’s thought, we can observe shifting relationships betwee...

The second half of the 20th century introduced an unexpected phenomenon-the rise of religion as a marker for political identity, and as a power for structure mobilization. Policymakers often ignored this de-privatization of religion, thus failing to comprehend and recognize its power ...

Claire Keegan's novel Small Things Like These (2021) brings such notions as purity, impurity and scapegoating into discussion within the context of the convent laundries in Ireland. The novel critiques the reduction of morality and immorality to a sexist category and focuses on the "fallen women" as both victims and saviours of society. It also portrays the harsh socioeconomic environment of New Ross, Ireland where capitalism and inequality prevail, and the characters are victims of the capitalist system. Drawing a sketch of the Magdalen Laundries, which served as institutions instrumental in creating ideal women for the Irish nation and protecting the public from the "fallen" women until 1996, Keegan points at the complicity between religious and capitalist influences. She emphasises the relationship between Christianity and capitalism by implying out that capitalism prioritises private ownership, profit and competition, and that Christianity propagates the core tenets of the system. The narrative underscores how capitalism's pursuit of profit can lead to the exploitation and marginalization of vulnerable groups, perpetuating a system of scapegoating to protect the interests of the rich and the powerful. Hence, the primary objective of this study is to analyse the phenomenon of scapegoating as exemplified, particularly by the girls at the convent who have been marginalized and confined within a convent in Keegan's literary work, Small Things Like These, drawing upon the theories related to "mimetic desire," "violence," and "scapegoating mechanism." It also aims to show how these girls, ostracised and accused of subverting national ideals, function as a mirror to the truth and reveal the unfeasibility of achieving true communal purification within the intricate interplay of church, state, and society-all of which are manipulated by the forces of capitalism.

Myth flourishes in life situations associated with war, illness, loss of loved ones, aging, and epidemics, transforming dangerous situations into something bearable. Man cannot tolerate violence, and tries to find a rationale for it, although violence may become self-perpetuating. Thus, violence and the threat of violence is what motivates mythmaking. The more violent a culture becomes, the more it needs mythology. Modern psychiatry seems to confirm the thesis that violence mythologises a person's experiences. In encounters with danger, men become transformed into gods and demons; and nature, in the eyes of those threatened, becomes bewitched. It is from the violence and dangers of life that notions such as ethics, providence and immortality arise. In order to make sense of the violence in life, people turn to the mythological. In this way, even if the myths do not reveal violence, the sacred works as a protection against chaos.

This book brings together the author's overall research trajectory of the last five years of his life and the questions he has been asking himself: What is the person? And, what are values? In answering the latter question, Hackett arrived at an answer within the boundaries of Max Scheler, the German phenomenologist, but consequently started to explore the depths of which Scheler's value ontology was predicated on certain assumptions about the person.

From these questions, Hackett started to draw upon philosophical approaches that thematize experience--pragmatism and phenomenology.
Rooted in the philosophical contributions of Scheler and the American philosopher, William James, this book guides the reader through a fascinating exploration of these philosophical approaches in relation to the person and values. Through thematizing experience, this book reveals that the ontology of value for Scheler resides not only in a person's intentionality but also in the being-of-an-act. As such, this book argues that the deficit of an ontology of value in Scheler rests on interpreting his affective intentionality in much the same way that Heidegger employed phenomenology to discern the ontological care structure of Dasein. In other words, for Scheler, the ontology of value rests on the manner in which values were realized by a person's intentionality. Moreover, this book goes further to reveal that the intentional act life is the source of participation and can be understood as a process-based account of value, otherwise known as account participatory realism. Importantly, within participatory realism Hackett addresses how values have their origin in the process of intentionality since intentionality is generative of meaning.

As an important contribution to the field of moral metaphysics, Hackett's critical reflection on the person and values provides a stimulating insight into some of the key debates surrounding pragmatism and phenomenology that will be of great interest to both experienced scholars and researchers, alike.

René Girard's mimetic theory is highly aware of scapegoating mechanisms as well as of any forms of collective persecution and exclusion. Along with the biblical revelation mimetic theory is strongly taking sides for persecuted and innocent victims. From this point of view, one might think René Girard and scholars of mimetic theory have also dealt seriously with the topic of civil disobedience and nonviolent forms of resistance and conflict resolution as peaceful or, let's say less violent, attempts to overcome collective forms of persecution, victimization and oppression. A first glimpse on mimetic studies published so far, surprisingly shows that Girard has picked up the topic of civil disobedience and active non-violent resistance only very marginally, most often under the label of pacifism. Other scholars of mimetic theory also have picked up that topic rarely. In my paper I want to ask what are possible reasons and I want to address the importance of that topic for current and upcoming challenges. 1 Slightly extended paper that I presented at the conference "A celebration of René Girard's 100th birthday: The future of Mimetic theory." Conference of the Colloquium on Violence and Religion in partnership with Association Recherches Mimétiques, Paris, June 14-17, 2023, https://violenceandreligion.com/annual-meeting-2023-paris-france/. 2 "Kein Mensch hat das Recht zu gehorchen [No one has the right to obey]." Hannah Arendt quoting Kant in her famous radio interview with Joachim Fest on the Eichmann trial, aired on November 9, 1964, in Südwestrundfunk (SWR). A full transcript

Scheler's Formalism in Ethics (Formalism hereafter). As a phenomenologist, Scheler did not attempt to invent a new ontological language to describe value experience clearly as Heidegger invented for his fundamental ontology of Dasein. In so doing, Scheler's phenomenological descriptions often use metaphysically rich language and in so doing, Scheler generates ambiguity surrounding what he most sought to make clear, value. To remedy this confusion, I argue that Scheler's concept of Aktsein can supply an ontological understanding of value given the dearth of a clear ontological explanation of value in his phenomenological period culminating in the Formalism. This inquiry is divided into three chapters. In Chapter 1, I explain the central concepts in his phenomenology of value at root in the Formalism. I both explain and reveal the central ambiguities in the Formalism. For the most part, Chapter 1 is expository and develops an interpretation of the central ambiguities in Scheler's phenomenology of value. In Chapter 2, I problematize these central ambiguities and take note of when and where phenomenology collapses into ontology. This transition can best be made clear in his Idealismus und Realismus essays where Scheler explicates the structure of being--in--an--act at the very moment he "ontologizes" phenomenology. In addition to that moment in this I am indebted to Evan Tiffany at Simon Fraser University for permitting the phenomenological infection, and to encourage my growth despite my proclivity to reading "Continental philosophy." Without his tutelage and mentorship, I would never have succeeded elsewhere. The friendship of so many at SFU has been very rewarding to this day, and the education I have received in analytic philosophy has made me a better scholar. At Southern Illinois University, my heart belongs to the entire department. The Philosophy Department has always provided an encouraging atmosphere to work and teach. There are a few muses to whom I am especially thankful. In no particular order, let me thank them wholeheartedly. In Randall Auxier, I have found a tenacious honesty about the facts of the profession, and encouraging discussions of professional development. I am

This article analyzes the main contributions of
feminist ethics of care and its relevance in the contemporary
moral context. To do this, the thinking of its representatives
is situated in the history of ethics and the way
in which the action of caring is approached is presented.
In addition to showing that the feminist ethics of care is
a postmodern ethics, its main paradoxes are pointed out
and it is proposed to deepen care on the basis of an anthropological
paradigm far from the radicalization of the
ideal of autonomy.

This paper aims to redefine the philosophy of morality and ethics through the lens of justice, positing justice as the primary determinant of moral and immoral actions. Traditional ethical frameworks such as deontology, utilitarianism, and virtue ethics, although foundational, frequently fall short in grappling with the complexities and nuances of modern ethical dilemmas. A critical examination of these theories reveals their limitations and underscores the need for a more robust ethical framework. By positioning justice as the core principle, this paper argues that morality itself should be defined through the concept of justice, rather than integrating justice as an auxiliary component. This approach ensures that ethical principles are applied consistently and equitably, providing a universal standard for moral judgment. The analysis of classical ethical dilemmas, such as the Trolley Problem, illustrates the inherent conflicts within traditional theories and highlights the superiority of a justice-centered approach. The redefinition of morality through justice addresses the shortcomings of existing frameworks and offers a comprehensive solution to modern ethical challenges. This paper concludes that a justice-centric ethical philosophy not only aligns with contemporary societal values but also promotes a more just, empathetic, and sustainable world.

When René Girard applied his discovery about the role of mimesis in human social life to analyse the origin of culture and religion, he tackled Freud an Lévi‐Strauss for placing sexual relations rather than the sacrificial solution of rivalries at the centre. In so doing he ignored the role of gender in the sacrificial schemes by stressing that rivalries indiscriminately affect both genders. With the help of studies by Levinas and Kristeva, of some anthropological discoveries, and an alternative reading of the biblical trajectory from Genesis to the Book of Revelation, the article tries to show how Girard’s mimetic theory can both uphold gender neutrality and advance a Christian feminist option.

Myth flourishes in life situations associated with war, illness, loss of loved ones, aging, and epidemics, transforming dangerous situations into something bearable. Man cannot tolerate violence, and tries to find a rationale for it, although violence may become self-perpetuating. Thus, violence and the threat of violence is what motivates mythmaking. The more violent a culture becomes, the more it needs mythology. Modern psychiatry seems to confirm the thesis that violence mythologises a person's experiences. In encounters with danger, men become transformed into gods and demons; and nature, in the eyes of those threatened, becomes bewitched. It is from the violence and dangers of life that notions such as ethics, providence and immortality arise. In order to make sense of the violence in life, people turn to the mythological. In this way, even if the myths do not reveal violence, the sacred works as a protection against chaos.

Myth flourishes in life situations associated with war, illness, loss of loved ones, aging, and epidemics, transforming dangerous situations into something bearable. Man cannot tolerate violence, and tries to find a rationale for it, although violence may become self-perpetuating. Thus, violence and the threat of violence is what motivates mythmaking. The more violent a culture becomes, the more it needs mythology. Modern psychiatry seems to confirm the thesis that violence mythologises a person's experiences. In encounters with danger, men become transformed into gods and demons; and nature, in the eyes of those threatened, becomes bewitched. It is from the violence and dangers of life that notions such as ethics, providence and immortality arise. In order to make sense of the violence in life, people turn to the mythological. In this way, even if the myths do not reveal violence, the sacred works as a protection against chaos.

Contribution: This article contributes to the ongoing interdisciplinary studies of ontology, anthropology, theology, and sociology. By interpreting or reading Augustine's Confessiones through the lens of mimetic desire, this article offers an alternative perspective on Augustine's natural theology and virtue ethics. It further presents the conceptual framework of mimesis on Christian and Platonist praxis of the ideal forms. Moreover, the article of the narratological composition of Confessiones expounds the importance of interpersonal relationships in our spiritual growth. The triangular structure of mimesis was further expounded in the context of interior life, viz. interior homo [inner man] as the ultimate model.

René Girard's pathbreaking work, especially on mimetic (imitative) thought and behavior, can be used to reinforce Marxist explanations of financial crisis. Yet Girard's concept of the scapegoat mechanism is less applicable to the modern world, and failure to recognize this can lead to confusion. A prime example is the contribution of the neo-Marxist scholar Henri Guénin-Paracini and his co-authors, who hold that the same mechanism Girard identified as existing in ancient times reconciles workers to contemporary capitalism's financial crisis tendencies. A close analysis of their argument reveals that this mechanism explains nothing about post-crisis social reproduction. Nevertheless, Girardian cognizance of scapegoating and the persecutory impulse is useful in ensuring that resistance to financialization is depersonalized. Girard's theory of mimesis, however, can contribute to a systemic account of factors leading to financial crises. In particular, his mimetic theory has the potential to bridge Keynesian and Marxist explanations of why such crises occur.

The article is devoted to substantiating the position that modern management is necessarily associated with value ideas that have a contextual, spatio-temporal nature. Ethics as a system of moral principles creates the cultural basis on which management is built. It is shown that the antinomy of normative and applied ethics is relevant for the conceptualization of the ethical basis of the managerial process: the possible contemporary forms of normative and applied ethics applicable to modern problematic managerial situations are described. Also, using the example of integration as a function of management and goal setting (the ratio of goals and means), the ethical potential for rationalizing management activities is revealed.

The bureaucracy is the linchpin of government administration. The processes of governance are executed through the bureaucratic machinery; hence, the necessity for ensuring the existence of functional and competent bureaucratic system is paramount for any government. Upon Nigeria's attainment of political independence from Britain in 1960, the political elites found Weberian bureaucratic model suitable for government administration. However, the effectiveness and efficiency of the system have been hampered by both sociallyconstructed attitudinal and behavioural patterns, and politically-motivated institutional constraints. The consequence is the low ethical standards in the institutional processes, structures and management of the bureaucracy. This development is directly connected with the manifest debased value of Nigeria's public space. The character of the value system impacts sufficiently on the bureaucratic system. In this regard, this article contends that negative societal values have been fed into the bureaucratic system, and have been deep enough to alter the positive direction the bureaucracy was positioned to tread. The article deploys the descriptive method to interrogate the actual and remote causes, and the manifest and latent consequences of the absence of ethical standards in Nigeria's bureaucratic system. In the final analysis, recommendations about social reorientation geared towards overhauling the bureaucratic system for the attainment of optimal performance for the benefits of government are proffered.

Until the late 19th century, almost no one thought that wars should be both rare and fought only for the noblest motives. Before that, even enthusiastic Christians accepted frequent wars with flimsy justifications as part of the fallen human condition. In this paper I look at three older justifications for war: divine approval, historical destiny or mission, and advancing civilisation. I argue that the modern transformations of all three justifications and the addition of justice as a criterion for legitimating mass killing have vastly increased the carnage of war.

The following article explores the problem of symbolic violence as a cultural phenomenon. The education, meaning "leading from", can lead us in various directions; some of them presuppose a dialogical communication between people identifying themselves and others through different symbolical matrixes. Meanwhile, other directions could bring us to the edge of conflict and misunderstanding. Alongside real physical violence, there was always symbolism that preceded real violence that facilitated it, escalated it, or prevented it. Studying Rene Girard's analyses of sacred violence, we come to the conclusion that the Monstrous Other, the arbitrary object of sacrificial violence, retains his consolidating function in contemporary cultures. Contemporarily speaking, terrorism is the principle of evil and, as Jean Baudrillard points out, our culture claims to be positive or "sterile white" in certain ways forms a demand for terror and violence turning the Other into the Evil Other. The solution for overcoming breaks in symbolic communication is proposed by both secular and religious symbolic matrixes. However, the object of our desire must be lifted up high enough to consolidate instead of separating by mimetic competition.

The article explores an understanding of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception viewed through the lens of mimetic theory as expounded by René Girard and James Alison. After centuries of controversy over what was eventually defined in 1854, systematic reflection is needed to relate the dogma to other dogmas and doctrines such as those on redemption, sin, and grace, and to express this systematic understanding in light of contemporary thought. Such reflection suggests a fruitful correspondence between Girard's hermeneutics and Aquinas's thought on disordered imitation and the role of rivalrous affections at the heart of sin. "But through the devil's envy death entered the world, and those who belong to his company, experience it" (Wis 2:24). 1 Theological Studies 72 (2011)

Beden, üzerine yazı yazılan, resim çizilen, delinen, deliklere takılan aksesuarlarla sosyal statü elde edilen, gerdirilen, boyanan ve geri dönüşü varmışçasına hor kullanılan bir nesneye dönüşmektedir. Bedene müdahale yöntemleri gün geçtikçe farklılaşarak artmaktadır. Bedene bu müdahale yöntemlerinin gerçekleştirilmesi sırasında farklı sorunlarla karşılaşılabilmektedir. Tüketim nesnesine dönüştürülen bedenler, maddi olanaklarının kısıtlı olması ve aile baskıları nedeniyle kısıtlı olanaklarla biçimlendirilmektedir. Çeşitli nedenlerle gerçekleştirilen bedene yönelik müdahaleler, insanların bedenlerine ve sosyal yaşamlarına kalıcı zarar verebilmektedir. Bedenin sembollerle modaya uygun biçimde değiştirilerek tüketimi, toplumsal statü arayışının ve buna bağlı olarak yaratılan imajın bir parçası olarak beden, toplumsal göstergeye dönüştürülmektedir.

Heresies are intrinsically intertwined with the evolution and inner growth of the very religions that denounce them. They serve as theological junctures, challenging and thus refining the orthodoxy of religious beliefs. The Pelagian heresy touches on one of the central tenets of Christian theology: the question of salvation. Pelagianism posits that human beings retain freedom of the will and, more specifically, the capacity to earn salvation through their own merits rather than relying solely on the grace of God in Christ. This stands in contrast to the predominant Christian view that Original Sin fundamentally impaired man’s will and intellect. A central tenet of Christianity is that through His suffering and death on the Cross, Christ atoned for humanity’s Original Sin and paved the way for our redemption. But what exactly made this redemption possible through the suffering and death on the Cross? Unlike many of the answers offered, Abelard’s explanation, also referred to as exemplarism, resonates with modern sensibilities: Christ set an example to imitate, and through this imitation, man learns humility and love. However, this stance faced criticism and was condemned by Bernard of Clairvaux as having Pelagian tendencies because it suggests that Christ’s redemptive work might not inherently require Christ’s divine nature. This study will attempt to defend the exemplaristic approach while ensuring Christ’s essential role and addressing criticisms against the Pelagian heresy. This discussion is further enriched by an examination of the Eucharist, illuminating the theological tension between symbolic and realistic interpretations of religious rites.

…the chief defect of Scheler's phenomenology, like all philosophies of value, was the weakness of his treatment of the ontology of values. The insufficient development of this fundamental aspect of Value Theory has left it especially vulnerable in a philosophical climate that has been distinguished, since the 1930s, by the major "growth industry" of heideggerian ontology, making this appear probably the most critical defect of Scheler's formalismus*. in this paper, i will argue that being-an-act (akt-sein) will provide us with insight into Scheler's value ontology. my efforts rest on two fundamental premises: showing how Scheler's phenomenology opens up into ontology, and how being-an-act is understood with that opening in mind in Scheler's idealism and realism essay. in Part 1, i argue how phenomenologists can reify one-side of the intentional relation and generate different ontologies, and these thoughts underlie the opening of the idealism and realism. in Part 2, i show how being-an-act opens up into ontology. in Part 3, i reveal how the participatory sense of realism is shown in the intentional relation, and how persons participate in value. in the final section, the "ontologization" of the intentional relation is found in the problem of reality.

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The essays included in this section are taken from a conference held at Viterbo University in La Crosse, Wisconsin in April 2001. The title of the conference was Hospitality: Serving Strangers in Our Homes, Hospitals, Prisons, Schools, and Churches. The conference was the first in a series that are intended to provide opportunities for discussion of concepts that are deeply rooted in historical practices and narratives and yet have relevance to our contemporary understanding of teaching and ethics.

Postmodernism, whose tenets are similar to the concerns and skepticism raised by the earliest ancient Greek philosophers regarding the relativity of truth and the repudiation of absolute knowledge and grand standing, permeates every strata of human life and discipline in this millennium. This paper examined the notions, assumptions and presuppositions of the postmodernists claim with a view to refuting her stand using morality and education as a basis for justifying the objectivity of truth and reality. The methods employed in this work are criticism, analysis and speculation, such as is common in philosophical inquiry.

This paper proposes a revision of Girard’s interpretation of Satan, along traditional theological lines. Appreciating the essential correctness of the Girardian characterization of mimēsis, it is an argument, contra Girard, that (1) Satan cannot be reduced to a mimetic process but is a hypostatic spiritual reality and, following from this, that (2) the origins of mimetic rivalry go back before the emergence of humankind and provide a model for human rivalry. Employing concepts drawn from Husserlian phenomenological psychology, Thomist theology, and psychoanalysis, it hypothesizes Satan’s psychological state, prior to his fall, as metastable anxiety and trauma and his state, afterwards, as a narcissistic, malicious, self-induced pathology in order to explain Satan’s impossible rivalry with God, a rivalry that precedes hominization and has always endangered human existence.

September 2025: As a result of Academia.edu's new policies, I have removed this article from my page. To access this article, link to it from my website: https://www.aprilfrench.net/translations
In this essay, translated by April L. French, Dmitry Uzlaner assesses multiple examples of conservatism in Russia through the lens of Rene Girard's discussion of scapegoating.

This article is about how imitation could explain the origin of religion and benefit to an innovative society. The unmasking of the mythology surrounding the victim's guilt has made religion one of the main sources in order to build a society where sacrifice and violence is reduced. In today's world, religion, in itself, is demythologised but religion can also, by the act of demythologizing violence, both lead to unheard of innovation and and success, and at the same time, help people show compassion. Thus, the revelation of lynching turns a society into a more human society thereby makes individuals capable of finding new and creative solutions to life. This heightened individuality is one reason for success. Siding with the victim creates compassion towards others and helps one to see through the mythology of violence. The breaking down of violent systems stemming far back from scapegoating cultures, makes it possible to create a peaceful and innovative society where one can allow a high degree of competition. The focus on soft values such as non-violence and forgiveness may help people succeed in mundane life too.

Crito is one of the last  dialogues of Socrates and his friend Crito, in the western classic of philosophy, written by Plato, a disciple of Socrates. In this dialogue we see Socrates preparing to die, by the sentence of the government. His friend Crito coming to him bringing the idea escaping him, which Socrates refuted, simply because he hold his duty to the state to obey it.

Etička kritika u književnosti Rasprava između R. Posnera i M. C. Nussbaum o javnoj ulozi književnosti Sažetak Članak želi doprinijeti tzv. etičkom preokretu koji se u zadnjim desetljećima legitimirao na mnogim društvenohumanističkim područjima, i to s obzirom na književnu kritiku koja se na anglosaksonskom području sve više dovodi u vezu s etičkim preokupacijama teksta, dok je kod nas taj trend još uvijek gotovo neprimijećen. Nakon kratkog uvoda u povijest složenog i turbulentnog odnosa etike i književnosti, autorica predstavlja dvije suprotstavljene tendencije, odnosno dva različita stava spram etičke funkcije koju književnost u sebi integrira. S tim ciljem predstavlja stajališta Richarda Posnera, koji zastupa autonomističko stajalište o isključivom primatu estetike kada se govori o književnosti, te Marthe C. Nussbaum koja zastupa stav da književnost u sebi ima veliki etički potencijal te može služiti kao nadopuna teorijama filozofije morala kao i društvenopravnim teorijama. Autorica se priklanja Nussbauminoj koncepciji zbog njezinog pluralističkog pristupa književnosti i šireg shvaćanja moralnosti.

Etička kritika u književnosti Rasprava između R. Posnera i M. C. Nussbaum o javnoj ulozi književnosti Sažetak Članak želi doprinijeti tzv. etičkom preokretu koji se u zadnjim desetljećima legitimirao na mnogim društvenohumanističkim područjima, i to s obzirom na književnu kritiku koja se na anglosaksonskom području sve više dovodi u vezu s etičkim preokupacijama teksta, dok je kod nas taj trend još uvijek gotovo neprimijećen. Nakon kratkog uvoda u povijest složenog i turbulentnog odnosa etike i književnosti, autorica predstavlja dvije suprotstavljene tendencije, odnosno dva različita stava spram etičke funkcije koju književnost u sebi integrira. S tim ciljem predstavlja stajališta Richarda Posnera, koji zastupa autonomističko stajalište o isključivom primatu estetike kada se govori o književnosti, te Marthe C. Nussbaum koja zastupa stav da književnost u sebi ima veliki etički potencijal te može služiti kao nadopuna teorijama filozofije morala kao i društvenopravnim teorijama. Autorica se priklanja Nussbauminoj koncepciji zbog njezinog pluralističkog pristupa književnosti i šireg shvaćanja moralnosti.