Old Persian

This article deals with the spread of Iranian religion in the western regions of the Achaemenid Empire by means of a combined analysis of historical and linguistic data. The core of the discussion is about the word Φαρνάουας, which appears as an epithet of Zeus in a Greek inscription from Roman Cappadocia. After showing, on linguistic grounds, that this epithet must have originated in the empire heartland during the Achaemenid period, some reflections are offered on the way by which Persian religious elements ended up in Cappadocia. In the framework of a survey of the traces of Iranian religion in Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid Cappadocia, another interesting point of contact between Cappadocia and the local cultic reality of Persia is pointed out-the female theonym *R̥tāna fravr̥tiš "Frauuaṣ̌i of the Righteous", both attested in the Cappadocian calendar and the Elamite administrative documents from Persepolis.

Indo-European is a branch of Indo-Uralic which was radically transformed under the influence of a North Caucasian substratum when its speakers moved from the area north of the Caspian Sea to the area north of the Black Sea (cf. Kortlandt 2007b). As a result, Indo-European developed a minimal vowel system combined with a very large consonant inventory including glottalized stops, also grammatical gender and adjectival agreement, an ergative construction which was lost again but has left its traces in the grammatical system, especially in the nominal inflection, a construction with a dative subject which was partly preserved in the historical languages and is reflected in the verbal morphology and syntax, where it gave rise to new categories, and a heterogeneous lexicon. The Indo-Uralic elements of Indo-European include pronouns, case endings, verbal endings, participles and derivational suffixes. In the following I shall give an overview of the grammar of Proto-Indo-European as it may have been spoken around 4000 BC in the eastern Ukraine, shortly after the ancestors of the Anatolians left for the Balkans (for more recent developments I refer to Beekes 1995). This stage preceded the common innovations of the non-Anatolian languages such as *mer-'to die' < 'to disappear' , *tu << *ti 'thou', *seʕ-'to satiate' < 'to stuff', *d h ugʕtēr << *d h uegʕtr 'daughter', *ʕerʕ w -'to plough' < 'to crush', *meʔ 'don't!' < 'say no!', *ʔekȗos << *ʔekȗ 'horse ' (cf. Kloekhorst 2008: 8-10). It also preceded the rise of the subjunctive and the optative and dialectal Indo-European developments such as the rise of distinctive voicedness (not shared by Tocharian), the creation of a thematic middle voice (cf. Kortlandt 2007a: 151-157), and the satemization of the palatovelars (cf. Kortlandt 2009: 43). The lexicon included words for 'cart', 'wheel', 'axle', 'yoke ', 'carpenter', 'house', 'vessel', 'to plait', 'to weave', 'to spin', 'to clothe', 'ox', 'sheep', 'goat', 'horse', 'swine', 'cow', 'dog', 'to herd', 'to milk', 'butter', 'wool', 'lamb', 'gold', 'silver', 'copper', 'ore', but not for 'donkey', 'cat', 'chicken', 'duck', 'field', 'to sow', 'to mow', 'to mill', 'to plough', 'iron', 'lead', 'tin'. There was no agricultural or metallurgical vocabulary at this stage. PHONOLOGY Proto-Indo-European had two vowels: *e [ae] and *o [ʌ], which had long variants *ē and *ō in monosyllabic word forms and before word-final resonants (cf. Wackernagel 1896: 66-68). At a later stage, *e was colored by a contiguous *ʕ or *ʕ w to *a or *o,

This article examines two Qajar carpets, one currently on display at Tehran’s Carpet Museum of Iran and the other formerly at the University of Chicago, now likely in a private collection in the United States. Designed by Forṣat-al-Dawla Shirazi, the first modern Iranian cuneiformist, these carpets were produced around 1897. They are notable for depicting monuments  Forṣat-al-Dawla visited during his expeditions in the Fars Region during the late Qajar period. What makes these carpets unique is the inclusion of cuneiform inscriptions copied from Achaemenid royal inscriptions at Persepolis. Furthermore, these carpets hold historical significance as they were created a few years before the Iranian Constitutional Revolution in the late Qajar era, reflecting the Iranian attitude towards cultural heritage and national identity at that time.
Although the two carpets have a strong overall resemblance, each one features distinct details that the other lacks. This article takes a close look at the motifs, descriptions, and historical context of both carpets, shedding light on the designer’s background and other key aspects connected to the carpets and Forṣat-al-Dawla Shirazi.

Greek Hekátē 'Hecate' and Hekatos 'name of Zeus / Apollo' come from PG *wekatos 'to be obeyed / lord', PIE *wek^-(S. vaś-'be willing/obedient', G. hékāti 'by the will of _', etc.). Most G.-a-came from *-n-, but with no specific internal ev. for that here (but see below for support). This hek-shows optional *w > h (*wespero-> L. vesper, G. hésperos 'evening'; *wid-'know'-> G. hístōr 'wise man', Boe. wistōr 'witness'; *westu-'dwelling, home'-> L. Vesta, G. Hestíā, *wel-> G. hélix 'object with spiral shape'). Despite theories that seek order like *w-s > h-s, there is no regular

This paper explores the theological, historical, and cultural intersections between Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, with a focus on divine sovereignty and the possibility of shared spiritual origin. It examines whether these traditions reflect distinct deities or culturally adapted expressions of one divine source. Drawing from sacred texts, prophetic witness, and ancestral memory, the analysis affirms shared moral frameworks and divine sovereignty across civilizations. The work is grounded in cultural intelligence and royal stewardship, offering a unique lens on interfaith legacy and divine revelation. Through comparative theology, historical reflection, and philosophical inquiry, this essay invites renewed understanding of spiritual unity across diverse traditions and calls for a reclamation of ancestral truth in the global discourse on faith.

This article aims at providing a brief overview of the historiographic writings on Achaemenid taxation, showing how the thesis of overtaxation influenced our understanding of Neh. 5 and Persian Yehud in the 5th century BCE. It describes how it was once widely accepted that overtaxation led to social and economic instability in many peripheral areas of the Achaemenid Empire, including Yehud. According to traditional scholarship, the narrative of Neh. 5 described how the local governor acted to mitigate this crisis by granting temporary tax and debt relief to small farmers. The author then moves to discuss how recent scholars questioned that long-established view, highlighting the biblical source’s rhetorical nature and the logical inconsistencies of the economic explanations used to describe this putative crisis. Finally, this article faces the question of a supposed economic calamity arising in Yehud under Persian hegemony and provides some clues to reevaluate the biblical narrative...

Antiquité classique dans le contexte de la « cancel culture » étasunienne dans un petit ouvrage, plaisant et agréable à lire, présenté aux éditions de l'Académie royale de Belgique. La démarche de MMD diffère sensiblement de celle de Pierre Vesperini qui abordait, dans un ouvrage récent, le sujet Lu pour vous : Monique Mund-Dopchie, « Études classiques et "cancel ... Lu pour vous : Monique Mund-Dopchie, « Études classiques et "cancel ...

This volume brings together a series of scholarly contributions dedicated to the study of the medieval nomadic landscape across the Eurasian steppes. It originates from the international workshop European Workshop on Mediaeval Nomadism, held in Naples from 22 to 26 November 2022 and hosted by the University of Naples "L'Orientale." The book reflects a multidisciplinary approach to nomadic lifeways, mobility, and landscape use in medieval Eurasia. Edited by Bruno Genito and Lucia Cerullo, the volume offers new insights and fosters dialogue among scholars working on nomadism from archaeological, historical, and anthropological perspectives.

In this article I propose some corrections and additions to my previous contribution Miscellanea Epigraphica Susiana, made possible by the recent publication of a book dealing, among other things, with the same inscriptions (DSe, DSi, A 2 Se). In particular, I provide: a complete restoration of the final portion of the Elamite version of DSe highlighting some textual parallels found in the Meso-Elamite, Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian epigraphic tradition; an etymological discussion on the newly discovered OP word kabnu-"ruined, dilapidated"; and some improvements in the reading and interpretation of a new fragment of the Elamite version of A 2 Se.

Theories of a functional differentiation of Gothic passive periphrases depending on their members' position are examined by contrast with the textual data. The author argues that participles normally follow copulae in such cases and divergent instances cannot be regarded as having distinct functions of their own if not as emphatic variants.

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

De l'usage de l'étrangeté syntaxique : les structures agrammaticales dans la versification basque du 17 ème siècle B. Oyharçabal (CNRS, UMR IKER) §1. Introduction. 1 Le basque est réputé être une langue à ordre libre. De fait, il se caractérise par la variété des possibilités offertes quant à l'alignement des constituants de phrase, même si cette dive rsité n'est pas en réalité dépourvue de contraintes (Ortiz de Urbina 1989, Rebuschi 1989). Cette relative liberté constitue une caractéristique de la langue que les grammaires descriptives ne manquent pas de signaler depuis une bonne centaine d'années (Ithurry 1895, EGLU-1 1985, 1987). Ce trait pour autant ne se retrouve pas dans les constituants internes aux structures syntagmatiques projetées par les catégories lexicales autres que V ; les SN 2 notamment, lesquels peuvent accueillir plusieurs types de constituants, forment des structures assez fortement contraintes de ce point de vue (Artiagoitia 2001). Ainsi, en ce qui concerne l'alignement des constituants, les adjectifs doivent être à droite du nom tête, et les quantifieurs cardinaux (autres que bat 'un' et bi 'deux') à gauche, contrairement aux déterminants qui sont en fin de syntagme. C'est ce que montrent les exemples suivants : (1) liburu eder hau vs *eder liburu hau 'ce beau livre' livre beau Det beau livre Det L'exemple (1) m ontre qu'un adjectif comme eder 'beau' doit obligatoirement suivre le nom qu'il modifie. (2) bost emaztekiak vs *emazteki bostak 'les cinq femmes' cinq femme.Det femme cinq.Det L'exemple (2) illustre le fait qu'un quantifieur cardinal comme bost 'cinq' doit précéder le nom tête.

F. Giusfredi – A. Matessi  – S. Merlin – V. Pisaniello (eds.), Contacts of languages and peoples in the Hittite and Post-Hittite world. Volume 2: The 1st Millennium and the Eastern Mediterranean Interface. Leiden – Boston: Brill, pp. 157-172. [doi:10.1163/9789004729704_008]

Check bibliography at https://brill.com/display/book/9789004729704/back-3.xml

Als die Achaimeniden in der zweiten Hälfte des sechsten Jahrhunderts v. Chr. die Kontrolle über die Großmächte des Nahen Ostens übernahmen, konnten die Mesopotamier bereits von vielfältigen Traditionen an Sprachen, Schriften und Textträgern profitieren. Obwohl die neu-babylonischen und neu-assyrischen Herrscher über multiethnische Imperien herrschten und für ihre Bauprojekte Handwerker aus verschiedenen Regionen und mit unterschiedlichen Sprachen einsetzten, thematisierte keiner von ihnen Mehrsprachigkeit in ihrer königlichen Repräsentation. Allerdings spielte die Mehrsprachigkeit in der königlichen Ideologie der Achaimeniden eine wichtige Rolle. Verschiedene Schriftsysteme und Sprachen, die in mehreren Archiven in Persepolis und anderen Verwaltungszentren verwendet wurden, spiegeln das Phänomen einer mehrsprachigen Gesellschaft im Achaimenidenreich wider, in der die Verkehrssprache eine wichtige Rolle beim Aufbau eines umfassenden Verwaltungssystems unter der Kontrolle des Königshofs spielte.

The first section of the twelfth issue of “Neveštegān” investigates the rare word “šʾwšʾ” as it appears in an early Arabic–Persian lexicon, offering both an explanation and a philological justification. The discussion then proceeds with several supplementary notes, extending a previous analysis of the remnants of the pronoun/adjective im in New Iranian. In addition, the meaning of a particular Fahlavī word and a related verse is clarified. The final section explores possible attestations of the verb pāxtan in early texts.

در بخش نخست شمارۀ ۱۲ «نوشتگان»، لغت نادر «شاوشا» در یکی از فرهنگ‌های کهن عربی-فارسی توضیح داده و توجیه شده‌است. سپس، به نکته‌هایی در تکمیل بازمانده‌های ضمیر / صفت اشارۀ im در ایرانی نو اشاره شده و نیز معنای لغت و بیتی فهلوی روشن شده‌است. بخش پایانی کوششی است برای یافتن شواهدی از فعل «پاختن» در متون قدیم.ه

بیگدلو، میلاد (۱۴۰۴). نوشتگان (۱۲). آینهٔ پژوهش، ۳۶(۱)، ۳۱۱–۳۱۸.ه

Research projects related to Imami jurisprudence have a great development in the field in recent decades and reformulate many debates. Taking new perspectives towards history of Twelver jurisprudence and ijtihad, contributors have started to take a way the clichés and have a different view to jurisprudence history; however this trend is at the beginning and many questions are still remaining obscure. Challenging many stereotypes, Robert Gleave is one of the pioneering researchers who rejects anti-rational notion prevailing in Akhbari study, recognises a diversity amongst Akhbari ulama, puts certainty at the centre of Akhbari theory, and negates a reading which represents Akhbari theory as a protestant Shiism. His attempt shows an enthusiasm for some historical reading which unfortunately fails to fulfil the requirements. From this point of view an essentialism might be traced in his categorising system making him form a rigid, fix, and objective differentiation between two groups of Imami ulama. In doing so, instead of concentrating on historical actors and their systems of representation, categorisation, and perception, he regards Usuli, Akhbari, and other concepts as concrete realities while from a historical perspective, concepts, definitions, and categories are also socio-historical phenomena needed to be studied. Focusing on his Scripturalist Islam, this article aims to study Gleave's important achievements in Shia studies.

This paper explores the concept of schismogenesis as a framework to understand the cultural differentiation between the ancient Elamite civilization and its Mesopotamian counterparts. It delves into schismogenesis within the Elamite civilization itself, examining the scarcity of cuneiform texts in ancient Iran despite awareness of Mesopotamian script and the existence of a native Iranian writing system (Proto-Elamite). Focusing on the Akkadian corpus found at Susa, this paper uses it as a case study to analyse deliberate deviations from standard Mesopotamian texts, revealing intentional cultural distinctiveness within the ancient Elamite context.

All societies use kinship terms to address and refer to one's kin. Most studies dealing with kin terms have been done based on consanguineal and affinal kin criteria. In some societies, kin relations are established by other criteria. Therefore, cultural differences must be taken into account but genealogical paths cannot represent this cultural knowledge. In this research, kin terms were considered as cultural elements. Using kin term maps, it is possible to formally represent how kin relations are calculated without reference to genealogical relations and to recognize primary kin terms. So, cultural differences can be represented as well. The framework used in this research provides a comprehensive basis for comparative studies of kin terms. This study diachronically explored kin term maps of Old Persian, Middle Persian and New Persian. The starting point was "self" in the maps, located in the center. Primary kin terms were identified according to their position relative to the "self". A comparison of the maps showed that in Middle Persian grammatical gender has disappeared, but biological gender was still important in this period. Some kin terms were added and some were dropped in this period. The results showed that in New Persian the number of kin terms has increased. In the New Persian, there are now some loan kin terms, two-syllable kin terms are more frequently used, and biological gender has lost its importance in expressing kinship relations.

The study examined five characteristics of the Khorasani Group of Persian Dialects distinguishing it from the Afghan-Tajiki group. These characteristics consist of two phonetic and two morphological features as well as one relating to prepositions. Though not representing all the distinguishing features between the groups, they have been singled out by the researcher as some most stable characteristics. The study used a wide range of sources, including field research and numerous works of Russian, Western, Iranian, Tajiki and Afghan authors. The texts (legends and stories about everyday issues) in the Herat dialect, which were obtained as a result of the author's field work in Afghanistan, were collected from illiterate and poorly literate speakers of the said dialect. Due to the lack of education, these people were not influenced by the Kabul dialect or the language, and they kept their native dialect in the purest form. This research proved that the discussed features are among the main features that distinguish Khorasani Persian dialects group from Afghani-Tajik group.

Langues nakho-daghestanaises (caucasiques de l'Est)  Langues autochtones du Caucase Langues nakho-daghestanaises (caucasiques de l'Est)  Langues autochtones du Caucase Profil typologique  Ergativité : • Sujet intransitif (S) et patient (P) au nominatif/absolutif • Agent (A) au ergatif → marquage A vs. S/P

Presented in the paper is a new exemplar of the Elamite version of A 2 Sd, a known Achaemenid trilingual inscription made in the name of Artaxerxes II in Susa. Special attention is given to the occurrence of the word tacara and its possible interpretations. In connection with this, editions of three Elamite texts from the Persepolis Fortification archive are presented that provide new attestations of the term and a possible cognate, * tacarana-.

According to jurisprudence and law, the wife can refuse to obey the husband to get marriage portion. This right is so-called the right to retention and the verses, narratives, and rational foundations, like the proximity of the marriage to the commutative contracts, are its legitimacy. Because there is a doubt whether the marriage is commutative or not, the right to retention is limited, and it is acceptable just for the wife having the purpose of creating an executive guarantee for getting the marriage portion. Nowadays, this guarantee becomes a pressure tool against the husband and it is misused by the wife. Based on procedural unity vote 708 that, in spite of husband's hardship, the rule to instalment is not amount to reject wife's right to retention, and based on procedural unity vote 718 that extends the realm of exercise of the right to retention to wife's duties absolutely, husband's conditions become harder; thus, this study aimed to jurisprudentially-legally seek the basis of the right to retention in marriage and the causes of termination, abortion, and its adjustment by a descriptive-documentary method. Therefore, all related written sources were analyzed and it is concluded that if the marriage portion is exchangeable with the obedience, for respecting the husband, the capabilities of the right to retention as a personal right can be used for its abortion or adjustment. Moreover, for preventing the unlimited exercise of the right to retention, the two topics of the realm of exercise of the right to retention and the effect of husband's hardship on wife's right to retention should be taken into consideration. That will be the most important issue in the matter of big marriage portions.

This article deals with the spread of Iranian religion in the western regions of the Achaemenid Empire by means of a combined analysis of historical and linguistic data. The core of the discussion is about the word Φαρνάουας, which appears as an epithet of Zeus in a Greek inscription from Roman Cappadocia. After showing, on linguistic grounds, that this epithet must have originated in the empire heartland during the Achaemenid period, some reflections are offered on the way by which Persian religious elements ended up in Cappadocia. In the framework of a survey of the traces of Iranian religion in Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid Cappadocia, another interesting point of contact between Cappadocia and the local cultic reality of Persia is pointed out-the female theonym *R̥ tāna fravr̥ tiš "Frauuaš ̣i of the Righteous", both attested in the Cappadocian calendar and the Elamite administrative documents from Persepolis.

In this thesis, I explore the Behistun Inscription, a pivotal archaeological artifact that provides a profound insight into ancient Mesopotamian culture and traditions. I investigate the inscription's historical context, particularly its geographical and cultural significance, and the role of Darius the Great in its creation as a means of legitimizing his rule. Through a detailed analysis of mythological references and linguistic elements within the inscription, I uncover how it reflects Mesopotamian religious beliefs and societal values. Additionally, I compare the Behistun Inscription with other significant Mesopotamian texts, highlighting both similarities with Babylonian Chronicles and contrasts with Sumerian literature, thereby enriching our understanding of Mesopotamian historiography. Furthermore, I examine the inscription's crucial contribution to the deciphering of cuneiform writing and its lasting impact on modern archaeological studies. The findings underscore the inscription's dual role as a historical record and a reflection of Mesopotamian cultural identity, while also addressing the limitations and future research avenues in this field.

This is a preprint version of the paper. Please contact me if interested in the published version.

Abstract: This article proposes a new interpretation of the inscriptions MLM 5 Bas and MLM 6 Mu. The editors of MLM identify in these texts two female -ā-stem anthroponyms in the genitive singular, oššovaš and hazava(s). In our opinion, this reading raises difficulties with regard to Messapic orthography and morphology. Furthermore, it is not tenable in view of the datives singular oššo and hazava attested in MLM 36 Rud. The dative oššo, as well as the masculine anthroponym vaššnihi in MLM 2 Cae, allow us to isolate the form oššo in MLM 5 Bas and MLM 6 Mu, and, consequently, to resume the segmentation of these texts as suggested by Ciro Santoro, although with a morphological justification very different from the one he proposed. In all three texts, we advocate an analysis of oššo and hazava as theonyms in the dative singular (masculine and feminine respectively).

In Aristophanes' Acharnians Pseudartabas, an ambassador of the Achaemenid Empire, who greets the Assembly of the Athenians with a verse in an incomprehensible text, is introduced. Several interpretations of the passage have been made on the hypothesis that it responds to a real Old Persian and not a mere succession of syllables that sound like a foreign language. This paper proposes a new interpretation, integrating the message of the Pseudartabas' first intervention with his second phrase, which constitutes the real content of the Persian embassy.

In the first decades of the 20th century, scholars like Vladimir Ivanow opened up new paths for researchers in this field by publishing the text of many Ismaili manuscripts for the first time. However, the wide and hasty publication of many of these texts without critical correction and precision of content has led us to find frequent errors in the content of some of these texts. The first serious consequence of this problem is the occurrence of frequent errors in the reconstruction of Ismaili history or even misconceptions in analyzing the historical content of these texts. In this article, the first publication of the treatise "Sirat al-Hajib" by Vladimir Ivanow in the fourth volume of the Egyptian journal koliat al-ādāb (1936), and Husam Khazour's narration of the text of this treatise in Syria in 2007, based on the only remaining copy of this historical treatise, as well as the remaining elements from it in other advanced Ismaili works, are subjected to scholarly criticism. The results of this investigation point to three types of historical, linguistic and contextual errors in the publication of these two researchers, which are discussed in this article. The research method in this article is comparative and the data collection is based on a library search.

Ndiangue FALL  & Koffi Fulgence N'ZI  Cet article soumet à une analyse descriptive, les modalités verbales du mode et de l'aspect dans les langues espagnole (langue romane), wolof (langue atlantique du Sénégal) et baoulé (langue kwa de Côte-d'Ivoire) afin de mettre en évidence le système aspecto-modal des dites langues. Ainsi, en comparant l'expression du mode et de l'aspect dans ces langues, sommes nous parvenus à la conclusion que les résultats sont différents. Notre analyse a montré que l'expression du mode et l'aspect dans les langues espagnole, wolof et baoulé est régie par des règles grammaticales spécifiques basées sur le fonctionnement interne de chaque langue

This study explores the dialectal diversity and historical development of the Iranian word for ‘hyena’, tracing forms such as kaftār, haftār, howtār, and haptōr across southwestern and southeastern Iranian languages. Through detailed phonological analysis, the paper investigates key sound changes including the stopping of f and ft to p and pt, the weakening or transformation of labials (f > w, ow), diphthongization processes, and the role of prothetic and mobile h in Garmsiri and related dialects. Special attention is given to morphophonological features such as the final -g suffix, possibly reflecting a remnant of the Middle Persian diminutive. Ethnolinguistic evidence is incorporated to examine the symbolic role of the hyena in Iranian and South Asian folk beliefs, including magical uses of body parts and idiomatic expressions linking the animal with luck, virility, and power. The combination of philological, phonological, and anthropological perspectives contributes to a more nuanced understanding of both the linguistic stratification and cultural semantics surrounding animal names in the Iranian linguistic landscape.

qui apprennent le français commettent des fautes, en utilisant les déterminants ou les adjectifs possessifs provenant de l'influence de leur langue officielle (langue anglaise); celles-ci sont d'ordre morphosyntaxique. Cette communication est destinée à mettre en évidence certaines de ces fautes d'une part et à suggérer quelques mesures qui permettront à les résoudre d'autre part. Ceci dans l'espoir de contribuer à faciliter, et à progresser l'enseignement et l'apprentissage du français non seulement au Département de Langues Modernes et d'Etudes de Traduction mais aussi dans d'autres universités et des pays anglophones.

In this article the so far unexplained Old Persian verbal form amūθa 'he fled' is interpreted as an imperfect built on an inchoative present stem from the Iranian root *mauH- 'to move'. Starting from the observation that, in Old Persian, an outcome -θa- instead of -sa- for the Indo-Iranian suffix *-sća is phonologically irregular in this position, a morphological explanation is proposed. It is argued that the stem mūθa- is a recent formation, not inherited from the Proto-Iranian stage. This finding is framed within a broader discussion on the historical development of the inchoative suffix in the Iranian languages, distinguishing between old inchoatives, i.e. formations inherited from a pre-historical stage (Indo-Iranian, sometimes even Proto-Indo-European) and recent inchoatives, i.e. new formations productively built in historical times.