Metro and Subway Systems

Megaproject Planning and Management: Essential Readings contains the seminal articles from the growing body of research on megaproject planning and management along with an original introduction by the editor, Bent Flyvbjerg. The leading and most cited authority in the field, Flyvbjerg has used crowdsourcing and 25 years of experience to cherry-pick from several hundred articles and books the writings that define the field. This volume will be an indispensable source for those wishing to speak with authority about how megaprojects are prepared, delivered, and fought over. The target audience is students, academics, practitioners, and media pundits alike, as well as communities affected by megaprojects.

Back cover text: Megaprojects and Risk provides the first detailed examination of the phenomenon of megaprojects. It is a fascinating account of how the promoters of multi-billion dollar megaprojects systematically and self-servingly misinform parliaments, the public and the media in order to get projects approved and built. It shows, in unusual depth, how the formula for approval is an unhealthy cocktail of underestimated costs, overestimated revenues, undervalued environmental impacts and overvalued economic development effects. This results in projects that are extremely risky, but where the risk is concealed from MPs, taxpayers and investors. The authors not only explore the problems but also suggest practical solutions drawing on theory, experience and hard, scientific evidence from the several hundred projects in twenty nations and five continents that illustrate the book. Accessibly written, it will be the standard reference for students, scholars, planners, economists, auditors, politicians and interested citizens for many years to come.

The Supplementary Green Book Guidance on Optimism Bias (HM Treasury 2003) with reference to the Review of Large Public Procurement in the UK (Mott MacDonald 2002) notes that there is a demonstrated, systematic, tendency for project appraisers to be overly optimistic and that to redress this tendency appraisers should make explicit, empirically based adjustments to the estimates of a project’s costs, benefits, and duration. HM Treasury recommends that these adjustments be based on data from past projects or similar projects elsewhere, and adjusted for the unique characteristics of the project in hand. In the absence of a more specific evidence base, HM Treasury has encouraged departments to collect data to inform future estimates of optimism, and in the meantime use the best available data. In response to this, the Department for Transport (henceforth DfT), has contracted Bent Flyvbjerg in association with COWI to undertake the consultancy assignment "Procedures for dealing with Optimism Bias in Transport Planning". The present Guidance Document is the result of this assignment.

This paper focuses on problems and their causes and cures in policy and planning for large infrastructure projects. First, it identifies as the main problem in major infrastructure development pervasive misinformation about the costs, benefits, and risks involved. A consequence of misinformation is massive cost overruns, benefit shortfalls, and waste. Second, the paper explores the causes of misinformation and finds that political-economic explanations best account for the available evidence: planners and promoters deliberately misrepresent costs, benefits, and risks in order to increase the likelihood that it is their projects, and not the competition's, that gain approval and funding. This results in the "survival of the unfittest," where often it is not the best projects that are built, but the most misrepresented ones. Finally, the paper presents measures for reforming policy and planning for large infrastructure projects, with a focus on better planning methods and changed governance structures, the latter being more important.

Transportation has been one of the most important necessities since the early ages. In the past, people used animals for transportation. However, later, animal based transportation was not enough to catch people development velocity. Therefore, technology has been used since 19th century with the industrial revolution in transportation especially in railway systems. Subway is one of the products of industrial revolution. In the basic definition, subway is an underground urban railroad, usually operated by electricity. Over the last century, there has been an increase in the subway usage to make people's lives fast and punctual. In fact, travelling with subway system is the most useful transportation system because of its healthy, economical and technological benefits. The first important advantage of subway systems are that they are healthy. In the first place, subway systems make people's psychology better. As an example, subway systems avoid noise pollution. Hardy (2008) states that noise makes people more angry and enhances the possibility of heart attack, causing the EU 3% of ischeamic heart diseases in Europe ( para. 4). This shows that one can say people will be badly impressed by noise of vehicles in the transportation system without subway. Moreover, thanks to subway system, one can reach anywhere in time. As Jordan explains, currently used traffic systems should be abondoned because of soaring fuel prices, loss of time on traffic and the adverse effects on the environment. For this reason, that the metro systems grow into all over the place, can be an ideal solution for traffic problems. Thus making the psychology of people is a good subway system will be effective the use of performances of transport. Besides the fact that subway systems contribute to better psychology, they also cause less environmental pollution. J. Wargo, L. Wargo and Alderman state that altough people have learned to

The article first describes characteristics of major infrastructure projects. Second, it documents a much neglected topic in economics: that ex ante estimates of costs and benefits are often very different from actual ex post costs and benefits. For large infrastructure projects the consequences are cost overruns, benefit shortfalls, and the systematic underestimation of risks. Third, implications for cost–benefit analysis are described, including that such analysis is not to be trusted for major infrastructure projects. Fourth, the article uncovers the causes of this state of affairs in terms of perverse incentives that encourage promoters to underestimate costs and overestimate benefits in the business cases for their projects. But the projects that are made to look best on paper are the projects that amass the highest cost overruns and benefit shortfalls in reality. The article depicts this situation as ‘survival of the unfittest’. Fifth, the article sets out to explain how the problem may be solved, with a view to arriving at more efficient and more democratic projects, and avoiding the scandals that often accompany major infrastructure investments. Finally, the article identifies current trends in major infrastructure development. It is argued that a rapid increase in stimulus spending, combined with more investments in emerging economies, combined with more spending on information technology is catapulting infrastructure investment from the frying pan into the fire.

As megaprojects have become ubiquitous, their real benefits and costs have come under increased scrutiny. We interviewed Bent Flyvbjerg, who has extensively studied megaproject development. Flyvbjerg has found systematic problems in the development process: by intentionally misrepresenting information and deliberately disregarding risks, proponents instigate projects that result in fewer benefits and higher costs than promised.

Reimagine fragmented cities and neighborhoods through a design blueprint for healthy communities to Reclaim the Public Realm, and improve mobility and connectivity.
Urban Cores within these neighborhoods will comprise a more
Livable, Walkable and Vibrant City.

This paper explores how theories of the planning fallacy and the outside view may be used to conduct quality control and due diligence in project management. First, a much-neglected issue in project management is identified, namely that the front-end estimates of costs and benefits – used in the business cases, cost-benefit analyses, and social and environmental impact assessments that typically support decisions on projects – are typically significantly different from actual ex post costs and benefits, and are therefore poor predictors of the actual value and viability of projects. Second, it is discussed how Kahneman and Tversky’s theories of the planning fallacy and the outside view may help explain and remedy this situation through quality control of decisions. Third, it is described what quality control and due diligence are in the context of project management, and an eight-step procedure is outlined for due diligence based on the outside view. Fourth, the procedure is tested on a real-life, multibillion-dollar project, organized as a public-private partnership. Finally, Akerlof and Shiller’s recent discussion in economics of “firing the forecaster” is discussed together with its relevance to project management. In sum, the paper demonstrates the need, the theoretical basis, a practical methodology, and a real-life example for how to de-bias project management using quality control and due diligence based on the outside view.

This paper focuses on problems and their causes and cures in policy and planning for large-infrastructure projects. First, it identifies as the main problem in major infrastructure developments pervasive misinformation about the costs, benefits, and risks involved. A consequence of misinformation is cost overruns, benefit shortfalls, and waste. Second, it explores the causes of misinformation and finds that political-economic explanations best account for the available evidence: planners and promoters deliberately misrepresent costs, benefits, and risks in order to increase the likelihood that it is their projects, and not those of their competition, that gain approval and funding. This results in the ‘survival of the unfittest’, in which often it is not the best projects that are built, but the most misrepresented ones. Finally, it presents measures for reforming policy and planning for large-infrastructure projects with a focus on better planning methods and changed governance structures, the latter being more important.

A major source of risk in project management is inaccurate forecasts of project costs, demand, and other impacts. The paper presents a promising new approach to mitigating such risk, based on theories of decision making under uncertainty which won the 2002 Nobel prize in economics. First, the paper documents inaccuracy and risk in project management. Second, it explains inaccuracy in terms of optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation. Third, the theoretical basis is presented for a promising new method called "reference class forecasting," which achieves accuracy by basing forecasts on actual performance in a reference class of comparable projects and thereby bypassing both optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation. Fourth, the paper presents the first instance of practical reference class forecasting, which concerns cost forecasts for large transportation infrastructure projects. Finally, potentials for and barriers to reference class forecasting are assessed.

Out-of-control information technology (IT) projects have ended the careers of top managers, such as EADS CEO Noël Forgeard and Levi Strauss’ CIO David Bergen. Moreover, IT projects have brought down whole companies, like Kmart in the US and Auto Windscreen in the UK. Software and other IT is now such an integral part of most business processes and products that CEOs must know their IT risks, which are typically substantial – and overlooked. The analysis of a sample of 1,471 IT projects showed that the average cost overrun was 27% — but that figure masks a far more alarming “fat tail” risk.  Fully one in six of the projects in the sample was a Black Swan, with a cost overrun of 200%, on average, and a schedule overrun of almost 70%. This highlights the true pitfall of IT change initiatives: It’s not that they’re particularly prone to high cost overruns on average – it is that there are a disproportionate number of Black Swans. By focusing on averages instead of the more damaging outliers, most managers and consultants have been missing the real risk in doing IT. In conclusion, the article outlines ideas as to what can be done to avoid Black Swans.

This article presents results from the first statistically significant study of cost escalation in transportation infrastructure projects. Based on a sample of 258 transportation infrastructure projects worth US$90 billion and representing different project types, geographical regions, and historical periods, it is found with overwhelming statistical significance that the cost estimates used to decide whether such projects should be built are highly and systematically misleading. Underestimation cannot be explained by error and is best explained by strategic misrepresentation, that is, lying. The policy implications are clear: legislators, administrators, investors, media representatives, and members of the public who value honest numbers should not trust cost estimates and cost-benefit analyses produced by project promoters and their analysts.

"Over budget, over time, over and over again" appears to be an appropriate slogan for large, complex infrastructure projects. This article explains why cost, benefits, and time forecasts for such projects are systematically over-optimistic in the planning phase. The underlying reasons for forecasting errors are grouped into three categories: delusions or honest mistakes; deceptions or strategic manipulation of information or processes; or bad luck. Delusion and deception have each been addressed in the management literature before, but here they are jointly considered for the first time. They are specifically applied to infrastructure problems in a manner that allows both academics and practitioners to understand and implement the suggested corrective procedures. The article provides a framework for analyzing the relative explanatory power of delusion and deception. It also suggests a simplified framework for analyzing the complex principal-agent relationships that are involved in the approval and construction of large infrastructure projects, which can be used to improve forecasts. Finally, the article illustrates reference class forecasting, an outside view de-biasing technique that has proven successful in overcoming both delusion and deception in private and public investment decisions.

Results from the first statistically significant study of the causes of cost escalation in transport infrastructure projects are presented. The study is based on a sample of 258 rail, bridge, tunnel and road projects worth US$90 billion. The focus is on the dependence of cost escalation on: (1) the length of the project‐implementation phase, (2) the size of the project and (3) the type of project ownership. First, it was found, with very high statistical significance, that cost escalation was strongly dependent on the length of the implementation phase. The policy implications are clear: decision‐makers and planners should be highly concerned about delays and long implementation phases because they translate into risks of substantial cost escalations. Second, projects have grown larger over time, and for bridges and tunnels larger projects have larger percentage cost escalations. Finally, by comparing the cost escalation for three types of project ownership - private, state‐owned enterprise and other public ownership - it was shown that the oft‐seen claim that public ownership is problematic and private ownership effective in curbing cost escalation is an oversimplification. The type of accountability appears to matter more to cost escalation than type of ownership.

This article presents results from the first statistically significant study of traffic forecasts in transportation infrastructure projects. The sample used is the largest of its kind, covering 210 projects in 14 nations worth U.S.$59 billion. The study shows with very high statistical significance that forecasters generally do a poor job of estimating the demand for transportation infrastructure projects. For 9 out of 10 rail projects, passenger forecasts are overestimated; the average overestimation is 106%. For half of all road projects, the difference between actual and forecasted traffic is more than ±20%. The result is substantial financial risks, which are typically ignored or downplayed by planners and decision makers to the detriment of social and economic welfare. Our data also show that forecasts have not become more accurate over the 30-year period studied, despite claims to the contrary by forecasters. The causes of inaccuracy in forecasts are different for rail and road projects, with political causes playing a larger role for rail than for road. The cure is transparency, accountability, and new forecasting methods. The challenge is to change the governance structures for forecasting and project development. Our article shows how planners may help achieve this.

Risk, including economic risk, is increasingly a concern for public policy and management. The possibility of dealing effectively with risk is hampered, however, by lack of a sound empirical basis for risk assessment and management. This article demonstrates the general point for cost and demand risks in urban rail projects. The article presents empirical evidence that allow valid economic risk assessment and management of urban rail projects, including benchmarking of individual or groups of projects. Benchmarking of the Copenhagen Metro is presented as a case in point. The approach developed is proposed as a model for other types of policies and projects in order to improve economic and financial risk assessment and management in policy and planning.

This article examines the diverse ways in which people experience being strangers in public space. Based primarily on the journal entries of teenagers in New York City on their trips, we show the different ways in which riders experience being a rider amid diversity and norm violations. Some teenagers see being a rider as an engaging role, some as a detached role, and others as a precarious role. All the teenagers use folk theories to navigate the social world, but how they use them varies depending on how they experience being a rider. Finally, riding in groups shifts their experiences and interpretations in complex ways that make riding more enjoyable, but filled with additional emotional tensions. Building from previous theories and studies on strangers and public spaces, this article contributes to longstanding debates in sociology over how people interact with others in urban environments.

Do different types of megaprojects have different cost overruns? This apparently simple question is at the heart of research at the University of Oxford aimed at understanding the characteristics of megaprojects, particularly in terms of how they are established, run and concluded. In this study, we set out to investigate cost overruns in the Olympic Games. To do so, we examined the costs of the Games over half a century, including both summer and winter Olympics. We looked at the evolution of final reported costs and compared these to the costs established in the Games bids, submitted to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) up to seven years before the Games occurred. In so doing we established the largest dataset of its kind, and documented for the first time in a consistent fashion the costs and cost overruns for the Olympic Games, from 1960 to 2012. We discovered that the Games stand out in two distinct ways compared to other megaprojects: (1) The Games overrun with 100 per cent consistency. No other type of megaproject is this consistent regarding cost overrun. Other project types are typically on budget from time to time, but not the Olympics. (2) With an average cost overrun in real terms of 179 per cent – and 324 per cent in nominal terms – overruns in the Games have historically been significantly larger than for other types of megaprojects, including infrastructure, construction, ICT, and dams. The data thus show that for a city and nation to decide to host the Olympic Games is to take on one of the most financially risky type of megaproject that exists, something that many cities and nations have learned to their peril. For the London 2012 Games, we find that: (1) With sports-related real costs currently estimated at USD14.8 billion, London is on track to become the most costly Olympics ever. (2) With a projected cost overrun of 101 per cent in real terms, overrun for London is below the historical average for the Games, but not significantly so. (3) The London cost overrun is, however, significantly higher than overruns for recent Games since 1999. London therefore is reversing a positive trend of falling cost overruns for the Games.

Urban rail transport vehicles require electrical power to operate in a clean, efficient and reliable way within city and suburban residential areas. In Kolkata and Bangalore, vehicles receive power at 750Volts DC through a ‘third rail’ conductor laid parallel to the running rails for the vehicle, whereas in Delhi metro vehicles receive power at 25Kilo-Volts AC from an over head electrical conductor strung above the vehicles. Three new metro lines under implementation in Kolkata are with the 750V DC power, whereas projects in Chennai and Hyderabad are with 25KV AC power systems.
This article discusses some criterion considered when choosing appropriate traction power system for new metro rail projects.

During World War I, the US Congress made it unlawful to speak against the war. The executive prosecuted many for doing so and when tried at the Supreme Court it upheld the sentences. During the Iraq War it was not a crime to speak against the war, but it was almost impossible to be heard if you had anything critical to say. Mass media practiced a self-imposed censorship. The op-ed below was written a few days after the invasion of Iraq and sent to main media in the US, but none wanted to print it on the grounds that critique of the war was considered untimely.

As megaprojects have become ubiquitous, their real benefits and costs have come under increased scrutiny. We interviewed Bent Flyvbjerg, who has extensively studied megaproject development. Flyvbjerg has found systematic problems in the development process: by intentionally misrepresenting information and deliberately disregarding risks, proponents instigate projects that result in fewer benefits and higher costs than promised.

To what extent is Delhi's metro rail system a social leveler and a global emblem of middle-class modernity—in idea and practice? This essay illustrates how the language and aims of planning and infrastructural development achieve class-based goals in a city of deep social inequalities. Based on fieldwork in Delhi, the essay details architects' visions and work practices on the Metro, and how they interact with new forms of technocratic governance instituted by the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation. By breaking down the broader development-based ideology that the Metro represents, the essay tracks how architects and planners are involved in diverse forms of " aspirational planning " that ultimately privilege and enact a notion of upward mobility rather than social equality. The urban extends through space, which it modifies. —Henri Lefebvre (2014), The Urban Revolution The Metro as idea and object D elhi's metro rail system extends into geographic space—with its 8 lines and 184 stations to date—and concretely into people's lives. Like much transport infrastructure in the world, it is meant to intervene and fix—not only traffic, but also pollution, stress, and social inequality itself—as it modernizes life and instills national pride. But to what extent can the system be a social leveler and a global emblem and enactment of middle-class modernity? The Metro is about the movement of people—nearly three million a day—but in the larger schema of city-and nation-building, it is also a premier symbol of capital interests. It is both a form of transport and an urban plan. The Metro serves mostly working-, lower-, and middle-class commuters, alongside land and property developers and global financiers; it has multiple constituencies. In the process of making and running the system, a host of questions arise about what a city is and who this city is for. These questions are addressed in the planning and construction of the Metro, in its everyday operations , and in a larger symbolic realm that goes beyond this city and its people.

Because of the prominent position of urban rail in reducing urban transport-related problems, such as congestion and air pollution, insights into the costs of possible new urban rail projects is very relevant for those involved with cost estimations, policy makers, cost-benefit analysts, and other target groups. Knowledge of the differences in costs per kilometre, including explanations of differences and their breakdowns is currently lacking in the literature. This paper aims to provide a first stage insight into how cost per kilometre varies across urban rail projects. The methodology applied is a simple cost comparison across projects where the data collected are comparable. We conclude that capital costs per route-kilometre of urban rail vary highly between projects. Looking at European projects and excluding outliers, the total capital costs per route-kilometre (including stations and rolling stock) lie mainly between US$50-100 million (2002 prices). Including US projects, the range is US$50-150 million. The main reasons for the high variation in the route-kilometre costs are differences between projects as regards the ratio of underground to above-ground construction, ground conditions, station spacing, type of rolling stock, environmental and safety constraints and labour costs. We warn, however, that the observations used to reach the conclusions are too few to obtain results with statistical significance. Our results must therefore be seen as a first step towards collecting more data so that a more succinct statistical analysis can be conducted. Another conclusion is therefore that this area has future research potential.

La eficiencia de una estación, ya sea de trenes o Metro, está determinada por la capacidad de transferencia que esta tenga en la plataforma de andenes. Es el área crítica y lo que motiva esta investigación. El estudio de más de 20 sistemas de metro alrededor del mundo y el altamente ineficiente diseño de las estaciones de Metro en Santiago de Chile, motivan al estudio y a la búsqueda de soluciones al problema del diseño de estaciones.

En este estudio se analiza el impacto de la topología de la plataforma de andenes en la eficiencia y capacidad de la estación de Metro.

Se identifican y definen las características de diferentes configuraciones de andenes, para analizar y modelar el comportamiento de los pasajeros en la plataforma de andenes y cómo estos interactúan con las diferentes áreas e infraestructuras presentes en la estación.

Se formula un modelo de cálculo que permite evaluar y comparar la eficiencia de diferentes configuraciones de plataforma, se determina la relación entre la topología de la plataforma de andenes y el uso de la estación.

Se propone el diseño modular de estaciones con capacidad de crecimiento en función del aumento en la demanda de pasajeros, como el diseño más eficiente.

Ho Chi Minh City plans to build an extensive public transport system which includes among others metro lines and dedicated bus lanes. Following a statement on the evolution of the municipal public transport system, this paper examines its development and the constraints faced by the authorities in its modernization: funding, land acquisition and institutional issues.

This paper characterizes earth pressure balance machine (EPBM) torque within the context of a physical model using data from a recent Seattle metro-sized (6.44 m diameter) tunnel project. The paper examines the ability of relatively simple physical models to capture torque, and characterizes relative influence of geology, soil conditioning, pressure and other parameters on measured torque. The physical torque model developed for the analysis grossly overestimates the realized torque by 50 – 500%, even with assumed shear strength reductions of 50% due to disturbance and conditioning. The shear strength reduction required to fit the model with measured torque were 65-70% reduction for sand and 80-85% for silt and clay.

A socio-spatial study done with an aim to study how a metro station in Delhi has the potential to transform itself into a destination from just being a mode of transit. The study was done by studying three metro stations (Rajiv Chowk, Kashmere Gate and Nehru Place) and identifying the common elements that makes all of them a place to go to.

This article deals with mobile semiotics. First and foremost, it discusses mobility as a semiotic device. The analysis engages with backjumps, a genre of train graffiti that draws inventively on various forms of movement. The term backjump refers to any fairly elaborate graffiti piece painted on trains in traffic, notably during the trains' extended stops at terminal stations. The examples focus on the Stockholm metro, where a rigorous anti-graffiti policy has been firmly in place: graffiti is quickly cleaned off trains and a range of strategies is implemented to keep graffiti writing under wraps. By slyly inserting graffiti into the metro system, the mobility-driven backjump practice allows graffiti writers to temporarily subvert this semiotic regime. Furthermore, the forms of semiotic mobility at play are not limited to the movement of the trains. As the present study shows, mobile backjumps are entangled in other patterns of mobility, which jointly underwrite a number of interlinked semiotic processes.

El trabajo presenta una breve etnografía sobre la manera en que las y los vendedores que integran el comercio popular en el Metro de la Ciudad de México se adaptaron a la contingencia sanitaria decretada ante el COVID-19. Tal adaptación se observa en dos sentidos, por un lado, respecto de la política de “cero-tolerancia al comercio popular en el Metro” y, por el otro, con la transición hacia nuevas actividades y la incorporación de nuevas mercancías en un contexto de decremento del flujo de pasajeros y pasajeras en el Metro. Se cierra con una reflexión en torno a las medidas post-pandemia que el Gobierno de la Ciudad de México podría implementar con el propósito de acelerar y fortalecer la política de bienestar en atención a las poblaciones populares.

Abstract: The research proposes to analyze the Principal-Agent problem, for 3 emblematic concession contracts on transport (Metropolitano, Lima Metro and Kuélap Cableway) specifically in the area of revenue collection, first reviewing the scope in terms of rights and duties of both parties (Grantor and Concessionaire) regarding the management, access and revision of data and information and subsequently to evaluate if, according to these scope, the Principal-Agent problem has an effective solution that is not necessarily the arbitration.

This study analyzes and determines the modulus of deformation and the dependence of the modulus of deformation on the stress state of Ho Chi Minh City’s soft soil. Parameters were determined as stiffness parameters: E50 and Eur in Hardening Soil model. Tri-axial compression
testing was performed for very soft clay at depths of 4-6 m and 12-14 m, soft clay in the range of 18-20 m and 24-26 m according to drainage conditions with unloading and reloading.

Ulaşım ilk çağlardan itibaren, bireylerin mekân keşfetme, sınırlarını bilme, yer değiştirme ve taşıma gibi birçok ihtiyaçlarını karşılamaktadır. Toplumların yaşam şekilleri, bulundukları coğrafyalar ve içinde bulundukları durumlar, ulaşımın çeşitli alanlarda geliştirilmesine olanak sağlamıştır. Günümüzde birçok çeşidi bulunan ulaşım sistemleri, bir kültür haline gelmiştir. Kalabalık şehirlerde ortaya çıkan trafik ve altyapı sorunları, bireylerin günlük hayatını olumsuz etkilemektedir. Buna çözüm olarak geliştirilen raylı ulaşım sistemleri ve metrolar, şehir içi ulaşımı için güvenilir, hızlı ve konforlu bir alternatif olmaktadır. Metro sistemleri, birçok disiplin bir araya getirilerek ve ileri teknoloji kullanılarak inşa edilmektedir. Bireylerin şehir içi ulaşım sistemleri içerisinde sıklıkla tercih ettiği metro sistemleri, metro yapıları içerisinde konumlandırılacak müzelerde birçok disipline ait detaylı bilgiler ve çeşitli sergileme teknikleri ile anlatılabilecektir.
Günümüzde tarih, bilim ve sanat alanında birçok müzeler bulunmaktadır. Koleksiyonlarına, sergi alanlarına ve bağlı bulundukları kurum ve kuruluşlara göre çeşitlere ayrılan müzeler, toplumdaki kültür faaliyetlerinin vazgeçilmez bir parçasıdır. Müze çeşitleri, genel müzeler, arkeoloji müzeleri, doğa tarihi müzeleri, jeoloji müzeleri gibi belirli isimler altında tanımlanabilmektedir. Bazı müzeler, birkaç müze ile aynı ortak özelliklere sahip olarak, bu müze türlerinin kesişiminde yer alabilmektedir. Metro müzeleri, birkaç müze türünün öne çıkan özelliklerini ve sergileme tekniklerini kullanabilmektedir. Bu tezin konusu, müze kavramının günümüz metro müzeleri kapsamında incelenmesi ve örneklerinin değerlendirilmesidir.
Yedi bölümden oluşan tezin ilk bölümünde; tezin amacı, literatür taraması ve hipotezi belirlenmiş ve tez konusu ile ilgili genel bilgilere yer verilmiştir.
İkinci bölümde; eğitim ve bilişsel gelişim konuları ele alınarak, eğitim ve müze kavramı üzerinde durulmuştur. Bu bölümde, müze kavramının Türkiye ve dünyadaki gelişim süreçleri de değerlendirilmiştir.
Üçüncü bölümde; şehir içi ulaşım sistemleri ve tarihsel gelişimi, toplu taşıma kültürü ve raylı sistemler hakkında bilgiler verilmiştir. Metro sistemlerinin tarihçesi ve şehir içi ulaşım sistemleri içerisindeki yeri değerlendirilmiştir.
Dördüncü bölümde; metro sistemleri ve mekân özelliklerine değinilmiştir. Metro sistemlerini oluşturan hat, istasyon yapıları ve istasyon mekanlarının her birinin mekânsal özellikleri ve yapım yöntemleri ile ilgili bilgilere yer verilmiştir.
Beşinci bölümde; genel olarak müze türlerinden bahsedildikten sonra, metro müzelerinin gelişim süreci, mimarisi, mekanları, işlevleri ve müzeyi oluşturabilecek unsurların tamamına değinilmiştir. Metro müzesi mekanlarının sirkülasyon ilişkileri ve malzeme seçimleri değerlendirilmiştir.
Altıncı bölümde; dünyada az sayıda örneği bulunan metro müzeleri, popülerlik durumlarına bağlı olarak filtrelenmiş ve değerlendirmeye alınacak beş metro müzesi belirlenmiştir. Belirlenen metro müzeleri, biçim, işlev, yapı ve anlam bakımından ele alınarak değerlendirilmiştir.
Tezin son bölümü olan yedinci bölümde; incelenen konular ve mekanlar ile ilgili sonuç ve değerlendirmeler anlatılmıştır.

Citation: Martin Aranguren, Stéphane Tonnelat. 2013. Les visages du métro (la force des émotions faibles). Contacts physiques, transactions émotionnelles et densité de voyageurs dans le métro de Paris. Rapport prospectifs de la RATP, numéro 170, 200 p.

and conclusions __________________________________________________ 135 6. The launch of the metro project -"backlash" 1991-1993___________________ 139 Disability issues in the early 1990s: gains, institutionalization and expectations ________ 140

There are many architectural design parameters for public transport stations which include urban
and station level studies. Each station must be designed in accordance with the basic passenger
requirements such as accessibility, safety, comfort, satisfaction and etc. Circulation spaces must be
formed and sized to meet the minimum movement needs of passengers. For an underground
station; main entrance region, position of gates, location and number of turnstiles, escalators,
stairs, ramps, passageways, intermediate concourses and platforms must be arranged to minimize
walking distances and to prevent congestion. In this study, circulation of passengers is simulated
in a quantitatively verifiable manner, taking into account how individuals interact with each other
and with the physical obstacles in their environment in a metro station. Virtual experiments are
performed to see the continuity and density of pedestrian flow at different levels of Haram Area
East Metro Station of the first metro line of Madinah Al-Munawwarah, Saudi Arabia. According
to the predictions, more than 40.000 passengers are expected to use this station in one hour after a
Friday prayer during Ramadan period in the year of 2040. That means a critically high travel
demand and it is really significant to design the most convenient underground station for these
passengers to fulfil the necessary requirements.

The growing appearance of performance measurement systems reveals the companies pursuit for efficiency in their key activities. However, most of the measured indicators focus on cost and productivity aspects, without prioritizing the customer requirements fulfillment, what makes difficult the processes continuous improvement based on lean production philosophy. The study objective is to evaluate the application of lean concepts and principles in performance measurement system. The research method involved the practices definition that are associated with concepts and principles in three adoption degrees and a case study to evaluate these practices in the subway system operation. The obtained results showed that the performance measurement system analyzed adopts, for the most part, partially the lean philosophy, highlighting several fields for improvement achievement and recommendations proposition to the system.

This article discusses mobility as a semiotic device. Drawing mainly on examples from Stockholm, it analyses backjumps, a genre of train graffiti that inventively makes use of various forms of movement. The social, spatial existence of backjumps is underlined by mobility, from the moment they are created on temporary stationary trains until the point they are removed as part of regimented semiotic ordering of public space. As backjumps move through the metro system, their appearances and disappearances rework the visual composition of a number of interlinked spaces, briefly succeeding in transgressing the semiotic regimentation of public space. For properly grasping these semiotic transformations, mobility needs to be placed at the forefront of inquiry. Building on lines of thought from human geography and spatially interested sociolinguistics, the analysis demonstrates that a sensitization to the workings of mobility is apt for creating a more fine-grained understanding of the interplay between space and semiotic practice. In this vein, it seeks to introduce further nuance to a sociolinguistics that has focused extensively on the notion of landscape.

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The proposal of the pedestrian subway system in V.R.S.E.C across the extending canal road thorough the project site. Survey is done for measurements of land primarily. Then a plan is prepared for the selected site considering two entry zones on each side of the passing zone. Design is done manually for various components considering the code provisions of IRC: 6-2000, IS: 456-2000. Estimate is made to know the cost of the project. Here the subway is normally an underpass for pedestrians or cyclists beneath a road or a railway line allowing them to reach the other side safely. So, the estimation of the project is done in detail.