Flintlock Firearms

Все права защищены Выпуск 5 (151) Том 16-Историческое прошлое стран постсоветского пространства в историографии и исторической памяти. 2025 Выпуск 5 (151) Том 16-Историческое прошлое стран постсоветского пространства в историографии и исторической памяти-2025

Перспективы и направления развития малокалиберной артиллерии на основе анализа борьбы с морскими безэкипажными катерами и беспилотными летательными аппаратами в 2024-2025 на Черноморском театре военных действий.
Prospects and directions for the development of small-caliber artillery based on the analysis of the fight against sea crewless boats and unmanned aerial vehicles in 2024-2025 at the Black Sea Theater of Operations.

The article is devoted to the life and work of the Russian amber restorer Alexander Zhuravlev. He was at the origin of the work on the reconstruction of the amber room. Amber products from the collection of the State Hermitage Museum and the Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin were brought back to life by his hands.

Основываясь на обобщении сведений из широкого круга летописных и актовых источников, автор статьи рассматривает состав, организацию, численность, комплектование, вооружение, обеспечение и участие в походах воинских формирований северных территорий Русского государства вт. пол. XVI – нач. XVII вв.

Grenades (typically hand thrown fragmentation bombs) can be found in the shipwreck archaeological assemblages of both VOC (the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie or Dutch East India Company) ships and non-VOC ships from the age of sail during the 17th & 18th century. Grenade construction during this period of study is examined utilising various contemporary Seaman's Dictionary definitions. The range of hand thrown grenades is identified from historical sources/references and experimental archaeological research, with this range significantly increased through use of a grenade launcher. Grenade launchers from the 17th and 18th century are identified and discussed, completing with a comparative analysis between these grenade launchers and more modern 20th century versions. Experimental archaeological research examining the physical effects and potential wounding effects of a period appropriate grenade is discussed, as is the possibility of concussive effects (mTBI - Minor Traumatic Brain Injury) and psychological effects (Combat Stress and PTSD). Grenades can been found in the shipwreck archaeological assemblages of the VOC ships of the Batavia (1629), the Avondster (1659), the Hollandia (1743) and the Princess Maria (1686) and in the non-VOC naval shipwreck archaeological assemblages of ships such as the British Royal Navy's HMS Association (1707) and the French Navy's Machault (1760) as well as North American Atlantic coast shipwrecks of the Spanish Cabin (1715), San Jose (1733) and San Rafael (1733). A comparative analysis was performed using characteristics such as size (type) and weight between the VOC shipwreck grenades and the non-VOC shipwreck grenades, period comparable museum replica grenades and contemporary Seaman's Dictionary grenade details where appropriate. This study enabled six conclusions to be discerned regarding VOC shipwreck grenades. Firstly, they cannot really be attributed to cargo being atypical of VOC cargo and so can be attributed to the grenade complement issued to a VOC ship, that recovered 17th century VOC naval/navy grenades match the grenade types (dimensions and weight) seen in other nationality later navies and shipwrecks (supporting the assertion (Gilkerson 1993) that little changed in the physical form of the cast iron naval grenade during the golden age of sail in the 17th & 18th centuries, that there is a high degree of VOC naval grenade dimensional standardisation throughout the 17th century (e.g. the very near match between the 83.5 mm Batavia (1629) grenades and the 82mm Princess Maria (1686) grenades) which extends into the 18th century (e.g. the exact match between the 71 mm Princess Maria (1686) grenade and the 71 mm Hollandia (1743) grenade), that VOC naval grenades for the 3 inch (76.2 mm) diameter type have a real-world diametric range of 71mm-83.5mm, that 18th century VOC naval grenades (from the 1743 shipwrecked Hollandia) match a contemporary sea gunner's companion grenade size guide (Mountaine 1747), that there is a positive correlation in the VOC navy between the size of a ship and its number of guns with the grenade complement issued (the 18-gun 260-ton Vergulde Draeck (1656) being issued with 20 grenades and the 30-gun 600-ton Batavia (1629) being issued with 130 grenades) and the caveat that VOC naval/navy grenades recovered from VOC shipwrecks could be part of the combat equipment of the 33% of VOC army soldiers aboard a VOC ship on its outward bound voyage who were destined for overseas service. This study also contains critical evaluative elements regarding the grenade chapter within Gilkerson's seminal firearms and combustibles in the age of fighting sail book 'Boarders Away! Volume II'.

В статье реконструированы биографии трех штаб-офицеров Шувалова полка Выборгского гарнизона: И.И. Хотяинцева, А.Ф. Осеина и М.Т. Замыцкого. Они происходили из столичного дворянства и начали военную службу в первые годы Северной войны (1700–1721). Их биографии отразили перипетии становления русской регулярной армии. На протяжении 1700-х годов офицеры приняли участие в нескольких больших походах в Эстляндии и Лифляндии, приобрели опыт службы в гарнизонах Дерпта, Нарвы и Пскова, а также действовали в составе диверсионных отрядов на вражеской территории. Каждого из них несколько раз переводили из одной воинской части в другую. Объединяет биографии И.И. Хотяинцева, А.Ф. Осеина и М.Т. Замыцкого назначение на службу в полк полковника Ю.Ю. Шкота (позднее полк И.М. Шувалова). После 1710 г. данная воинская часть вошла в Выборгский гарнизон. Со службой в Старой Финляндии связан заключительный этап в карьерах офицеров. История службы офицеров в Выборге восстановлена по неопубликованным документам из архивов центральных и местных учреждений.

The article reconstructed the biographies of the three staff-officers of the Shuvalov’ regiment from the Vyborg garrison: I. Khotyaintsev, A. Osein and M. Zamytsky. They originated from noble families of Moscow and started military service in the early stage of the Great Northern War (1700–1721). Their biographies reflected the vicissitudes of the formation of the Russian regular army. Throughout the 1700s officers took part in several large campaigns in Estland and Livland, gained experience in service in structures of Derpt, Narva and Pskov garrisons, and also acted in groups with scouting and disrupting missions. Moreover, the history of each of them includes several transfers from one military unit to another. The biographies of I. Khotyaintsev, A. Osein and M. Zamytsky is united to each other by appointment to the service in the regiment of Colonel Yu. Shkot (later regiment of I. Shuvalov). Since 1710, this military unit entered in the structure of the Vyborg garrison. In this way the final stage in the career of the officers is connected with the service in Old Finland. In the article, the history of the service of officers in Vyborg was revealed on the basis of a study of unpublished documents from the archives of central and local institutions.

The article continues the authors’ study series of a group of long-edged weapons from the collection of the State Hermitage Museum, which
decorative schemes include Christian images.
The article deals with a saber ornamented with an image of St. George. The
saber entered the Imperial Hermitage Museum in 1885 -1886 as a part of the Arsenal of Tsarskoye Selo collection. The saber used to belong to the Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovitch, who bought it in the city of Brailov (nowadays Brail city in Romania) during the Russo-Turkish war of 1828-1829.
The saber blade was made of high-quality crucible steel and represents the
type of Ottoman kilij , dating back to the middle of the 18th century. This dating is supported by the ornamentation of the blade. The further analysis of the saber brought the authors to the conclusion that some of its elements, inscriptions, and figures were made in different periods and, probably, in different regions.
On the one side of the blade an Arabic inscription “There is no hero like
Ali. There is no sword like Zhu l Fakar” was inlayed. The technique the inscription was worked in differs from the decorations of the opposite side of the blade testifies that these decorative schemes have been made in various time spans.
The manner the image of “St George the Dragonslayer” was executed in
and the latinized variant of the inscription also point out that these elements were added later on demand of a new owner of the saber. The scene of St. George’s slaying the dragon, most probably, was inspired not only by the Christian church tradition of this Saint veneration but the folk ballads, legends, and fairy tales about George the hero, which were very popular in the Balkans, especially in Romania.
All these data and the provenance of the saber from the Romania fortress
of Brailov suggest that this very region was the place where the image of St. George was executed.

Талантов С. В. «… Муртаза-Али Оглы». (О происхождении Чиллы и Магомада Муртазалиевых). "… Murtaza-Ali Ogly". (Concerning the origin of Chilla and Magomad Murtazalievs). Талантов Сергей Вадимович -независимый исследователь, область интересов: историческое оружие XVII -ХХ вв. (Москва, Россия). Sergey V. Talantovprivate researcher in the field of the Historical weapons of the 17th -20th centuries (Moscow, Russia).

Статья / Article Талантов С.В. О заказах оружия тульского производства для чинов Кавказского линейного казачьего войска в 1840-х гг. // Историческое оружиеведение. -2024. -№ 14. -С. 78 -139. Talantov S.V. (2024). O zakazah oruzhija tul'skogo proizvodstva dlja chinov Kavkazskogo linejnogo kazach'ego vojska v 1840-h gg. [Concerning orders of arms of Tula production for the Caucasian Line Cossack Host ranks in the 1840's].

The shipwreck archaeological assemblages of VOC (Dutch East India Company) ships encompass a panoply of items of firearms paraphernalia. VOC shipwrecks (in chronological order) such as the Batavia (1629), the Vergulde Draeck (1656), the Avondster (1659), the Kennemerland (1664), the Zuytdorp (1712), the Zeewijk (1727), the 't Vliegend Hart/'t Vliegent Hart (The Flying Deer) (1735),  the Rooswijk (1740), the Hollandia (1743) and the Amsterdam (1749) yield leather and metal cartridge cases for musket paper cartridges, spherical lead ammunition moulds, decorated wadding patch boxes, ram rod fragments, a musket brass priming pin pricker, a powder horn decorated metal collar, Constable's (Master Gunner) or Scheepscorporaal's (Gunners Assistant) toolboxes/chests, pistol paper cartridge mandrels and raw ammunition metal (lead). A modern analysis utilising a 21st century and specialist firearms knowledge base has elucidated new fresh information/details regarding the majority of the items. Finally, the items of firearms paraphernalia are presented as evidence which indicate the following assertions. Firstly, some of the items of firearms paraphernalia indicate a self-sufficiency to the military function of a VOC ship (the military function being the third of six functions in Gawronski's (2014) functional model of a VOC ship). By having the raw metal to create spherical lead ammunition for firearms, by having the moulds for casting this spherical lead ammunition and by having mandrels for rolling paper cartridges (along with the evidence of shipboard firearms manufacture), all indicates a self-sufficiency to the military function of a VOC ship. Secondly, the plethora of supporting firearms equipment discovered indicates that the VOC tried to maximise the combat effectiveness of the ship by providing all necessary supporting firearms paraphernalia. Finally, it can be concluded from the firearms paraphernalia discovered, that the VOC realised an initial financial outlay to provide supporting firearms paraphernalia would ultimately maximise their chances of successful voyages and the consequent high economic gains. The VOC were following the idiom of the Roman playwright Titus Maccius Plautus 254-184 BC 'you need to spend money to make money'.

The aim of this study was to determine the calibre and consequently allocate weapon type to a subset of spherical lead ammunition recovered from the 1727 shipwreck of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) ship the ‘Zeewijk’. By utilising archival evidence and historical references regarding the calibre of firearms aboard a VOC ship in the early 18th century in conjunction with corrosion rates of spherical lead ammunition in different marine and land environments, it was possible to evidentially determine the original calibre of the spherical lead ammunition and allocate weapon type. It was possible to prove the 17-bore 0.67 inch 17 mm spherical lead ammunition recovered from the Zeewijk was in fact 16-bore 0.68 inch 17.3 mm musket ammunition which had experienced corrosion through its environment. A large calibre blunderbuss could also have fired such ammunition or the ammunition may have been destined for firing from ordnance such as a cannon when as a component of case/canister/hail shot.

Гагик Погосян-Хахбакян. Рецензия на книгу А. M. Айвазяна «Героическая оборона Еревана (24 июня – 23 сентября 1724 года)». – «Общественный институт политических и социальных исследований Черноморско-Каспийского региона». Ереван. 2024. 188 С., 1 вкладыш; ISBN 978-9939-9051-0-5

There is underwater archaeological evidence and historical archive evidence that the VOC used specialist naval ammunition in the form of wire-linked shot in the 17th century. Underwater archaeological evidence has also revealed that the VOC used specialist naval ammunition in the form of wire-linked shot in the 18th century. Underwater archaeological evidence has also revealed that brass and copper wire were both used in the 17th century in the creation of VOC wire-linked shot  and that bronze wire (copper alloy: bronze-like) was used in the 18th century in the creation of VOC wire-linked shot. We can also determine from the shipwreck evidence that the VOC used in both the 17th and 18th centuries Type 1 Expanding wire-linked shot according to Peterson’s classification system with 2 balls connected to each other by a coil (spring) of wire – the VOC utilising the idiom ‘If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it’ regarding design – but with various wire compositions (copper, brass or bronze). The VOC shipwreck evidence of copper wire use in the formation of wire-linked shot (which may have been brass originally, a copper alloy, which has experienced dezincification: the copper caveat) and of brass and bronze wire use in the formation of wire-linked shot (both copper alloys) suggests a possible update to Peterson’s (1966) classification system. The Gold (2023) classification system would comprise Peterson’s (1966) four classes but with the supplication of ‘brass wire’ in each class with ‘copper alloy wire’.

Cà Lotrago is an unusual semi-flat area located on the eastern ridge of the Valpantena where the colluvial sediments from the overlying Monte Gazzo relief may have redeposited a significant thickness of clayey sediments; this potential stratigraphy was suggested, until a few decades ago, by the presence of a seasonal pool.
The site was reported (in 1959) for the presence of a lithic industry, made of  non-vitreous Eocene flint outcropping locally: this series of heavily patinated lithic artefacts was typologically interpreted as “archaic” facies of the Lower Paleolithic, characterized by large “clactonian-like” flakes and a pair of amygdaloid bifaces.
A degree thesis (Univ. Ferrara, 1974) was discussed on this series of artefacts, confirming their archaic attribution. Another other relevant aspect is that several thousand lithic artefacts were surface were collected on top (and along the slopes) of the nearby Monte Gazzo: a relevant paper attributed (in 1980) these artefacts to at least two phases of the Middle Paleolithic, despite the presence of a small number of very patinated core-tools.
Our paper reports a new discovery, in Cà Lotrago area, of an amygdaloid, made of Eocene flint, which surfaces are intensely and deeply altered: its techno-morphological analysis suggests a level of archaism comparable to the most ancient Acheulean industries both in Italy (e.g. Notarchirico, level F, dated to 658 ± 6 ka BP) and in Europe (e.g. “Unit A” of the French site of “La Noira”, dated 665±55 ka BP).
In terms of techno-typological comparison, the couple of Acheulean bifaces found in the Veronese site of Lughezzano (1980), which have been geo-stratigraphically related with the alpine Mindel-Riss (1) corresponding to the Hoxnian interglacial, MIS 11, 424 - 374 ka BP), seem to have more elaborate symmetry and retouching, therefore evolutionarily more recent.

(1) corresponding to the Hoxnian interglacial, MIS 11, 424 - 374 ka BP.

For many years, historical arms literature has interpreted American markings observedon some 18th-century muskets, particularly of French manufacture, as attesting to purchase by the Continental Congress and, most importantly, as verifying wartimeissuance to and usage by the Continental Army. The variety of such stamped markingmost frequently seen on surviving muskets is a “US” monogram typically found on thetail of the lockplate and/or atop the barrel breech, in an upright, sideways or eveninverted position.The second, and notably earlier, category of markings, seen on far fewer survivingweapons, includes the stamping or “branding”  of “UNITED:STATES” or, more often, “U.STATES” into the musket stock. Stamped into the wood by a heated marking iron,the full two-word brand is typically positioned either in two lines on the face of the buttstock or in one line behind the trigger guard, while the abbreviated mark is seen in rear orin front of the trigger guard or, less often, on the face of the butt stock.Recently published documentation has notably advanced the interpretation of these two categories of markings and, in particular, has clarified our understanding of their validity and reliability as evidence of Continental Army usage of a given musket and, thereby, a ong arm class and model.

В центре внимания автора лежит один из секретов непобедимости русского полководца А.В. Суворова — его особая система воспитания и обучения войск. Суворовская система вырабатывалась на протяжении нескольких десятилетий, основное содержание которой рассмотрено в настоящей работе. Военная система А.В. Суворова основывалась на патриотизме, внимании к личности солдата, инициативности и практике. Ее успех подчеркивает талант А.В. Суворова как военного психолога и педагога.

There are similarities in the basic design between da Vinci’s shipboard Hailshot cannon and the Mary Rose Hailshot ordnance: the rectangular nature of da Vinci’s shipboard Hailshot gun mirrors the rectangular nature of the Mary Rose Hailshot pieces. We can thus see Leonardo da Vinci’s concept of cannon fired Hailshot from a ship came to practical fruition within decades of his folio illustration in the form of the Mary Rose Hailshot ordnance.

This old article of mine, which deals with late-prehistoric igniters in north-eastern Italy, aims to highlight how, even at the end of the 20th century, the study of these peculiar types of siliceous igniters was still semi-forgotten compared to some European research already underway between 1872 and 1907.
Questo mio vecchio articolo, che tratta degli accenditori tardo-preistorici nell'Italia nord-orientale, si propone di evidenziare come, ancora alla fine del XX secolo, lo studio di questi particolari tipi di accenditori silicei fosse semi-dimenticato rispetto alcune ricerche europee iniziate già avviate fra il 1872 e il 1907.

This module presents a real-world context in which mathematics skills are used as part of a daily routine. The context is the industrial and engineering technology area, and the module aims to help students see the significance of mathematics skills in performing daily tasks. Materials in the module, most of which are designed for the teacher to duplicate and distribute to students, include the following: (1) information on careers in engineering technology; (2) a task to be performed and information sheets necessary to complete the task; (3) questions to be completed by the students; (4) answer keys to the questions; and (5) a handout and teacher's answer key. (KC)

This live-fire experiment was conducted to determine if we could replicate spherical ball-damaged objects surviving from April 19, 1775, the first day of the American Revolution. The standing structures damaged by gun fire on April 19 now exist amidst a modern built and modified landscape. However, those buildings and places still remain and anchor us to that past by their very existence. These places, Elisha Jones’ shed, Munroe Tavern, Buckman Tavern, Marrett Munroe house, Jason Russell house, and other preserved artifacts have become “hallowed” because they either still stand or exist in collections.

This report details and revises the results of live fire study of American Revolution era shoulder fired weapons. The shooting recovered the fired bullets, and the effects of impact are documented and discussed. The study also used ballistic gelatin tissue simulant and the results of bullets entering and passing through the gelatin are discussed in detail.

В статье предпринята попытка изучить и проанализировать частные заказы кинжальных и шашечных клинков Кубанского казачьего войска за период 1888-1904 гг. Под определением «частные заказы» подразумеваются заказы, сделанные не Войсковым штабом Кубанского казачьего войска и Главным Артиллерийским Управлением, а командованием полков, атаманами отделов и станиц, и частными лицами — казаками и офицерами ККВ, а также владельцами ювелирных мастерских и магазинов по продаже обмундирования и снаряжения для казаков. Временные границы исследования обусловлены тем, что именно в этот период в силу причин, упомянутых в статье, практика указанных частных заказов получила максимальное распространение.

В статье рассмотрена малоизученная западногрузинская традиция ювелирного искусства филиграни на основе примеров украшения оружия в этой технике, а также краткое описание ранее неопубликованных сведений о жизненном и творческом пути златокузнеца Филиппа «Филу» Дзадзамидзе, чьи авторские работы широко представлены в музеях и частных коллекциях.
The article examines a little-explored aspect of the Western Georgian tradition of filigree based on examples of arms decoration in this technique. It also briefly describes previously uncovered life and creative path of the goldsmith Philippe “Philu” Dzadzamidze whose original works are widely represented in museums and private collections.

Identity formation is a central issue in colonial and post-colonial studies. The ways in which people defined and expressed their identities along multiple dimensions have material implications that are archaeologically accessible. For social archaeologists, material variation is actively constituted and the archaeological record is the residue of a system of signs that individuals used in the construction of class, status, gender, race, and ethnic relations. In the context of French and Native interactions, social identities were fluid, situational, and malleable. The interactions engendered by the fur trade and colonialism in New France had material consequences for identity formation that are being investigated at Fort St. Joseph, an 18th-century frontier outpost in the western Great Lakes.

Неопубликованный доклад на Багратионовских чтениях в Бородинском музее-заповеднике в октябре 2023 г.

В докладе приводятся новые архивные материалы, связанные с участием лейб-гвардии Преображенского полка в праздновании 100-летия Отечественной войны 1812 года. Они посвящены, во-первых, неосуществлённым планам установки на Бородинском поле полкового монумента, во-вторых, реставрации могилы погребённого в Можайске офицера полка П. Ф. Шапошникова, погибшего в Бородинском сражении. Благодаря новым данным был восстановлен ранее утраченный текст эпитафии на его надгробии, расширивший, в свою очередь, представления о биографии данного офицера и его вкладе в русскую литературу.

Abstract
Survey and excavation (1996-1998), directed by J.N. Woodall (Wake Forest University), in the Monti Lessini revealed numerous small-scale gunflint production workshops. The location of these historical sites is related to the local geology and to land-use practices of the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries, as well as regional demographics and political events. The recovered artifacts indicate a distinctive type of debitage was produced which allows discrimination of gunflint refuse from prehistoric materials. On many of the sites the vitreous flint used is macroscopically identical to French gunflint material commonly identified in historic sites. Both introduction and translation of this paper were edited by Giorgio Chelidonio.

Der fruheste italienische Hinweis auf ein Radschloss an einer Arkebuse stammt aus einem Dokument aus dem Jahr 1547, in dem ebenfalls ein Gewehr mit einem Steinschloss erwahnt wird. Moglicherweise wird es sich um ein fruhes Schnapphahnschloss gehandelt haben. Bei den in diesen fruhesten Musketen – mit Ausnahme des Radschlosses – verwendeten Flintensteinen durfte es sich um vom Schutzen nach Bedarf selbst gefertigte Exemplare gehandelt haben. Anscheinend war die Infanterie der Republik Venedig die erste militarische Einheit, die mit Steinschlossmusketen ausgestattet wurde, und zwar erst gegen Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts. Dies war der Ausloser zur Entwicklung einer standardisierten Flintensteinindustrie im Lessinischen Gebirge (im Hinterland von Verona; Abb. 1) mit den grosten Feuerstein-/Hornsteinvorkommen Norditaliens. Allerdings wurde Verona am Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts von franzosischen Truppen besetzt, und die Hersteller von Flintensteinen aus den zentralfranzosischen Manufakturen b...

Работа посвящена исследованию динамических процессов при осуществлении стрельбы из малокалиберных автоматических пушек, которыми оснащаются боевые модули современных боевых легкобронированных машин. Разработаны математические и параметрические компьютерные модели изучаемых объектов с тестовыми параметрами. Проведены исследования влияния различных факторов на характеристики колебательных процессов. Установлены характерные особенности динамических процессов и их влияние на рассеяние снарядов при стрельбе. Созданные модели, методы и средства моделирования пригодны для обоснования проектных решений при проектировании и модернизации отечественных легкобронированных машин. Определены особенности изменения собственных частот и форм колебаний при варьировании жесткости бронекорпуса, подвески и боевого модуля. Выявлено, что для адекватного моделирования динамических процессов и оценки точности стрельбы необходимо исследовать полную модель, которая включает податливые деформируемые элементы: бронекорпус, подвеску и боевой модуль.

In the Monti Lessini’s area the gunflints craftsmanship has been documented since at least the mid-18th century, by a "carta de dòta" (dowry contract) which specifies their function: "Folénde da sbaràr" (flintlock gunflints). But the oldest document that mentions the local name for flint stones (folènde, used exclusively in the Lessini Mountains) is a notarial deed from 1582: a field located in central Lessinia was mentioned as “alli folendàri” (the place of flintknappers or, may be, a main flint outcrop). Since the use of flintlocks for firearms became widespread after the first decades of the 17th century (the "modern flintlock" was invented by a French gunsmith in 1610), it seems possible to deduce that the above mentioned toponym was referred to a family of craftsmen dedicated to the production of flints for strike-a-light use.  The Lessini’ gunflints production reached its productive peak during the Napoleonic wars, at the end of which a document from 1817 records the existence of 500 artisans. Subsequently, the decline of their activities was progressive, but, despite the invention (from 1835) of new ignition mechanisms (the so called “cuplock mechanism”), it lasted until the end of the 19th century. Hundreds of traces of their workshop places have already been detected, with maximum concentrations in the territories of Cerro Veronese and Castagnè/Mezzane. This reveals itself to be a true "gunflints landscape", partly surviving in caves, rock shelters, along ancient trails and even on the edges of mountain pools.
We propose its valorization by activating, in the form of an ecomuseum, a visitor center from which environmental itineraries can be unraveled to make one perceive the complexity of the historical use of gunflints territory.

Arbets-och metodbeskrivning Metod Kontextuell metod Undersökningen genomfördes med en modifierad kontextuell metod. Metoden innebär att samtliga stratigrafiska enheter undersöks och dokumenteras separat och på ett likvärdigt sätt i enlighet med den stratigrafiska sekvensen. Med kontext menas en stratigrafisk enhet som utgör ett eget tidsmässigt tolkat sammanhang. Kontexterna är de minsta registrerbara spåren efter händelser, aktiviteter eller skeenden vilka går att relatera till andra kontexter i termer av relativ tid. Metoden har tillämpats med framgång inom Riksantikvarieämbetets undersökningar under senare år, bland annat i kv Dalkarlen i Norrköping, kv Ansvaret i Jönköping, kv Bokbindaren i Linköping samt i de senaste årens undersökningar på Kvarnholmen (för en presentation av metoden se Larsson 2000; Tagesson 2003). Metodens grundtanke tillämpas i samtliga undersökningar, men det praktiska genomförandet har modifierats något för att passa lämningarna inom kv Gesällen. Det är viktigt att framhålla att vi har tillämpat samma metod som i kv Ansvaret i Jönköping, kv Magistern i Kalmar och kv Bokbindaren, Linköping, vilket möjliggör en jämförelse med dessa material. I den kontextuella undersöknkingsmetodiken är begreppet kontext centralt. Det syftar på den minsta stratigrafiska enhet som kan identifieras, I samband med kulturlämningens dekonstruktion urskiljer vi olika typer av kontexter, det kan röra sig om nedgrävningar, konstruktioner eller lager. Bland dessa urskiljer vi ett antal olika undertyper, varianter. I bilaga 1 görs en mer detaljerad beskrivning av vilka typer och varianter som förekommer i undersökningen. För kulturlagren finns vidare ett antal varianter. Vi tillämpar även en särskild metodik där kulturlagrens tillkomstsätt tolkas i fält, som primär-, sekundär-eller tertiärdeponerade. Vi gör även en tolkning i fält av kulturlagrets funktion genom en särskild kulturlagertypologi (för en närmare beskrivning, se Tagesson 2003). Den kontextuella metoden medför att samtliga kontexter i princip tillmäts likvärdigt källvärde, något som i sin tur omfattar en flexibel undersökningsmetodik, där graden av intensitet görs på ett medvetet sätt, med hänsyn till kontextens källvärde. I klartext betyder detta i vanliga fall att konstruktioner och primär-och sekundärdeponerade kulturlager ("avsatta" kulturlager) i huvudsak undersöks och dokumenteras fullt ut, genom fingrävning för hand och där allt fyndmaterial tas tillvara. För tertiärdeponerade ("påförda") kulturlager gäller att de undersöks genom att kulturlagren rensas fram i plan, dokumenteras och undersöks partiellt genom provrutor (s k sampling). Det är således den aktiva och medvetna tolkningen av kulturlagrens tillkomstsätt som avgör undersökningsmetodiken. För en mer detaljerad beskrivning av undersökningsmetodiken hänvisas till bilaga 1, inledning. Undersökningsmetodik och arbetsorganisation Vid undersökningen i kv Gesällen prövades en organisation som omfattade en tydlig ansvarsfördelning enligt HUKI-modell. Detta innebär att olika medarbetares ansvar tydliggörs i grafisk form, där det anges vilka som är huvudansvarig, utförare, konsulteras respektive informeras. Projektledare Göran Tagesson ansvarade för den övergripande arbetsplaner ingen, ekonomi samt dokumentation och tolkning av fornlämningen. Biträdande projektledare Annika Konsmar hade framför allt ansvar för etablering och logistik, inklusive arbetet med miljöfarliga massor och arbetsmiljö. Arkeolog Elisabet Schager ansvarade för fortlöpande registrering i Intrasis, liksom överföring av foton. Arkeolog Annika Jeppsson ansvarade för fyndregistrering i fält. Arkeologerna Emelie Sunding och Jimmy Karlqvist ansvarade för det pedagogiska arbetet, se under rubriken "Kommunikation och förmedling". Fas 286S:5. Brukning Fasen omfattar en första brukningsnivå, brukning KG391 och KG374 av hus KG372. Fas 286S:6. Ombyggnation Fasen omfattar en ombyggnation KG375 av husets norra rum. Fas 286S:7. Destruktion Fasen består av utjämning KG376 vilken representerar en destruktion av husets norra del KG372. Fas 286S:8. Ombyggnation Fasen består av ytterligare en ombyggnation KG347 av husets norra rum. Fas 286S:9. Ombyggnation, 1720-30-talet Fasen omfattar ytterligare ett par ombyggnationer KG348 och KG392 av husets norra respektive södra rum. Tre myntfynd i konstruktionslager antyder en datering av konstruktionen till 1720-30-talet. Fas 286S:10. Destruktion, efter 1800 (=fas 286N:2) Fasen omfattar en utjämning KG371 över delar av hus i KG372 samt destruktion KG349 och KG350 i norra delen av hus KG372. Myntfynd antyder en datering till efter sekelskiftet 1800. I den norra delen av tomten (fas 286N:9) fanns rasering KG266. Fas 286S:11. Konstruktion (etablering) 1800-tal? Fasen omfattar en nyetablering av ytan då halvkällare KG229 tillkom.

Рассмотрены особенности формирования почвенного и растительного покрова антропогенно нарушенной территории ботанического сада Белгородского государственного универ ситета. Выявлены признаки пространственной неоднородно сти эдафотопа в условиях техногенного рельефа. Ключевые слова: геостатистика, техногенные ландшаф ты, самовосстановление растительности, воспроизводство почв, экологическая реставрация.

Abstract
In the 1720s, the Armenian army was re-established in the Eastern Armenian provinces of Karabakh (Artsakh) and Kapan (Syunik). Comprising about 60,000 men, these troops en masse adopted the most modern handguns of the time: flintlock rifles and pistols. The article reveals the number of flintlocks made in Karabakh and Kapan (about 5-6 thousand per year), which implied the presence of a fairly developed manufacturing with its own infrastructure, including: (a) the exploitation of the relevant mines; (b) weapons production in small arms factories in their vicinity; (c) a reliable arms supply; and (d) hundreds of craftsmen – gunsmiths, blacksmiths, foundry hands, carpenters and other artisans and workers. The number of craftsmen, miners and other workers involved in the Armenian arms industry in those years could reach, approximately, up to at least 1-2 thousand people.
In fact, in terms of the quality of handguns, the Armenian troops surpassed their main enemy, the Ottoman army, in whose armament, even in the elite Janissary units, matchlock guns still prevailed.
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Keywords: 1720s, Karabakh Armenian Sagnaks, gunsmithing, firearms, matchlock gun, flintlock, bayonet․

Аннотация
В 1720-х гг. в восточноармянских провинциях Карабах (Арцах) и Капан (Сюник) было воссоздано армянское войско (ок. 60 000 бойцов), в массовом порядке принявшее на вооружение, как выявляется в данной статье, самое совершенное огнестрельное стрелковое оружие своего времени — кремнёвые ружья и пистолеты. В статье выявляется количество изготавливаемых в Карабахе и Капане кремнёвых замков (ок. 5–6 тысяч в год), что подразумевало наличие довольно развитого мануфактурного производства со своей инфраструктурой, включающей: (а) эксплуатацию соответствующих рудников; (б) действующие поблизости от них производственные цеха; (в) надёжную службу снабжения войск оружием и (г) сотни мастеров — оружейников, кузнецов, литейщиков, плотников и других ремесленников. Численность мастеров, горняков и других рабочих, задействованных в армянской
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оружейной промышленности, в те годы могла доходить, ориентировочно, до не менее 1-2 тысяч человек.
Фактически, по качеству ручного огнестрельного оружия армянские войска превосходили своего главного противника – османскую армию, в вооружении которой, даже в элитных янычарских частях, все еще преобладали фитильные ружья.
Ключевые слова: 1720-е гг., Карабахские Армянские Сагнаки, оружейное дело, огнестрельное оружие, фитильное ружьё, кремнёвый замок, фузея, штык․

Până spre al Doilea Război Mondial și ulterioara schimbare de regim, legislația românească privitoare la armele de foc specifice pieței civile era foarte permisivă ori chiar cvasiinexistentă, acestea fiind foarte răspândite printre o largă categorie de persoane. Ulterior, cea mai mare parte a acestora a fost aruncată, ascunsă ori predată autorităților, un anumit procent din ultima categorie fiind donată muzeelor. Armele din dotarea armatei române și a celor aliate/inamice au avut parte de analiza cuvenită în articole de specialitate , însă cele civile au fost, până în prezent, relativ absente din peisajul științific/istoriografic autohton. Procesul de renovare totală a clădirii Muzeului de Istorie și Arheologie Piatra-Neamț a oferit o oportunitate excelentă pieselor din cadrul expoziției sale permanente, astfel încât consider oportună analiza unei arme din colecția sa de istorie modernă și contemporană care, la o primă vedere, nu impresionează, însă oferă informații interesante asupra procesului de producție, testare și vânzare a armelor de foc către civili în Europa „Frumoasei Epoci” de dinaintea Marelui Război.

История появления артиллерийских орудий в Крыму, предположительно в XIV- XV веках, исследуется на основании разнообразных материалов: результатов исследования артиллерийских орудий и их боевого применения период XV-XVIII вв. по архивным документам и научным исследованиям отечественных и зарубежных специалистов. Много внимания уделяется изучению истории артиллерийских орудий XV-XVIII вв., экспонируемых в Музеях Крыма и Севастополя. Вводятся в научный оборот ранее не публиковавшиеся документы и материалы из исследований специалистов военных музеев Европы и экспертов из Общества исследования старых орудий (Ordnance Society).
The history of the appearance of artillery guns in the Crimea in the XIV- XV cc. is investigated on the basis of a variety of materials: the results of the study of artillery guns and their combat use in the XV-XVIII c.c. according to archival documents and scientific research of domestic and foreign specialists. Much attention is paid to the study of the history of artillery guns of XV-XVIII c.c., exhibited in the Museums of the Crimea and Sevastopol. Previously unpublished documents and research materials of the Ordnance Society are introduced into scientific circulation.

The published monograph “Europe and Russia in the fire of the First World War. To the 100th anniversary of
the War” gives a broad view of that period and recreates a consistent picture of the events from the prerequisites of the war
until its completion.