Fermions and Bosons

This work introduces Quantum Compression Theory (QCT), a novel theoretical framework proposing that all fundamental interactions, spacetime geometry, and cosmological phenomena emerge from the dynamics of a single scalar field of quantum entanglement density, (\rho_{\text{ent}}). QCT offers a unified physical mechanism for several unresolved anomalies in modern physics without postulating new fundamental particles.
Key findings and predictions include:



A Novel Origin for Dark Matter: The theory posits that the gravitational effects attributed to dark matter in the early universe were caused by a "Heavy Hadron Era," a phase of temporarily stabilized, known heavy baryons.


An Explanation for the Positron Anomaly: The observed excess of high-energy positrons in cosmic rays (AMS-02 anomaly) is interpreted as a direct observational echo from the decay of the Heavy Hadron Era.


A Mechanism for Particle Stability: The stability of matter is explained via the "Atomic Antenna" mechanism, a dynamic energy exchange with the vacuum that accounts for the measured isotope shift and links particle stability directly to the expansion of the cosmos.


A Finite Proton Lifetime: As a direct consequence of its stability model, QCT predicts a finite, calculable lifetime for the proton, dictated by the continued expansion of the universe.
The framework provides a physical resolution to the Hubble tension, derives particle properties like spin and mass from topological defects, and presents a suite of falsifiable, experimentally testable predictions, including specific signatures in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and variations in beta-decay rates.


  This paper presents the complete mathematical formalism and cosmological implications of QCT as a candidate for a new paradigm in fundamental physics.

Abstract—Traditional regulatory methods for spectrum licens-ing have been recently identified as one of the causes for the under-utilization of the valuable radio spectrum. Governmental agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) are seeking ways to remove stringent regulatory barriers and facilitate broader access to the spectrum resources. The goal is to allow for an improved and ubiquitous sharing of the precious radio spectrum between commercial service providers. In this paper, we propose a novel noncooperative game theo-retic approach, to show how to foster more sharing of the radio spectrum via the use of regulatory power. We define a two stage game in which the government regulators move first, followed by the providers. The providers are incentivized by lower spectrum allocation fees from the regulators in return for proof-of-sharing. The providers are offered discounted spectrum bands, potentially at different locations, but will be asked to provide covera...

We present a detailed study of the topological Schwinger model [Phys. Rev. D 99, 014503 (2019)], which describes (1+1) quantum electrodynamics of an Abelian U(1) gauge field coupled to a symmetry-protected topological matter sector, by means of a class of Z N lattice gauge theories. Employing density-matrix renormalization group techniques that exactly implement Gauss' law, we show that these models host a correlated topological phase for different values of N, where fermion correlations arise through inter-particle interactions mediated by the gauge field. Moreover, by a careful finite-size scaling, we show that this phase is stable in the large-N limit, and that the phase boundaries are in accordance to bosonization predictions of the U(1) topological Schwinger model. Our results demonstrate that Z N finite-dimensional gauge groups offer a practical route for an efficient classical simulation of equilibrium properties of electromagnetism with topological fermions. Additionally, we describe a scheme for the quantum simulation of a topological Schwinger model exploiting spin-changing collisions in boson-fermion mixtures of ultra-cold atoms in optical lattices. Although technically challenging, this quantum simulation would provide an alternative to classical density-matrix renormalization group techniques, providing also an efficient route to explore real-time non-equilibrium phenomena.

THE CURRENT PARADIGM The current paradigm in physics, despite the successes of the excellent theories that construct it, is facing many obstacles. Many principles remain unproven, attributes of elementary particles cannot be derived and calculated, and mysteries are un-resolved. This situation results from the lack of a deeper theoretical layer. THE GDM The missing theoretical layer is the GeometroDynamic Model (GDM) of reality. The GDM provides answers as to what are: charge, elementary particles, inertia (mass), gravitation, and relates to additional fundamental subjects. The GDM does not, at large, contradict the paradigm; it simply serves as a realistic and tangible deeper theoretical layer.

We introduce a classification scheme for symmetry protected topological phases applicable to stationary states of open systems based on a generalization of the many-body polarization. The polarization can be used to probe the topological properties of non-interacting and interacting closed and open systems as well and remains a meaningful quantity even in the presence of moderate particle-number fluctuations. As examples, we discuss two open-system versions of a topological Thouless pump in the steady state of one-dimensional lattices driven by Markovian reservoirs. In the analogous unitary system, the Rice-Mele model, symmetries enforce topological properties which lead to a non-trivial winding of the geometric Zak phase upon cyclic variations of model parameters. Associated with this is a winding of the many-body polarization, corresponding to a quantized transport in the bulk (Thouless pump). We here show that in the open system, where the Zak phase looses its meaning, the same symmetries enforce a winding of the generalized manybody polarization. This winding is shown to be robust against Hamiltonian perturbations as well as homogeneous dephasing and particle losses.

We introduce a classification scheme for symmetry protected topological phases applicable to stationary states of open systems based on a generalization of the many-body polarization. The polarization can be used to probe the topological properties of non-interacting and interacting closed and open systems as well and remains a meaningful quantity even in the presence of moderate particle-number fluctuations. As examples, we discuss two open-system versions of a topological Thouless pump in the steady state of one-dimensional lattices driven by Markovian reservoirs. In the analogous unitary system, the Rice-Mele model, symmetries enforce topological properties which lead to a non-trivial winding of the geometric Zak phase upon cyclic variations of model parameters. Associated with this is a winding of the many-body polarization, corresponding to a quantized transport in the bulk (Thouless pump). We here show that in the open system, where the Zak phase looses its meaning, the same symmetries enforce a winding of the generalized manybody polarization. This winding is shown to be robust against Hamiltonian perturbations as well as homogeneous dephasing and particle losses.

In this letter we propose a protocol to reverse a quantum many-body dynamical process. We name it "many-body echo" because the underlying physics is closely related to the spin echo effect in nuclear magnetic resonance systems. We consider a periodical modulation of the interaction strength in a weakly interacting Bose condensate, which resonantly excites quasi-particles from the condensate. A dramatic phenomenon is that, after pausing the interaction modulation for half a period and then continuing on with the same modulation, nearly all the excited quasi-particles in the resonance modes will be absorbed back into the condensate. During the intermediate half period, the free evolution introduces a π phase, which plays a role reminiscent of that played by the π-pulse in the spin echo. Comparing our protocol with another one implemented by the Chicago group in a recent experiment, we find that ours is more effective at reversing the many-body process. The difference between these two schemes manifests the physical effect of the micro-motion in the Floquet theory. Our scheme can be generalized to other periodically driven many-body systems.

The intrinsic relationship between mass and energy is undoubtedly one of the most important philosophical enlightenments for the mankind in human history, which has been embodied with the famous Einstein equation E = mc 2 for the past century. Although Einstein derived this famous equation within the framework of special relativity, some others had also arrived at the similar before special relativity was proposed; however, both E = mc 2 and other similar ones all exaggerated the contribution of mass to the total energy proportionally. In the meantime, we have also learned that special relativity is wrong because Lorentz length contraction and time dilation are physically unrealistic. Nevertheless, the approach employed by Einstein in the derivation of E = mc 2 is more advantageous than others for it paves the path to the final correct form of mass-energy relationship after special relativity is phased out. In this writing, by replacing the relativistic formula of Doppler Effect used by Einstein with the non-relativistic formula of Doppler Effect, the approach employed by Einstein for E = mc 2 is applied to work out the correct form of mass-energy relationship which is E = mc 2 /2.

The intrinsic relationship between mass and energy is undoubtedly one of the most important philosophical enlightenments for the mankind in human history, which has been embodied with the famous Einstein equation E = mc2 for the past century. Although Einstein derived this famous equation within the framework of special relativity, some others had also arrived at the similar before special relativity was proposed; however, both E = mc2 and other similar ones all exaggerated the contribution of mass to the total energy proportionally. In the meantime, we have also learned that special relativity is wrong because Lorentz length contraction and time dilation are physically unrealistic. Nevertheless, the approach employed by Einstein in the derivation of E = mc2 is more advantageous than others for it paves the path to the final correct form of mass-energy relationship after special relativity is phased out. In this writing, by replacing the relativistic formula of Doppler Effect used by Einstein with the non-relativistic formula of Doppler Effect, the approach employed by Einstein for E = mc2 is applied to work out the correct form of mass-energy relationship which is E = mc2/2.

Fermions on the lattice have bosonic excitations generated from the underlying periodic background. These, the lattice bosons, arise near the empty band or when the bands are nearly full. They do not depend on the nature of the interactions and exist for any fermion-fermion coupling. We discuss these lattice boson solutions for the Dirac Hamiltonian.

This article introduces and discusses the concept of entanglement detachment. Under some circumstances, enlarging a few couplings of a Hamiltonian can effectively detach a (possibly disjoint) block within the ground state. This detachment is characterized by a sharp decrease in the entanglement entropy between block and environment, and leads to an increase of the internal correlations between the (possibly distant) sites of the block. We provide some examples of this detachment in free fermionic systems. The first example is an edge-dimerized chain, where the second and penultimate hoppings are increased. In that case, the two extreme sites constitute a block which disentangles from the rest of the chain. Further examples are given by (a) a superlattice which can be detached from a 1D chain, and (b) a star-graph, where the extreme sites can be detached or not depending on the presence of an external magnetic field, in analogy with the Aharonov-Bohm effect. We characterize these detached blocks by their reduced matrices, specially through their entanglement spectrum and entanglement Hamiltonian.

The completeness of the group classification of systems of two linear second-order ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients is delineated in the paper. The new cases extend what has been done in the literature. These cases correspond to the type of equations where the commutative property of the coefficient matrices with respect to the dependent variables and the first-order derivatives in the considered system does not hold. A discussion of the results as well as a note on the extension to linear systems of second-order ordinary differential equations with more than two equations are given.

It is supposed that at very small scales a quantum field is an infinite homogeneous quantum computer. On a quantum computer the information cannot propagate faster than c = a/τ , a and τ being the minimum space and time distances between gates, respectively. It is shown that the information flow satisfies a Dirac equation, with speed v = ζc and ζ = ζ(m) mass-dependent. For a/τ = c the speed of light ζ −1 is a vacuum refraction index increasing monotonically from ζ −1 (0) = 1 to ζ −1 (M) = ∞, M being the Planck mass for 2a the Planck length.

In this work, we investigate quantum phase transition (QPT) in a generic family of spin chains using the ground-state energy, the energy gap and the geometric measure of entanglement (GE). In many of prior works, GE per site was used. Here, we also consider GE per block with each block size being two. This can be regarded as a coarse grain of GE per site. We introduce a useful parameterization for the family of spin chains that includes the XY models with n-site interaction, the GHZ-cluster model and a cluster antiferromagnetic model, the last of which exhibits QPT between a symmetryprotected topological (SPT) phase and a symmetry-breaking antiferromagnetic phase. As the models are exactly solvable, their ground-state wavefunctions can be obtained, and thus, their GE can be studied. It turns out that the overlap of the ground states with translationally invariant product states can be exactly calculated, and hence, the GE can be obtained via further parameter optimization. The QPTs exhibited in these models are detected by the energy gap and singular behavior of geometric entanglement. In particular, the XzY model exhibits transitions from the nontrivial SPT phase to a trivial paramagnetic phase. Moreover, the halfway XY model exhibits a first-order transition across the Barouch-McCoy circle, on which it was only a crossover in the standard XY model.

It is supposed that at very small scales a quantum field is an infinite homogeneous quantum computer. On a quantum computer the information cannot propagate faster than c = a/τ , a and τ being the minimum space and time distances between gates, respectively. It is shown that the information flow satisfies a Dirac equation, with speed v = ζc and ζ = ζ(m) mass-dependent. For a/τ = c the speed of light ζ −1 is a vacuum refraction index increasing monotonically from ζ −1 (0) = 1 to ζ −1 (M) = ∞, M being the Planck mass for 2a the Planck length.

Symmetry-Protected Topological (SPT) phases are gapped phases of quantum matter protected by global symmetries that cannot be adiabatically deformed to a trivial phase without breaking symmetry. In this work, we show that, for several SPT phases that are short range entangled (SRE), enlarging symmetries may effectively achieve the consequences of explicitly breaking symmetries. In other words, we demonstrate that non-trivial SPT phases can be unwound to trivial ones by symmetry extension -through a path where the Hilbert space is enlarged and the Hamiltonian is invariant under an extended symmetry group applying the idea of Wang-Wen-Witten [arXiv:1705.06728]. We show examples of both bosonic and fermionic SPT phases in 1+1 dimensions, including Haldane's bosonic spin chain and layers of Kitaev's fermionic Majorana chains. By adding degrees of freedom into the boundary/bulk, we can lift the zero mode degeneracy, or unwind the whole system. Furthermore, based on properties of Schur cover, we sketch a general picture of unwinding applicable to any 1+1D bosonic SPT phase protected by on-site finite symmetry. Altogether we show that SRE states can be unwound by symmetry breaking, inversion and symmetry extension.

In this essay I will discuss fermions as identical particles that arises from quantum mechanics. As we know quantum mechanics treat particles by the wave function, we will see how that will lead to identical particles such as fermions and bosons. Fermi Dirac statistics is discussed; it is the statistics that describe fermions. I will discuss the behavior of fermions at very low and at very high temperatures.

This article proposes a simple but strong zero-energy hypothesis (ZEH), which is essentially an ambitious speculative extension of the famous zero-energy universe hypothesis (ZEUH) (updating ZEUH to an “extended ZEUH” version) applied on virtual particle-antiparticle pairs (VPAPs) produced by virtual photons or virtual gluons. ZEH ambitiously proposes (and predicts):
(1) a new type of boson-fermion symmetry/”mass-conjugation” based on a simple and elegant quadratic equation (with partially unknown coefficients) proposed by ZEH: all known rest masses of all elementary particles (EPs) in the Standard model (SM) of particle physics are redefined as real solutions of this simple quadratic equation; based on the same quadratic equation, ZEH indicates/predicts an unexpected profound bijective connection between the three types of neutrinos and the massless bosons (gluon, photon and the hypothetical graviton); ZEH also offers a new interpretation of Planck length as the approximate length threshold above which the rest masses of all known EPs have real number values (with mass units) instead of complex/imaginary number values (as predicted by the same unique equation proposed by ZEH); among other EPs, ZEH also predicts the existence of two distinct types of massless neutral fermions (correspondents/conjugates of the neutral Higgs boson and Z bosons) which both move at the speed of light and  may be viable candidates for dark matter and dark energy;
(2) a strong quantum gravitational field (SQGF) (equaling the predicted strength of the electromagnetic field [EMF] at Planck scales, which EMF is also predicted to possess asymptotic freedom, similarly to the strong nuclear field [SNF]) implying a quantized spacetime (ST) composed from ST “voxels” (STVs) resulting in quantized/discrete distances at scales comparable to Planck length scales;
(3) ZEH is essentially a fundamental principle of electro-gravitational strength balance/symmetry at Planck scales, a principle which allows (as a sine-qua-non condition added to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle [HUP]) the existence of virtual particle-antiparticle pairs (VPAPs) from the first place;
(4) ZEH also conjectures the existence of a unique large (but finite!) maximum density allowed in our universe (OU) shared by the electron neutrino and the pre-Big Bang singularity (pBBS) (which is thus regarded as a “renormalized” gravitational quasi-singularity) with all the other known/unknown EPs (which are regarded as “crocks” of pBBS);
(5) ZEH also proposes the concept of “practical radius” of any known/unknown EP and a unique formula for calculating this practical radius for any type of EP (associated with a unique big G value formula for any given practical radius/length scale).

ZEH distinguishes by the contrast between its simplicity and the richness/diversity of explanations, correlations and predictions it offers. The author of this paper resonates to Dirac’s vision on the importance of mathematical beauty in physical equations: “The research worker, in his efforts to express the fundamental laws of Nature in mathematical form, should strive mainly for mathematical beauty […]It often happens that the requirements and beauty are the same, but where they clash the latter must take precedence.” [URL]; “A theory with mathematical beauty is more likely to be correct than an ugly one that fits some experimental data” (as he claimed in 1970 when referring to the renormalization of quantum electrodynamics which was Dirac’s paradigm of a mathematically “ugly” theory) [URL].
Zero is not only a number, but the symbol of both Nothingness and Everythingness (because all positive and negative numbers can be regarded as "born" in pairs from the same Zero to which they are symmetrical): furthermore, zero not only plays an essential central role in mathematics, but it also has a central role in physics and is a fundamental link between these two sciences, in the context of a possibly valid zero-energy universe theory (ZEUT).
This paper continues (from alternative angles of view) the work of other past articles/preprints of the same author

This paper offers some reflections on the theoretical distinction between the equally theoretical concepts of bosons and fermions, or spin-1 versus spin-1/2 particles. We do so by deconstructing Feynman's Lecture on these distinctions. We apologize for the informal nature of the text, which basically reproduces a blog post of ours. We will probably correct in future versions of this paper.

We present a detailed study of the topological Schwinger model [Phys. Rev. D 99, 014503 (2019)], which describes (1+1) quantum electrodynamics of an Abelian U(1) gauge field coupled to a symmetry-protected topological matter sector, by means of a class of ZN lattice gauge theories. Employing density-matrix renor-malization group techniques that exactly implement Gauss' law, we show that these models host a correlated topological phase for different values of N, where fermion correlations arise through inter-particle interactions mediated by the gauge field. Moreover, by a careful finite-size scaling, we show that this phase is stable in the large-N limit, and that the phase boundaries are in accordance to bosonization predictions of the U(1) topolog-ical Schwinger model. Our results demonstrate that ZN finite-dimensional gauge groups offer a practical route for an efficient classical simulation of equilibrium properties of electromagnetism with topological fermions. Additionally, we describe a scheme for the quantum simulation of a topological Schwinger model exploiting spin-changing collisions in boson-fermion mixtures of ultra-cold atoms in optical lattices. Although technically challenging, this quantum simulation would provide an alternative to classical density-matrix renormalization group techniques, providing also an efficient route to explore real-time non-equilibrium phenomena.

Information of perception is first the social and biological amount of the ability of the individual to communicate with the outside world. These include freedoms enabled by the senses, internal chemical processes, instincts, fantasy. There are a huge number of options, but only those given to the subject and measured in the way of abstract, simple information. There is a lot of communication, but again, not everyone communicates with everyone, that is, cannot everything communicate with anything. The latter, because the same form of 'perception information' of a living being applies to all inanimate substance, and here’s why.

More probable happens more often, that is the principle of probability. The result is that nature is stingy with giving information.  Then, the information is not the same as the entropy. Accordingly we determine that generalized information is analogous to the principle of least action and very similar to the Lagrangian function.

We give a miniversal deformation of each pair of symmetric matrices (A, B) under congruence; that is, a normal form with minimal number of independent parameters to which all matrices (A + E, B + E ′ ) close to (A, B) can be reduced by congruence transformations

Traditional regulatory methods for spectrum licensing have been recently identified as one of the causes for the under-utilization of the valuable radio spectrum. Governmental agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) are seeking ways to remove stringent regulatory barriers and facilitate broader access to the spectrum resources. The goal is to allow for an improved and ubiquitous sharing of the precious radio spectrum between commercial service providers.

Traditional regulatory methods for spectrum licensing have been recently identified as one of the causes for the under-utilization of the valuable radio spectrum. Governmental agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) are seeking ways to remove stringent regulatory barriers and facilitate broader access to the spectrum resources. The goal is to allow for an improved and ubiquitous sharing of the precious radio spectrum between commercial service providers.

Condensed matter systems, such as the superfluid helium-3, may save the concept. In preparation for experimentation, Grover et al. (p. 280, published online 3 April) develop a theoretical approach that suggests SUSY describes the quantum phase transition on the boundary of a topological superconductor between a magnetic phase characterized by a bosonic order parameter and a neighboring phase hosting Majorana fermions. SURESH KUMAR.S