Contract Remedies

Ireland's oversight and justice systems are failing the citizens they were designed to serve. Complaints are routinely delayed, dismissed, or mishandled, and complainants experience exclusion, retraumatisation, and disillusionment. Oversight bodies, ombudsmen, tribunals, public inquiries, and quasi-legal commissions consume vast public resources while offering little tangible redress. This paper proposes a transformative solution: an Arbitration First framework, underpinned by trauma-informed practice and therapeutic jurisprudence. Drawing on the work of Mr Bill Eddy, co-founder of the High Conflict Institute, it argues that many disputes arise from untreated psychological distress, trauma, or personality dysfunction, rather than from malice or deliberate wrongdoing. Arbitration, reconceived as a therapeutic intervention, can heal individuals and communities while restoring public trust in institutions. The paper outlines the creation of Community Resolution and Recovery Centres (CRRCs), locally managed, multidisciplinary hubs for conflict resolution and early intervention. These centres would address civil, administrative, and minor criminal disputes through structured dialogue, assessment, and therapy. They would be equipped with statutory authority to make binding determinations, refer individuals for treatment, and produce factual reports for courts when necessary. The paper also situates this reform within a broader democratic renewal, urging judicial recognition of the need to protect freedom of the press. Without a free press, oversight collapses into secrecy. Re-establishing transparency through both open justice and community arbitration is essential to ending Ireland's culture of silence, collusion, and fear.

Lo scritto critica l’ordinanza della Cassazione n. 27904/2024. In questo senso, viene affermata l’impossibilità di configurare come «abusiva» l’escussione non tempestiva della garanzia autonoma da parte della p.a. Ciò perché una tale escussione non comporterebbe un abuso del diritto,
bensì un’ipotesi di responsabilità. E, tuttavia, anche quest’ultima non è prospettabile, poiché difetta il presupposto: non esiste l’obbligo in capo sia al creditore comune sia al «creditore-pubblica amministrazione» di sollecitare il debitore all’adempimento per evitare le conseguenze
legate al ritardo nell’inadempimento.

L’ordinanza in commento offre l’occasione d’interrogarsi sulla consistenza del danno da risoluzione nella locazione in caso d'inadempimento del conduttore: se esso includa i canoni dovuti sino alla scadenza del rapporto o fino al reperimento di un nuovo conduttore, fatta salva la prova del danno evitabile (art. 1227, 2ºcomma, c.c.),oppure se,viceversa, il locatore
possa domandare soltanto il pregiudizio patrimoniale e non patrimoniale provocato dal contratto, considerato in termini
retrospettivi  come vicenda dannosa, oltre all’eventuale danno ulteriore legato alla mancata restituzione della cosa locata (artt. 1590 e1591c.c.).

In many jurisdictions, potential injurers are under a legal duty to incorporate possible mistakes of the potential victim. I distinguish three types of mistakes. First, victims might make mistakes because it is too costly to avoid them (e.g. little children in traffic). Second, the actual care level of an actor might sometimes be a bit above, and sometimes a bit below his average care level. Third, people might choose a lower care level than is optimal for them, even though they were able to take optimal care. This is the type of mistake I analyze in this paper. I argue on the basis of a game theoretical analysis that the duty to incorporate such mistakes might frustrate the preventive goal of tort law, because it decreases the care incentives provided to the victim, while simultaneously increasing the care incentives for the injurer. I provide examples of the legal duty to incorporate possible mistakes of the victim from different legal systems. I discuss the doctrine of the Last Clear Chance, as well as Donald Wittmans idea of Marginal Cost Liability. In cases where this idea is not feasible, I argue that the defense of comparative negligence might be a good alternative.

In the economic analysis of tort law, scant attention is paid to justifications and excuses. An injurer invoking a justification argues that he did not act wrongfully. Excuses imply that the injurer acted wrongfully, but that his act cannot be imputed to him. If torts are described in general terms, on an abstract level, the possible role of justifications and excuses is larger than if the tort is subjectively defined. After all, the specific circumstances of the case that could lead to the conclusion that the injurer should not be liable are already incorporated in a subjectively defined tort, so that there is no separate function for justifications and excuses anymore. In this paper I argue that the use of general, abstract norms is preferable to applying subjective concrete norms. This generalization saves on administrative costs, it might lead to a better allocation of resources and it can provide better care and activity incentives. In circumstances where the objective norm would lead to undesirable outcomes, due to the specific circumstances of the case, justifications can serve as a correction. I analyze force majeure, necessity, necessary self-defense, legal duty or legal authority, authorized legal order, permission of the victim, assumption of risk and acting in the general interest. I argue that most, but not all, justifications make economic sense. In situations where the general norm provides correct incentives but where the specific injurer at hand would not change his behaviour as result of specific circumstances, excuses might avoid liability and hence save on administrative costs. I analyze mental or physical disability or illness, excusable error regarding the law or the facts, self-defense with excessive force and unauthorized official order. I conclude that most of the analyzed excuses are problematic from an economic point of view.

Il danno risarcibile nelle discipline della risoluzione per inadempimento (art. 1453 cod. civ.) e della responsabilita `contrattuale (art. 1218 cod. civ.). Pregi e difetti di Cass., sez. un., 25.2.2025, n. 4892. -4. Il problema (negletto) del danno da risoluzione nei contratti di durata: il caso del mutuo.

Este artículo aborda la importancia de la existencia de un deber de renegociación en caso de cambio de circunstancias es transversal a todos los ordenamientos jurídicos occidentales como primera manifestación de Mecanismos Alternativos de Solución de Controversias (MASC). Una concepción dinámica de la buena permite la creación de una obligación de renegociación para los contratantes. Si bien es generalmente aceptado que el deber de buena fe en la ejecución del contrato es la base de la renegociación, es sin embargo más difícil determinar el contenido y naturaleza de este deber.

A pós-modernidade é um estágio de crise, de ruptura e de desconstrução das certezas sobre as quais foram edificadas as estruturas sociais e os institutos jurídicos da modernidade. Conceitos solidificados, enrijecidos, perdem espaço na contemporaneidade para as cláusulas abertas, as normas programáticas, com perspectiva de futuro.
Temas complexos que envolvem contratos existenciais, direitos da personalidade, relações simbióticas entre produtos e serviços, tecnologias disruptivas, uso e segurança da inteligência artificial, dentre outros, tornaram-se frequentes na vida e na prática forense. O jurista que busca harmonizar o agir dos contratantes e as suas legítimas expectativas, por vezes se depara com incertezas na interpretação e aplicação do Direito.

Under the contract laws of both common law and civil law jurisdictions, the non-breaching party is typically entitled to expectation damages as compensation for a contractual breach. This aims to restore the non- breaching party to the position they would have had if there had been no breach. Although the doctrine fully compensates the non-breaching party for any expectancy loss, it fails to prevent the breaching party from retaining extra profits arising from the breach when the profits exceed the non- breaching party’s expectation interests. This results in a morally counterintuitive outcome wherein the breaching party profits from their wrongdoing. To mitigate this, the common law system offers the disgorgement of profits as a morally coherent alternative in certain circumstances, which is less familiar within civil law contexts.

Disgorgement of profits is not a novel remedy to common law jurisdictions, and English and U.S. law have both formally recognized it as an independent remedy for breach of contract. However, in practice this remedy is limited and, as this article demonstrates, inconsistencies are prevalent among English and American courts. Thus, the role of contractual disgorgement remains mysterious on the positive-law level. Furthermore, although this remedy has been substantially discussed in the literature, there remains a lack of comprehensive analysis on the normative relationship between disgorgement and the traditional expectation damages.

This article aims to address this research gap and contribute to a more robust and consistent approach to the application of this remedy. It explores the functions of disgorgement and normatively suggests its ideal relationship with expectation damages through critical analysis of three potential approaches from a law and economics perspective. The most radical approach advocates for the complete replacement of expectation damages with disgorgement, ultimately proven to be infeasible primarily due to the uncertainties over the profits from breach. The second approach considers disgorgement as a generally available alternative to expectation damages. However, existing empirical evidence cannot persuasively support this over the conventional rule of using expectation damages as the primary remedy, thereby to some extent justifying the significant reluctance towards disgorgement on the positive-law level. In this sense, this article contends that the third approach is the most convincing, whereby the plaintiff is entitled to disgorgement only in specific circumstances with particular economic characteristics. Furthermore, this article provides a refined taxonomy of applicable circumstances based on varied underlying economic rationales for justifying the award of disgorgement in each category of circumstances. This taxonomy not only provides robust economic justifications for case laws and legislative provisions explicitly or implicitly endorsing contractual disgorgement across both common law (represented by English and U.S. law) and civil law (represented by German and Chinese law) jurisdictions, but also highlights how to expand the recognition of this remedy in practice.

Este estudio aborda la mitigación del daño en el incumplimiento contractual, explorando sus fundamentos teóricos y su posible alcance en Ecuador. Se examina su carácter jurídico y su rol dentro de la relación contractual, analizando si debe entenderse como una manifestación de la buena fe, una obligación que recae sobre el acreedor o una carga procesal que influye en la reclamación de indemnizaciones. También se evalúa su compatibilidad con principios como el restitutio in integrum y su impacto en la determinación del daño indemnizable. Desde el ámbito normativo, se revisa su regulación en Ecuador, donde su reconocimiento expreso en el Código de Comercio parece limitarse a una facultad del acreedor sin constituir una obligación estricta. Ante la falta de jurisprudencia relevante, su aplicación se analiza desde una perspectiva académica, destacando su incidencia en el ámbito probatorio. En este sentido, se examinan sus reglas, estándares y límites para evitar imponer al acreedor cargas excesivas. La metodología utilizada combina una revisión bibliográfica con un ejercicio de interpretación normativa, permitiendo sistematizar fuentes académicas, doctrinales y normativas. Además, se empleó inteligencia artificial como herramienta de apoyo en la redacción, asegurando coherencia y precisión mediante la revisión de la autora.

This is a case review from a  decision of the Court of Appeal of Kenya delivered on 11th July 2025 on the enforceability of unconsionable contracts. Legal practioners and learners in common law jurisdictions will find this decision very relevant.

Hadley v Baxendale remoteness is generally regarded favourably in the law and economics literature. Orthodox theory views remoteness as an efficient rule, although its purported efficiency virtues vary. Most economic models portray remoteness as an information disclosure device which bridges information asymmetry and regulates rates of contracting, precautions against breach and even reliance by promisees. Yet the assumptions of economic models are denied by the content that courts attribute to the doctrine. This paper suggests that remoteness is an inefficient rule which entails certain costs, particularly through its impact on performance/breach decisions, but only uncertain and modest efficiency gains. It is argued that a more efficient default rule would allow full recovery of expectation damages. The paradigmchanging judgment in The Achilleas could pave the way for such superior rule rather than add an imprecise test of remoteness to the existing Hadley rule. The paper contrasts the English and US solutions with functional equivalents of remoteness from Germany, France and Quebec, which come closer than the common law to the economic models' version of remoteness or the expectation damages rule. The analysis shows, perhaps surprisingly, that the efficiency of the common law of contract is too often taken for granted. Despite historic entrenchment, the remoteness rule and its functional equivalents in US, German, French, and Quebec lawliability-limiting devices that employ foreseeability criteria to determine compensable damageremain obscure figures. The unstable foundations of remotenessand its conceptually similar US counterpart, unforeseeability of damage 1were abruptly revealed when, in The Achilleas, 2 the House of Lords departed from the over 150-year old precedent of Hadley v Baxendale. 3 It sought to base remoteness on an agreement-centred test 4 to avoid what was believed to be, on the facts, an abnormal result deviating from the general market understanding. On a similar note, functional equivalents of remoteness found

Hadley v Baxendale remoteness is generally regarded favourably in the law and economics literature. Orthodox theory views remoteness as an efficient rule, although its purported efficiency virtues vary. Most economic models portray remoteness as an information disclosure device which bridges information asymmetry and regulates rates of contracting, precautions against breach and even reliance by promisees. Yet the assumptions of economic models are denied by the content that courts attribute to the doctrine. This paper suggests that remoteness is an inefficient rule which entails certain costs, particularly through its impact on performance/breach decisions, but only uncertain and modest efficiency gains. It is argued that a more efficient default rule would allow full recovery of expectation damages. The paradigmchanging judgment in The Achilleas could pave the way for such superior rule rather than add an imprecise test of remoteness to the existing Hadley rule. The paper contrast...

This article deals with the new case of extraordinary revision due to the contrast with the ECHR as introduced by the recent reform of civil procedure (of Article 391 quater of the Code of Civil Procedure). The article analyses both the reasons for the reform and the application prerequisites for the extraordinary revision. In particular, it is highlighted that the most critical issues are those arising from the interpretation of art. 391 quater in relation to the identification of the prerequisite of the violation of a “state right of the person”.In the final analysis, a part from the difficulty in interpreting the expression ‘rights of status of the person’ contained in the rule, the scope of application of the provision at issue seems to be confined to the resolution of disputes concerning filiation, as epitomised  also by the subject matter of the Supreme Court's judgment dealing for the first time with the new hypothesis of extraordinary revocation.

O artigo examina como a experiência contenciosa brasileira tem enfrentado algumas das principais discussões jurídicas decorrentes do uso dos mecanismos das opções de compra (call option) e venda (put option) de participação societária. Para tanto, selecionou-se um conjunto de disputas judiciais e arbitrais, sem pretensão exaustiva, que perpassam as diferentes feições que os litígios sobre o tema costumam ter, que podem ser assim sintetizados: (a) disputas sobre a definição dos agentes vinculados às opções e do objeto sobre o qual incidem; (b) disputas relativas ao preço de exercício da opção (sua interpretação, sua fixação, sua modificação por eventos supervenientes); (c) disputas relativas aos eventos que autorizam seu exercício; (d) disputas sobre pretensões havidas no intervalo entre o exercício da opção e a transferência das participações; (e) disputas sobre a validade do preço de exercício, à luz da vedação ao pacto leonino; (f) disputas sobre a validade do exercício da opção, à luz dos critérios legais para exclusão de sócios; e (g) disputas sobre o seu exercício abusivo. Vê-se, então, que o disparo da opção pode alterar a feição do contencioso nas operações de M&A, deixando-se de discutir aspectos passados (ex.: faltas graves na exclusão de sócio; descumprimentos contratuais nos acordos de acionistas) e ter-se uma discussão sobre o presente. No mais das vezes, procura-se que o debate se limite à avaliação da participação societária objeto da opção, para fixação do seu preço de exercício. E esse debate tende a ter perfil mais econômico-contábil do que jurídico ou factual. Pretende-se com isso ter uma disputa com objeto mais definido, mais controlável, de natureza mais técnica e, por isso, mais célere e previsível. Por isso, conclui-se que a litigiosidade derivada do uso das opções é resultado das escolhas feitas pelas partes no design contratual. Isso porque as escolhas dessas estruturas jurídicas e a maneira como as cláusulas são redigidas podem ter o efeito de alocar os ônus da iniciativa litigiosa, da persuasão e da prova para uma parte específica, assim como podem condicionar as pautas da disputa a ser instaurada, diminuindo o espaço discricionário do julgador. Significa dizer que a escolha desses mecanismos e o uso das técnicas redacionais apropriadas representam estratégias de antecipação ou postergação dos custos de uma disputa potencial.

L'articolo analizza la responsabilità del produttore di farmaci, distinguendo tra prodotto difettoso, pericoloso e viziato, con le relative conseguenze pratiche. Approfondisce la dicotomia tra responsabilità da prodotto difettoso (Codice del Consumo) e per attività pericolosa (art. 2050 c.c.), con focus sul riparto dell'onere della prova e sulle cause di esonero. Esamina il rischio da sviluppo e il danno non scientificamente accertato, evidenziando le criticità del sistema tra tutela del consumatore e innovazione farmaceutica. Propone riforme per bilanciare gli interessi in gioco, valutando una regolamentazione basata sulla pericolosità del farmaco e l'evoluzione scientifica.

O livro trata da relação entre as obrigações solidárias e o Direito Processual Civil. O objetivo é aproximar o processo das obrigações solidárias, apontando premissas para que as normas processuais sejam adequadamente interpretadas. O repertório teórico do processualista não pode se restringir à ciência processual. O livro que se propõe a reaproximar o direito processual do direito material não pode se esquivar de realmente se debruçar sobre o direito material. O processualista, nessa perspectiva, não é um mero processualista; ele também se torna civilista, administrativista, consumerista, comercialista, tributarista etc., na exata medida do repertório teórico necessário para construir as soluções processuais que cada disciplina específica exige. Afinal, como se diz no adágio dos corredores acadêmicos, quem só de processo sabe, nem de processo sabe. Esse o gérmen deste livro, que se debruça sobre as obrigações solidárias para relacioná-las com o direito processual. O seu itinerário consiste em revisitar o instituto da solidariedade e, partindo daí, formular premissas para sua adequada processualização. Este livro é, portanto, de direito processual e de direito material. Não pesquisou apenas solidariedade. Não se pesquisou apenas processo. Há uma imbricação indissociável, que exige o tratamento conjunto da solidariedade e do processo civil.

Risoluzione senza azione?* ** Sommario: 1. Risoluzione per inadempimento: norme generali e congegni periferici.-2. Segue: Risoluzione e atipicità (corrispettività condizionale, condizione di inadempimento, eccezione di risoluzione, dichiarazione unilaterale immediatamente risolutoria).-3. Inadempimento, congegni risolutori e processo civile.-4. Disponibilità dei rimedi ed effetti sullo statuto obbligatorio.-5. Qualche esempio. Conclusione. La pluralità di statuti obbligatori. * Lo scritto rappresenta l'elaborazione dalla relazione svolta al Convegno del 24 giugno 2024 organizzato presso l'Università Luiss Guido Carli sul tema "Diritto e azione". ** Il contributo è stato sottoposto, in forma anonima, alla valutazione di due referee. (1) Davvero a campione, per la natura costitutiva U. Carnevali, La risoluzione per inadempimento. Premesse generali, in Carnevali, E. Gabrielli, Tamponi, La risoluzione, nel Trattato di dir. priv. diretto da M.

Many times contract transactions are entered into by parties, the transactions may commence on clear terms and on a good note, however, midway in the contract or at the end thereof parties may have cause to disagree, or may encounter challenges, or face certain breach in certain clauses in the agreement. The breach that occurs in such contract transaction may either bring the parties before an arbitration panel or a court of competent jurisdiction to determine the breach and damages payable thereto. But often times, it is realized that the party that comes to court seeking redress may have had the opportunity to remedy the damage occasioned by the breach in the contract, but they will prefer and or allow the damage to materialize and thereafter they will come to seek compensation from the court. It is trite that where a party who comes to court seeking remedy in a breached contract fails to take reasonable step to remedy the breach, the court has the duty not to grant his full claim. The courts are not just to award cost or damages in such circumstance to a party that is swift to come before it. The court is bound to look at the matter to ascertain whether there were measures taken by the party seeking redress to mitigate the loss that was envisaged coming.

The essay, with the recent important measure of “Au-
torità Garante della Concorrenza e del Mercato”, exam-
ines Apple business strategy from the selling to the post
selling, shown to be in contrast with the actual set of
rules that defend the Consumer. For the first time in the
world, the Consumer Authority face up with the “planned
obsolescence” of digital devices, smartphone in this case.
Analyzing the architecture and the operating system, the
Authority has shown how Apple had a bad behavior just
to make their all own devices outdated and not well per-
forming, producing in the same time an incontestable
damage to all the consumer.

A margine del convegno patavino sui rimedi contrattuali, si è svolta una sessione dedicata ai colleghi più giovani, che Marcello Maggiolo mi ha invitato a coordinare insieme a Marco De Cristofaro. In procinto della pubblicazione degli Atti, adesso che hanno assunto la consistenza di saggi più strutturati, gli interventi allora succedutisi secondo un ordine piuttosto casuale e su argomenti sufficientemente eterogenei si prestano ad essere ricompresi in uno sguardo d'insieme che provi a coglierne alcuni tratti comuni. Una prima impressione, come tale del tutto soggettiva oltre che inevitabilmente filtrata dalla prospettiva sostanzialista, è che le scelte tematiche del seminario incrocino da diverse angolazioni il problema di un progressivo sovradimensionamento della nullità. Nell'illusione che abbia il pregio di "auto-applicarsi" (1) o in virtù di una sua misteriosa capacità evocativa o, ancora, sull'onda della moltiplicazione indotta dalle fonti europee, la nullità dilaga, sia per scelta di un legislatore non sempre dotato della necessaria consapevolezza teorica sia negli approdi di una giurisprudenza talvolta suggestionata dal fascino del rimedio più potente. Si tratta di fenomeno già ben avvistato dal dibattito scientifico nei suoi molti e diversificati versanti, del quale non a caso, nella giornata precedente, si erano segnalate alcune manifestazioni in termini di "eccessi", alludendo alla contraddittorietà di una nullità che, per esempio, può sanarsi mediante conferma o arretrare di fronte a una eccezione di dolo (siccome evidentemente a monte, appunto, eccessiva) (2), rivelandosi infine tanto sporgente dal perimetro degli artt. 1418 c.c. ss. da trascorrere nella più ampia e utile categoria dell'inefficacia (3). Esorbitante appare anche la nullità del contratto concluso in violazione di norma penale -almeno quando il reato si limiti ad alterare il processo formativo della volontà negoziale di una parte -su cui si ferma il contributo di Antonio Sartor, Violazione di norme penali, lesione dell'ordine pubblico, nullità. Il rinnovato interesse, sul punto, si spiega alla luce del recente orientamento di legittimità che imprime alla sorte del contratto stipulato per effetto della consumazione di un reato una fisionomia diversa dal passato. La premessa per il mutamento di rotta è che occorra dismettere ogni approccio formalistico e superare il criterio della direzione del divieto, il quale aveva fin (1) N. IRTI, L'ordine giuridico del mercato, Bari, 2003, 52. (2) V. PESCATORE, Eccessi delle nullità, rimedi de dolo e recupero del contratto invalido. (3) V. SCALISI, Nullità e inefficacia nel sistema europeo dei contratti, in Eur. dir. priv., 2001, 49.

RESUMO: O presente estudo é orientado pela hipótese consistente na possibilidade de expansão, em sede interpretativa e por via analógica, do cabimento dos remédios ao inadimplemento contratual para além das hipóteses objeto de previsão legal expressa. A enunciação de tal hipótese remonta à identificação da situação-problema relativa à circunstância de o direito brasileiro não conter previsão legal expressa acerca do cabimento de certos remédios para determinadas hipóteses de inadimplemento que se afigurem funcionalmente similares (ou idênticas) a outras hipóteses para as quais os mesmos remédios tenham sido previstos. Para o propugnado desiderato de sistematização dos remédios ao inadimplemento contratual, o estudo se pauta na metodologia do direito civil-constitucional, desenvolvendo-se a partir de consulta às fontes bibliográficas e jurisprudenciais nacionais e estrangeiras.

ABSTRACT: Abstract: The present study is guided by the hypothesis regarding the possibility of expanding, in an interpretative and analogical way, the suitability of remedies for breach of contract beyond the situations object of express legal provision. The enunciation of this hypothesis goes back to the identification of the fact that Brazilian law doesn’t contain an express legal provision regarding the appropriateness of certain remedies for hypotheses of default that appear functionally similar (or identical) to other hypotheses for which the same remedies have been provided. For the proposed aim of systematization of remedies for breach of contract, the study is based on the methodology of civil-constitutional law, and develops itself from analysis of national and foreign bibliographic and jurisprudential sources.

A court exercising equitable jurisdiction can deny specific relief if the order is likely to lack practical effect. This article examines the application of the doctrine of futility to injunctive relief. It will first consider the validity of futility arguments in Australian and UK domestic litigation and then analyse international litigation, where futility is often coupled with jurisdictional questions. The article will argue that the success of futility arguments depends on the likelihood that the order will lack practical utility for the plaintiff as well as the strength of other discretionary considerations. In international litigation, concerns about comity can combine with futility to make it appropriate to deny the exercise of the court's jurisdiction. The recent Japanese Whaling Case demonstrates that futility concerns are also relevant in the case of statutory injunctions. In that context, the question of futility is linked intimately with the objects of the statute in question. A court should not refuse to exercise its jurisdiction on the basis of alleged futility where the mere granting of an injunction promotes the objects of the statute even if the likelihood of enforcement is small. 1 [2008] All ER (D) 322; [2008] EWHC 687 (QB). 2 Ibid [36]. See further below IIIA.

Another topic is derived from correlatives. If to have done rightly or justly may be predicated of one, then to have suffered similarly may be predicated of the other. Similarly with ordering and executing an order. As Diomedon the tax-contractor said about the taxes, "If selling them is not disgraceful for you, buying them is not disgraceful for us." And if rightly or justly can be predicated of the sufferer, it can equally be predicated of the doer, and if of the doer, then also of the sufferer. Aristotle, Rhetoric 1I, 1397a 23

Può un soggetto privato come la FIFA essere vincolato al rispetto della Carta dei diritti fondamentali dell’Unione europea? È il quesito che, tra gli altri, viene in rilievo dalla lettura delle conclusioni dell’Avvocato Generale Maciej Szpunar nella causa FIFA c. BZ (C-650/22) in cui, tra l’altro, è stata denunciata la contrarietà all’art. 15 della Carta di un regolamento adottato dalla FIFA. In proposito, vale ricordare che il sistema di tutela approntato dalla Carta pone una serie di limiti formali e sostanziali alla sua applicazione, escludendo, in linea di principio, che ciò possa avvenire nei rapporti tra soggetti privati. Nondimeno, l’Avvocato Generale Maciej Szpunar, ritenendo fondata la denuncia e considerati i limiti posti dalla Carta, riconosce e afferma l’applicabilità dell’art. 15 nel procedimento principale, ricostruendo il rapporto tra le parti in modo verticale ed affermando che, nel caso di specie, un soggetto privato come la FIFA possa essere funzionalmente equiparato ad uno Stato ai fini dell’applicazione dell’art. 15. Tuttavia, se questa ricostruzione, da un lato, consente di garantire il principio di effettività della tutela giurisdizionale, dall’altro lato, potrebbe condurre ad un “sacrificio” del principio della certezza del diritto, equiparando un atto di autonomia privata ad una legge sostanziale ai fini dell’applicazione dell’art. 15. A partire da ciò, il presente scritto suggerisce una possibile ricostruzione alternativa, che risulta in una operazione di raccordo e valorizzazione dei principi richiamati, evidenziando i motivi che giustificherebbero l’efficacia diretta orizzontale dell’art. 15 della Carta e offrendo una analisi di come il giudice del procedimento principale avrebbe potuto decidere impostando il rapporto tra FIFA e BZ come orizzontale.

Courts and scholars assume that group causation theories deter wrongdoers. This Article empirically tests, and rejects, this assumption, using a series of incentivized laboratory experiments. Contrary to common belief and theory, data from over 200 subjects show that group liability can encourage tortious behavior and incentivize individuals to act with as many tortfeasors as possible. We find that subjects can be just as likely to commit a tort under a liability regime as they would be when facing no tort liability. Group liability can also incentivize a tort by making subjects perceive it as fairer to victims and society. These findings are consistent across a series of robustness checks, including both regression analyses and nonparametric tests. We also test courts' and scholars' insistence that the but-for test fails in cases subject to group causation. We use a novel experimental design that allows us to test whether, and to what extent, each individual's decision to engage in a tortious activity is influenced by the decisions of others. Upending conventional belief, we find strong evidence that the but-for test operates in group causation settings (e.g., concurrent causes). Moreover, across our experiments, subjects' reliance on but-for causation produced the very tort that group liability attempted to discourage. A major function of liability in torts, criminal law, and other areas of the law is to deter actors from engaging in socially undesirable activities. The same is said about doctrines that result in group liability. Our empirical results challenge this basic logic.

The application and interpretation of proportionate liability rules continues to create uncertainty. Those rules have been introduced in all Australian states and territories, as well as under Commonwealth jurisdiction. This article focuses on one specific issue that has troubled courts. How does proportionate liability apply where a plaintiff brings an action for loss caused by misleading conduct engaged in by multiple defendants? Not uncommonly, multiple parties might be responsible for, or participate in, misleading conduct that contravenes s 18 of the ACL (or equivalent sections) in a variety of ways. This article considers the difficult legal questions that arise in such scenarios, a number of which questions remain unresolved. The answers to those questions may depend on the jurisdiction in which those questions arise, since there are critical differences in law between the different jurisdictions. This article concludes that where defendants are jointly liable for the same conduct, other than vicariously so, proportionate liability applies, at least in most jurisdictions, and despite some decisions to the contrary.

ISLER SOTO, Erika (2024) “Garantía legal y acción indemnizatoria: ¿son resarcibles los daños a causa del producto?”, en DOMÍNGUEZ HIDALGO, Carmen (Dir. y Ed.) Estudios de Derecho Civil XVII (Santiago de Chile, Thomson Reuters), pp. 1085-1101.

RESUMO: O presente estudo tem por escopo a investigação da polissemia da expressão “responsabilidade contratual”. A hipótese norteadora da investigação consiste no reconhecimento da distinção conceitual e funcional entre dois dos principais possíveis sentidos da responsabilidade contratual – a responsabilidade pelo (in)adimplemento contratual e a responsabilidade civil contratual (ou responsabilidade por danos decorrentes do inadimplemento contratual). Nessa investigação, desempenha papel de destaque a análise do tratamento conferido pelo Direito do Consumidor às categorias do vício do produto ou serviço vis-à-vis do fato do produto ou serviço, a auxiliar na compreensão das repercussões da supramencionada distinção entre as principais acepções da responsabilidade contratual. O estudo se pauta no método lógico-dedutivo, a partir de pesquisa bibliográfica e jurisprudencial acerca do direito brasileiro.

ABSTRACT: The scope of this study is to investigate the polysemy of the expression “contractual liability”. The guiding hypothesis of the investigation is the recognition of the conceptual and functional distinction between two of the main possible meanings of contractual liability – liability for breach of contract and contractual civil liability (or liability for damages resulting from breach of contract). In this investigation, the analysis of the treatment given by Consumer Law to the categories of inappropriateness of product or service vis-à-vis the fact of product or service plays a prominent role, helping to understand the repercussions of the aforementioned distinction between the main meanings of the contractual liability. The study is based on the logical-deductive method, based on bibliographical and jurisprudential research on Brazilian law.

SUMÁRIO: 1. Quatro tons de incerteza: a intelecção do prazo para a reparação do vício do produto na percepção da doutrina brasileira. 2. Do interior da tempestade, avistam-se luzes a brilhar. 3. Surgem as primeiras fissuras nas paredes da matrix. Referências.

Resumen: El documento analiza el enfoque del Código Civil italiano sobre los remedios contractuales y el equilibrio de intereses desde su promulgación en1942. Enfatiza la importancia de la gravedad del incumplimiento para determinar si un contrato puede resolverse bajo los arts. 1455 y 1456. El texto destaca que la evaluación del incumplimiento debe considerar el contexto económico del contrato y el principio de buena fe.
Palabras clave: incumplimiento, remedios contractuales, buena fe, contexto económico, cláusula resolutoria.

Abstract: The document discusses the Italian Civil Code’s approach to contractual remedies and the balance of interests since its enactment in 1942. It emphasizes the importance of the severity of non-compliance in determining whether a contract can be resolved under Articles 1455 and 1456. The text highlights that the evaluation of non-compliance should consider the economic context of the contract and the principle of good faith.
Keywords: non-compliance, contractual remedies, good faith, economic context, resolution clause.

El texto reproduce fielmente lo que expuse en el seminario “Cláusulas contractuales delimitando la autonomía de la voluntad”, celebrado en la Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad del Desarrollo el 16 de noviembre de 2023.
Agradezco nuevamente la invitación de mi colega y amiga, Lilian San Martín. El texto tiene el tono y el ritmo de una exposición oral, por lo que no hay referencias bibliográficas.
La traducción al español del apéndice de la sentencia y la corrección de estilo de esta ponencia correspondieron a Seren Ataoglu Colonnello de la Universidad Alberto Hurtado.

El  ensayo  aborda  las  restituciones  derivadas  de  la  resolución  por  incumplimiento en un horizonte comparativo dentro de la latinidad jurídica.  En particular, se comparan las soluciones aceptadas en el derecho italiano (latinidad jurídica europea), y las de dos ordenamientos latinoamericanos, Colombia y Perú.  Desde el punto de vista de la disciplina dedicada a la resolución y sus consecuencias, los códigos italiano y peruano son los más avanzados, mientras que el colombiano, que data del siglo XIX, deja un amplio espacio al desarrollo jurisprudencial de la figura.

SOMMARIO: 1. Introduzione. 2. Le città invisibili e il non-contratto. 3. Fare leggi con algoritmi: le microdirettive. 4. Dal contratto dispotico al contratto distopico: i self-driving contracts. 5. Regole e rimedi al tempo del diritto privato della sorveglianza. 6. Conclusioni (Against an algorithmic view of Cathedral).

Área do Direito: Civil Resumo: O presente trabalho tem como propósito a análise da responsabilidade civil contratual no contrato de empreitada, sob o enfoque metodológico da quantificação dos danos, analisando alguns danos típicos desse contrato. Diante do grande número de contratos de empreitada do sistema, é realizada uma introdução para delimitar o regime jurídico aplicável. Após, o trabalho foi dividido em três capítulos: no primeiro é analisado os danos típicos do atraso temporal do empreiteiro e do dono da obra. No segundo é analisada a categoria jurídica do cumprimento defeituoso e sua quantificação de danos. No terceiro são analisados os vícios ocultos que podem ocorrer em uma empreitada. Por fim, são realizadas considerações finais sobre o tema.

This paper provides a review of two monographs, L’inadempimento anticipato by Tereza Pertot and La garanzia nel diritto dei contratti by Luigi Regazzoni. Both books contribute significantly to the field of European private law and showcase different methodological approaches. Pertot’s
book explores the concept of anticipatory breach in common law and civil law systems. It also analyzes the Italian solutions and remedial categorizations. The work highlights the pervasiveness and contemporary relevance of anticipatory breach, arguing against a rigid search for specific legal categories and emphasizing the need for a flexible, principle-based approach to understanding the future non-performance of contractual obligations. Pertot suggests that the anticipatory breach should be seen as part of a broader systemic review of remedial hierarchies, where preventive measures are central. Regazzoni’s book investigates the general
concept of guarantee through a process of abstraction and generalization, starting from the analysis of individual legislative figures. Unlike Pertot, Regazzoni focuses more on the internal legal system before broadening the discussion to European private law. His analysis includes contractual guarantees in credit assignments, sales contracts, and insurance, favoring conservative interpretations that emphasize the continuity of traditional defect remedies. Regazzoni critically examines contractual asymmetries and proposes that guarantee obligations should be understood within a framework of broader legislative and remedial integration. Despite their different starting points and methodologies, both authors contribute to the ongoing construction of European private law. They advocate for the integration of diverse methodological approaches and emphasize the importance of dialoguing with both national and supranational legal sources. The review concludes by noting a convergence in the authors’ approaches to remedial measures, particularly the use of suspensive remedies to handle potential breaches. Both works underscore the dynamic nature of European private law and the necessity of legislative
interventions to harmonize and clarify legal principles across different jurisdictions.

An apology is an unorthodox legal remedy. Most likely it is also regarded as unsuitable as a remedy in the eyes of many lawyers. Yet we know that apologies are very important to many people, including complainants, litigants and victims of crime and that there has been increasing attention paid by the law to apologies in recent years. The reference to apology in a legal context inevitably raises questions about its meaning. What does an apology involve? What makes an apology meaningful? Is the law concerned whether an apology is given sincerely? Is an ordered apology an apology? This article addresses these and other questions, the role of apologies as a remedy for parties to a civil action, and court orders to apologise, and the grounds on which ordered apologies have been justified. It also refers to the apology as a remedy in litigation and other legal proceedings aimed at advancing public and professional interests by means of economic and professional regulation. The aim of the article is to demonstrate that apologies have an established remedial role in areas of Australian law and to identify some important issues and challenges that arise as a result.

Non-performance of contractual duties is a widespread issue in contract law, necessitating the use of numerous remedies and legal recourses to protect the offended parties. This research paper investigates the whole range of remedies for non-performance, including damages, specific performance, rescission, restitution, reformation, and injunctions. Damages, which can be compensatory, consequential, or liquidated, provide monetary recompense for losses suffered. Specific performance is a court order that requires the breaching party to satisfy their contractual obligations, especially where monetary damages are insufficient. Rescission permits the non-breaching party to terminate the contract and return to their pre-contractual position, whereas restitution seeks to recover any benefits provided. Reformation allows the court to rewrite the contract to reflect the parties' genuine intentions and correct faults or misrepresentations. Injunctions prevent the breaching party from taking activities that could cause future injury to the non-breaching party.
The report also dives at alternative conflict resolution processes, such as arbitration and mediation, which provide out-of-court solutions. Contract penalty provisions also work as a deterrent to non-performance by establishing explicit repercussions for breaches. The analysis uses major legal cases, statutory clauses, and scholarly publications to provide a nuanced understanding of these remedies. The paper attempts to provide a complete guide for legal practitioners, experts, and students by studying the ideas underpinning these legal remedies and how they are applied in diverse settings. The discussion emphasises the significance of these remedies in guaranteeing justice and fairness in contractual agreements, which ultimately contribute to the stability and predictability of business transactions.

RESUMO: O presente estudo examina o art. 412 do Código Civil, que limita o valor da cominação prevista na cláusula penal ao “valor da obrigação principal”. Assim como o art. 413 do Código Civil, a norma tem por objetivo coibir abusos na fixação da penal. Todavia, em que pese o louvável propósito subjacente ao art. 412 do Código Civil, nota-se o estabelecimento de um limite rígido e artificial, que já era objeto de crítica à época do Código Civil de 1916. Entre outras percepções, tem-se que muitas vezes a obrigação principal não tem um preço definido no contrato, ao que se soma a preliminar dificuldade de se definir qual obrigação pode ser considerada principal. Ao enfrentar o tema, o presente estudo sustenta que a expressão “valor da obrigação principal” não seja automaticamente identificada com o preço porventura pactuado a título de contraprestação pecuniária. O “valor da obrigação principal” deve ser buscado a partir do conteúdo econômico do contrato, inclusive levando-se em consideração o resultado útil legitimamente associado ao programa contratual. O estudo empreendido, pautado na análise da bibliografia nacional, se desenvolve a partir do método lógico-dedutivo.

ABSTRACT: This paper analyzes article 412 of the Civil Code, which limits the commination’s value of the penalty clause to the “value of the primary obligation”. As in article 413 of the Civil Code, this rule has the objective of preventing abuses in the penalty clause provision. Despite the laudable underlying purpose of article 412 of the Civil Code, a rigid and artificial limit is set, which was already criticized under the Civil Code of 1916. Among other perceptions, the primary obligation often does not have a fixed price in the contract, which adds to the preliminary difficulty of defining which duty should be considered the primary obligation. Facing this issue, the paper proposes that the expression “value of the primary obligation” should not be automatically interpreted as the price that may have been agreed as pecuniary consideration. The “value of the primary obligation” should be fixed taking into consideration the economic content of the contract, which includes the useful result legitimately associated with the contractual program. This work was developed using the deductive reasoning method, based on national authors.