Agricultural & Extension Education

Over the years, there has been an evolution of systemic thinking in agricultural innovation studies, culminating in the agricultural innovation systems perspective. In an attempt to synthesize and organize the existing literature, this chapter reviews the literature on agricultural innovation, with the threefold goal of 1) sketching the evolution of systemic approaches to agricultural innovation and unravelling the different interpretations; 2) assessing key factors for innovation system performance and demonstrating the use of system thinking in the facilitation of processes of agricultural innovation by means of innovation brokers and reflexive process monitoring; and 3) formulating an agenda for future research. The main conclusion is that the agricultural innovation systems perspective provides a comprehensive view on actors and factors that co-determine innovation, and in this sense allows understanding the complexity of agricultural innovation. However, its holism is also a pitfall as it allows for many interpretations, which complicates a clear focus of this research field and the building of cumulative evidence. Hence, more work needs to be done conceptually and empirically.

The purpose of research was analyzing knowledge of agricultural high school educators in Khouzestan province, Iran regarding biodiversity and environmental conservation (sustainability) in agriculture. This study was carried out by survey during April and November 2014. The method of research was correlative descriptive. All agricultural high school educators in Khouzestan province (n=55) were selected for participation in the study. A questionnaire was developed to gather information regarding knowledge of educators regarding biodiversity and environmental conservation in agricultural practices. Questionnaire reliability was estimated by calculating Cronbach’s alpha. Data collected were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Appropriate statistical procedures for description (frequencies, per cent, means, and standard deviations) were used. Based on results there is significant correlation between knowledge of agricultural educators about biodiversity and environmental conservation with communication channel, social participation, social status, individual competency, professional competency and specialized skills. Also the result for regression analysis by stepwise method shows predicator variables that were significantly related to the knowledge of about biodiversity and environmental conservation were entered. Approximately 60.6% of the variances in the knowledge of agricultural educators regarding biodiversity in agriculture could be explained by the attitude and skill to sustainable agriculture, social participation, social status, communication channel and professional competency. Thus recommended apply for the training classes to expand biological control important to be done. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-6-number-5-may-2015-jbes/

Advisory service provisioning on sustainability issues such as environmental care and food safety is considered suboptimal in privatized extension systems, which comprise a diverse set of private advisors. Apart from funding dedicated ‘public good’ projects, government also relies on these advisors to address sustainability issues in their regular service contacts with farmers. Policy measures have hence been proposed to stimulate farmer demand for such sustainable farm management (SFM) advice (pull measures) and to build capacity among advisors (push measures). This paper assesses two interventions, in nutrient management and mastitis prevention, that integrate pull measures (awareness building and economic incentives) and push measures (promoting facilitative advisory styles and optimizing knowledge system linkages) to stimulate advisory service provisioning on SFM. Results indicate that effectiveness appears to depend on an adequate mix of, and balance between, push and pull measures. Awareness building is a prerequisite to creating demand for such services and appears more important than economic incentives. However, awareness is not built by the interventions alone; indeed, a lack of awareness may not be the main problem: the broader institutional context may not be conducive to a proactive approach to addressing SFM if regulatory frameworks are unclear and inconsistent. The main conclusion is that, despite interventions having an impact, it is uncertain whether the demand for, and supply of, SFM advice will be sustained after interventions are withdrawn.

Grant funds specifically targeted to smallholder farmers to facilitate innovation are a promising agricultural policy instrument. They stimulate smallholders to experiment with improved practices, and to engage with research, extension and business development services providers. However, = evidence on impact and effectiveness of these grants is scarce. Partly, because attribution of changes in practices and performance to the grant alone is challenging, and the grant is often invested in innovation processes that benefitted from other support in the past. We discuss three modalities: vouchers, business development matching grants and farmer-driven innovation support funds. Our review points to an important and transversal outcome area of innovation grant systems: the creation of human and social capital to sustain creative thinking and innovative practices. Harmonising measurement on these outcomes = could enhance the usefulness and comparability of impact studies and facilitate benchmarking of different policy options for smallholder innovation.

The field of research on agricultural and rural extension and education, also referred to as advisory services and intermediaries, has always engaged with different aspects of the spaces in which agricultural producers (farmers, growers, ranchers) are situated and operate. In this editorial, I will reflect on the elements and environments which jointly constitute and shape the farm  and their connection with extension and advisory services in the digital age, opening up new digital and virtual spaces. Extension and advisory services receive ample consideration in current debates on digitalization and digital transformation of the agrifood sector, and are an important focus of attention for agriculture and food systems research, practice and policy . In this editorial, I will elaborate on some digital and virtual spaces as sites of extension and advisory services research, to progress the field of study for which The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension serves as a publication outlet.

Various authors have identified the potential relevance of innovation system approaches for inclusive innovation, that is, the means by which new goods and services are developed for and by the poor. However, it is still a question how best to operationalize this. Innovation platforms (IPs) represent an example of putting an inclusive innovation system approach into practice by bringing different types of stakeholders together to address issues of mutual concern and interest with a specific focus on the marginalized poor. This paper explores the formation and functioning of IPs with the aim of providing lessons on the conditions and factors that play a role in making them effective. The study shows the importance of social organization, representation, and incentives to ensure a ‘true’ participatory innovation process, which is based on demand and embedded in the context. Critical to this is a flexible planning process stimulating incremental change through so-called innovation bundles (i.e. combinations of technological, organizational, and institutional innovations) and reflexive learning (systematically challenging constraining factors). Furthermore, local institutions embedded in norms and values are crucial to understand people's decisions. Due to weak linkages between value chain actors, innovation brokers have a vital role in facilitating the innovation process. Overall, IPs are a promising model for inclusive innovation, but they require a careful assessment of and adjustment to the institutional context.

It is widely recognised that government intervention in development issues can shape people's perceptions and experiences. This study examined the influence of a Ministry-based extension system on community-based, problem animal control and perceptions among local arable farmers at the eastern Okavango Panhandle in northern Botswana. Using a survey of 388 arable farmers and key informant interviews, our results showed that participation of local people in the implementation of the participatory project was vital for improving people's perceptions and gaining adoption of the innovations, and significantly contributing to project outcomes. Lack of people participation in decision making, the extent to which farmers perceived extension agents as trustworthy, the number of extension agents and extension delivery methods were found to be important factors explaining farmers' perceptions and adoption decisions. Analyses also indicated that knowledge development alone (which is a form of community empowerment) was not enough to encourage participation and innovation adoption. Village project committee (VPC) members' and farmers' remarks about their socioeconomic hardships suggested that they preferred economic incentives over any other incentives. This suggests that community's immediate needs for livelihood and food security are among the locally pressing needs that should be addressed to drive people's commitment to the project. From a policy perspective, our results underscore the need to implement comprehensive interventions that address wildlife management and community development, and actively involve local people in management and decision making to achieve sustainability in human elephant conflict management. There is need, therefore, for government (particularly the wildlife departments) to provide an institutional structure for supporting community-based governance for the purpose of ensuring effective and sustainable wildlife management and conservation.

Purpose: This article examined how institutional factors influencing the promotion of two elephant crop-raiding deterrent innovations (ECDIs) introduced to farmers through a ministry-based extension system in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, have impacted farmers' adoption behaviour. Methodology: A standardised interview schedule was used to elicit responses from 388 randomly sampled subsistence arable farmers on how institutions influenced the adoption of ECDIs in five communities in the study area. This was complemented by focus group discussions to obtain in-depth information on the subject-matter. Key informants interviews were also conducted with purposively selected extension agents, village project committee chairpersons and village dikgosi. Findings: Four institutional factors were found to be critical for the adoption of ECDIs. These include institutional relations, availability and/or supply of deterrent innovation inputs, farmers' contact with extension agents and government support for extension services. Theoretical Implications: Immediate and widespread adoption of ECDIs in the ever-changing socio-economic and political environment can be enhanced by context-specific institutional arrangements in addressing social and organisational constraints to innovation adoption. Originality: This paper invoked organisational theory to contribute to the scholarly debate on how agricultural extension systems influence farming clientele's behaviour and social change. It offers the first attempt in the investigation of the role of extension and associated institutions/ organisations in promoting adoption of ECDIs among subsistence farmers in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Findings indicate that local farmers do not perceive extension agencies to hold monopoly of ideas and solutions to their unique problems.

Increasingly it is recognised that land management at a landscape-scale can deliver greater public good benefits than at the individual farm scale. Collective agri-environment schemes are one mechanism for achieving this land management, but such schemes are in the early stages of development in the UK and uncertainty exists as to their appropriate design and delivery. This paper is based on two research projects undertaken in Wales to identify key factors that might lead to successful agri-environmental co-operation. The research involved in-depth analysis of three existing farmer co-operatives in Wales, including face to face interviews and participatory workshops. Using the theory of collective action as an analytical framework, the paper identifies key factors that could be used to encourage and enhance the success of co-operative groups in delivering landscape-scale schemes. Of importance were: locally adaptable engagement strategies; working with group members previously known to each other; institutional arrangements that limited group size and which allowed groups to develop their own solutions and implementation rules; and external support offering the services of a local facilitator and funding for both planning and management stages. A clear finding from the research was the extent to which both business and social confidence can grow within such groups which opens up further development opportunities. Improving the farming community's capacity to co-operate will have far-reaching benefits for all public good provision and diversification activities.

Agriculture can serve as a unifying and contextualizing topic that connects science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects through similar knowledge, skills, and attitudes/beliefs (KSABs) exhibited in each. Agriculture can be an integral part of students’ primary-level curriculum, providing authentic and relevant material for STEM exploration. A technology-enhanced, project-based, STEM-integrated agriculture curriculum for fourth-grade learners was developed and implemented in a large urban school district in the northeastern U.S. Ninety-five students and four fourth-grade teachers participated in a study that sought to 1) add to the existing knowledge about the nature of upper-primary urban students’ agricultural literacy, 2) create a fully STEM integrated agricultural literacy curriculum that educators can easily embed in existing curricula to increase literacy in agriculture and STEM fields, and 3) test the efficacy of that curriculum. The curriculum included valid and reliable pre- and posttest knowledge and attitudes instruments and eight performance tasks designed to help students prepare for a farmers’ market. The findings revealed that students in the treatment group gained knowledge and had more positive attitudes/beliefs following the curriculum’s implementation compared to a control group. Implications for creating integrated STEM and agriculture curricula using technology-enhanced, project-based learning strategies are discussed.

The concept of an innovation platform is increasingly used in interventions inspired by agricultural innovation systems thinking, as a way of bringing stakeholders from a sector together to enable transformative change. An essential role on such innovation platforms is thought to be that of the ‘innovation champion’, but this role has so far not been unravelled. In this paper, by applying insights from management science to analyse three innovation platforms in West Africa from the Convergence of Sciences – Strengthening Innovation Systems programme (CoS–SIS), different types of innovation champions are mapped. The authors conclude that making a distinction among different types of innovation champions can be useful in identifying members for innovation platforms, but that the specifics of agricultural innovation appear not to be adequately captured by roles attributed to existing categories of innovation champions. Further research is needed to ascertain whether other categories exist, and how different innovation champions interact over time on agricultural innovation platforms.

Based on mainly primary data collected from 302 farmers in Punjab province of Pakistan, this study analyzed inputs use efficiency of and financial return from “better cotton” and conventional cotton. It also sought reasons for cultivation and non-cultivation of “better cotton” based on farmers’ socioeconomic characteristics and their direct responses to related questions. The findings of analyses revealed “better cotton” better than conventional cotton in terms of both inputs use efficiency and financial return.Despite being less efficient in terms of inputs use efficiency and financial return, farmers were growing conventional cotton primarily because the government agency responsible for agricultural extension had not paid attention to promotion of “better cotton” as in the BCI project area. Important policy conclusions are drawn and broad recommendations are made for the promotion of “better cotton” in Punjab and elsewhere.

The introduction of information communication technologies like mobile phones and radios as a form of agricultural extension has the capacity to alter household gender roles. The information access that was previously more available to men than women, has the capacity to empower farmers by improving their ability to turn food crops into market oriented crops. This implies that food crops, previously seen as women's crops, also become cash crops, which were thought to be men's crops. This change also leads to changes in agricultural gender roles. The anticipated increase in agricultural productivity also leads to men or hired labour participating in agricultural roles that were previously thought to be women's roles, so as to meet the market demands in a timely manner. The dual purpose of the crops leads to more joint labour provision along the agricultural production process and blurs the gender divide. The study used a sequentially mixed methods' approach among farmers belonging to five farmer groups in Apac district in Northern Uganda. The study indicated that the use of mobile phones in agricultural production altered agricultural gender roles, as well as the participation of women and men in the production of food crops and cash crops. The changes greatly benefited women farmers as they moved into commercial production alongside their husbands, which changed their socioeconomic status. The use of mobile phones and radios is important in fostering the participation of both men and women in agricultural roles that they previously did not engage in, since there is limited monopoly of information once a couple navigates issues of power relations surrounding the access to and use of the technologies.

This article focuses on the use of radio broadcasts as resources for those organizing and convening face-to-face discussion groups in rural communities across the United States in the 1930s and 1940s. Led by the United States Department of Agriculture, small group discussions took place with leadership coming from Cooperative Extension agents from land-grant universities. As public affairs shows were being carried on the major commercial radio channels, the USDA discussion project utilized radio broadcasts to introduce people to the methods of conducting group discussions. The article focuses on the national efforts of the USDA as well as localized attempts to utilize radio broadcasts in the service of democratic discussion, focusing on one of the most robust examples of a land-grant university—the University of Wisconsin-Madison—utilizing technology for democratic discussion in rural communities across the state. It notes shortcomings and challenges, as well as identifying the critical role that radio played in helping citizens and communities begin to think about complex public problems through the use of new technologies.

The purpose of this study was to compare the learning achievements and skills in agricultural practices between students who learned through the School Agricultural Learning Center (SALC) and those who learned in the normal classroom. Participants were 150 Thai high school students in grade 12 recruited by purposive sampling. The study included three steps: 1) Investigation of basic data for developing the SALC, 2) Establishment and development of the SALC, and 3) Use of the SALC for learning: Facebook and Line were employed as the channels for knowledge exchange, communication on learning activities holding and activities transfer. A posttest-only control group design was employed. The results revealed that the students who learned through the SALC exhibited significantly (p<0.01) higher learning achievements and skills in agricultural practices than those who learned in the normal classroom. Our findings suggest that the SALC is pivotal for improving the students' learning achievements and skills in agriculture and should be promoted to become a natural part of sustainable agriculture education.

With increasing numbers of the public using social media applications, Extension professionals have the ability to apply these same tools to connect with their clients. This article demonstrates how a social media toolset can be employed by Extension professionals by identifying how Extension professionals are currently using social media, illustrating how social media can be integrated into outreach and measured, and describing opportunities and challenges for Extension professionals enhancing their work with social media. With this information, Extension professionals will be better prepared to expand their outreach efforts using social media.

Purpose: We examine the impact of advice given by extension agents to Ethiopian farmers, as perceived by the farmers themselves. Design/methodology/approach: Using survey data from 2014, we analyze the perceived impact of advice on farmers’ incomes and crop yields. We use a bootstrapped instrumental variable (IV) estimator and the conditional mixed process estimator. Theoretical implications: The impact of advice will depend upon its relevance and whether and how efficiently it is implemented by the farmer. This in part depends upon the farmer’s ability and on the impact of fully implemented advice on output, which will vary from farm to farm. Findings: There is a positive perceived impact of most advice on both crop yields and income. However, some advice works better in drought-affected areas and other in non-drought-affected areas. Fertilizers have more impact on crop yields than income, possibly reflecting cost factors. There is evidence that the farmers’ ability to implement the advice increases with their level of education and that advice is being tailored to the needs of the individual. Practical implications: Advice has a positive impact on both crop yields and income. However, not all advice is equally effective and effectiveness varies according to farmer and farm characteristics. There is little evidence of credit advice having a positive impact. Originality/value: The paper is one of only a few to analyze farmers’ perceptions of advice impact and, as far as we are aware, is the first to analyze how advice effectiveness varies according to farmer and farm characteristics.

Educational offerings that utilize environmental and agricultural themes can reinforce basic education for students in kindergarten through twelfth grade (K-12) while also teaching about the environment and agricultural methods and products. A curriculum guide about the environment and food and fiber production was created for K-12 teachers. These materials were evaluated for their effectiveness in increasing student knowledge using elementary classes in several states. It was noted through pre/post tests that younger students, in general, made greater gains. Within five thematic areas, the greatest overall improvement was shown in themes related to the environment. Environmental topics covered, all in the context of agricultural themes, included the need to preserve shared natural resources including land, water, and air as well as the managing of the ecosystem and the use of non-renewable energy resources. Clearly such classroom guides have utility in teaching young students about environmental issues and their relationship to other important topics. This guide and its corresponding Website enhance both opportunities to transmit new knowledge as well as assess performance and impact on behavior.

Access to information and knowledge has always been a challenge for illiterate or low literate
learners in developing nations. As a consequence, pedagogical advances, for low literate
learners, have lagged behind, as compared to educational strategies for literate or highly
literate learners. The technological revolution based on access to Internet and cell-phones has
brought new opportunities to one billion low literate learners in the planet. There is evidence
that cell-phones are becoming easily available for users in developing nations. “Scientific
Animations Without Borders” (SAWBO) creates educational animations that can be watched
on cell-phones and other devices and can be transmitted from mobile phone to mobile phone
through Bluetooth® technology. In this article we report the results of a short survey
conducted by students from Maradi (Niger) with different groups; farmers, teachers in rural
areas, informal entrepreneurs and women in which several 3 D animations were showed on
mobile phones: cholera prevention, neem seed extract for insects pest control and triple
bagging for storage to prevent post harvest looses. The objectives were to find out the
perception of usefulness of the content and

Development-oriented religious organizations could benefit local communities by providing social services particularly in agricultural extension. U.S. President George Bush's "faith-based initiative" policy, aimed at allowing churches, synagogues, mosques and other religious bodies in the United States to seek government funding for social services recognizes this fact. Though governments will always have responsibility for poverty alleviation, religious organizations seem most suited to working with the poor. They know these people better and are likely to be easily accepted by them when introducing improved agricultural technologies. President Bush's policy has relevance for all countries, especially a developing country like Kenya.

Science communication, including extension services. plays a key role in achieving sustainable native
vegetation management. One of the pivotal aspects of the debate on sustainable vegetation management is
the scientific information underpinning policy-making. In recent years, extension services have shifted
their focus from top-down technology transfer to bottom-up participation and empowerment. There has
also been a broadening of communication strategies to recognise the range of stakeholders involved in
native vegetation management and to encompass environmental concerns. This paper examines the
differences between government approaches to extension services to deliver policy and the need for
effective communication to address broader science issues that underpin native vegetation management.
The importance of knowing the learning styles of the stakeholders involved in native vegetation
management is discussed at a time of increasing reliance on mass communication for information
exchange and the importance of personal communication to achieve on-ground sustainable management.
Critical factors for effective science-management communication are identified s~~cash: (i) undertaking
scientific studies (research) with community involvement. acceptance and agreed understanding of
project objectives; (ii) realistic community consultation periods; (iii) matching communication channels
with stakeholder needs; (iv) combining scientific with local knowledge in an holistic (biophysical and
social) approach to understanding an issue; and (v) regional partnerships. These communication factors
are considered to be essential to implementing on-ground natural resource management strategies and
actions, including those concerned with native vegetation management.

This paper draws from research on small-scale maize production in Mexico’s Central Highland region to discuss the geopolitical implications of everyday agricultural practices. An overwhelming majority of maize farmers in this region, as well as in the country more broadly, continue to cultivate locally-adapted maize varieties they have bred themselves – criollo maize is the vernacular term – despite decades of concerted government attempts to effect the widespread adoption of commercially-bred and licensed hybrid varieties. This state effort to restructure agricultural systems and food security according to nationalist and capitalist priorities is one tactic in a long and violent struggle for control over peasant land and labor in Mexico. By integrating feminist scholarship in geopolitics and in political ecology, I am following the lead of geographers who regard the materialities of everyday life as a foundation for political tensions and conflicts that are constantly unfolding along intersecting lines of difference. Though geopolitics has rarely turned its attention directly to theories of intimate socio-ecological relations, I argue that the field has much analytical and political leverage to gain by engaging with political ecology, and that feminist geographic imaginaries provide a crucial space in which to do so.  This approach allows for an analysis of how a dominant geopolitics of land and agriculture is being undermined through the routine production of criollo maize, revealing new potential for creating broad political alliances with social movements that are currently working toward alternative visions of agriculture and food security.

Inadequate number of competent extension workers in Nigeria has made the work very tedious and resulted to poor performance in the field. The regulatory agencies were found to be training and retraining the personnel on various areas of the extension service, but still, extension workers were found lacking the skills required for self-help groups' (SHGs) formation, management and evaluation, which resulted to non-availability of the groups in some communities or low performance where they are found. This paper discusses competencies of the extension worker in terms of knowledge, skills, attitude and personal characteristics that can be acquired or developed, with specific focus on identifying the competencies required by both baseline extension workers and their supervisors on initiating, forming, managing and evaluating SHGs. Delphi method was used in the study and the result revealed that 28 competencies are required to effectively build solid and formidable SHGs. These competencies were categorized into four main groups namely; organizational tradition and guidance, leadership building, system or style, social and external personal skills, and resource management skills, for easy training and assimilation of the extension workers. The paper recommends carrying out training of extension workers systematically; especially in group activities since the SHGs is their main tool of work. Also, to enhance the competency of the extension workers, professional values and training opportunities directly related to the needs of the extension worker should be stressed.

The study was conducted to determine the perception of food crops farmers on adoption of selected post-harvest technologies in Rivers State, Nigeria. A multistage snowball , procedure was used to sample 135 selected food crops farmers in the State. A well, structured questionnaire was used to obtain information from the respondents using both descriptive and inferential statistical tools. The result revealed that, majority (85.9%) of the respondents, were females while 84.4% of the respondents were married. The mean age of the respondent was 41.0 years and highly experienced in food crops production with mean of 15.9 years experience. Majority of the respondents (77%) attended primary school. The level of food crops farmers' perception on adoption of post-harvest technologies packages was positive, majority (78.1%) of the respondents agreed with the positive statements on adoption of post-harvest technologies, implying the possibility of high level of adoption of post-harvest technologies. The perception of the food crops farmers also had influence on adoption level of the selected post-harvest technologies packages with (P < 0.05). The study concluded that food crops farmers had positive perception of post-harvest technologies in the study area and the study therefore, recommends that Extension should make the technologies available along with training.

The study assessed the use of indigenous maize storage practices among farmers in Anambra State, Nigeria. Data for the study was collected by the use of interview schedule from a sample of 60 respondents. Percentage, mean score and standard deviation were used for analyzing data collected for the study. Results revealed that the farmers were using indigenous technologies such as baskets, aerial (over fire) in the kitchen, bare floors, among others in storing maize. The respondents indicated that they stored maize cobs undehusked in order to overcome wastage and obtained information about indigenous storage of maize from parents and fellow farmers. Major problems militating against effective storage of maize include: attack of pests such as rodents and weevils, diseases, termite attack and use of poor quality storage materials. The respondents indicated that use of materials free from termite, clearing of surroundings against fire disaster; use of durable materials treated with insecticides will help to solve the problems. The study recommends that provision of appropriate and affordable storage structures should be made available to the maize farmers in order to avoid wasting of the produce under storage. This will help to ensure food security among rural farm households.

Videos have the potential of enhancing learning among smallholder farmers. The study intended to establish whether timing and location of video shows influence learning among rice farmers in Kamwenge district, Uganda. A cross-sectional study was conducted by interviewing 48 focus group participants; 100 individual video participants and 16 key informants. Geographical Positioning System (GPS) mapping was used to establish the video catchment areas and distribution of video participants. Farmers approved the video for providing timely, useful and reliable information and bringing extension service providers closer to the farming communities. Majority (94%) of the farmers said that video provided useful information that fostered change in rice production practices and technologies. A one sample T-test indicated that the timing and location of video events are significant in influencing learning among farmers particularly by women, elderly and distant farmers. The implication is that locating video shows far away and running them late at night seriously compromised involvement by females, elderly and distant people. Thus, modalities suggested by farmers need to focus on adjusting the timing of video shows and ensuring rotational operational of videos in the respective villages or parishes purposely to reach out to the elderly, distant and women farmers.

Agriscience is an emerging field at the intersection of recently separate fields of agriculture and science. For meaningful communication with and engagement of public audiences around agriscience, researchers, educators, and the public must have a consensus definition. We used personal meaning mapping to collect public audience understandings of the individual terms agriculture and science to find spontaneous overlap. We qualitatively coded them and compared them to each other. Very few participants explicitly included "agriculture" on science maps and vice versa. However, many maps included terms that related to the other topic; for example, on agriculture maps, many participants included "biology." Agriculture maps used more terms related to tangible products, while science maps contained more terms related to intangible results and specific disciplinary areas. We found some overlap of categories with both sets of standards but in differing amounts, reflecting the career emphasis of agricultural programs. The lack of consensus definitions of agriculture and science confound our efforts to support both public engagement with agriscience and literacy efforts in both science education and agricultural education. This research could form the basis for larger, broader quantitative public surveys and comparisons across geographic areas.

The present study was carried out in four districts of Karnataka state during 2016-2017 to identify the factors influencing the utilization of information and communication technology tools by agricultural extension functionaries. Eighty Agricultural officers and Assistant Agricultural officers from Mysuru, Hassan, Tumukuru and Mandya districts formed the sample of the study. The results revealed that education, job experience, achievement motivation, innovative proneness, job involvement, e-readiness, organizational climate, mass media utilization, accessibility to ICT tools and training on ICT tools of agricultural extension functionaries were found to be having significant to highly relationship with their extent of utilization of ICT tools. All the 14 personal, socio-economic, psychological and communication characteristics of agricultural extension functionaries put together have contributed to the tune of 74.50 per cent variation in the extent of utilization of ICT tools. The results of the path analysis revealed that training on ICT tools, accessibility to ICT tools and education had direct,
indirect and largest indirect effects on the extent of utilization of ICT tools by agricultural extension functionaries.

Soil infiltration rate is often determined using difficult and time consuming field tests, but it may be more suitable and economical to develop a method which predicts soil infiltration rate based on easily available physical properties of soil. Therefore, a relation between soil infiltration rate and some physical properties of soil is needed. In this study, for predicting soil infiltration rate (IN) based on silt content (SI) and clay content (CL) of soil, a two-variable linear regression model was suggested. The statistical results of study indicated that in order to predict soil infiltration rate based on silt content and clay content of soil the two-variable linear regression model IN = 37.87-0.315 SI-0.527 CL with R = 0.9042 can be strongly recommended. 2

Livestock currently contribute about 30% of agricultural gross domestic production in developing countries, with a projected increase to 39% in 2030. Iran covers an area of 1,648,195 sq. km. and situated between latitudes 25°3/ and 39° 47/ N, and longitude 44°02/ to 63°20 / E. Average altitude reaches to 1200 m. above sea level, and the Zagross, the longest mountainous chain, extending north-west to south towards the Persian Gulf shores, and then turns to east into the south-eastern provinces. The Alborz, chain forms another structure whose trend starts from north-west to southern margins of Caspian Sea. The central plateau is confined by the foregoing mountain chains and covers more than 50% of the country's area.

Στην εργασία αυτή γίνεται μια παρουσίαση του εκπαιδευτικού περιβάλλοντος της Αμερικανικής Γεωργικής Σχολής Θεσσαλονίκης, ενός από τα πιο ιστορικά ιδρύματα παροχής επαγγελματικής γεωργικής κατάρτισης στην Ελλάδα.  Στην εργασία γίνεται μια σύγκριση των αναλυτικών προγραμμάτων που εφαρμόζονται στην Α.Γ.Σ. με κάποια από τα πιο γνωστά μοντέλα αναλυτικών προγραμμάτων που συναντάμε στη βιβλιογραφία. Η εργασία αναδεικνύει τον τρόπο με τον οποίο συνδέονται αναλυτικά προγράμματα της αρχικής και της συνεχιζόμενης γεωργικής επαγγελματικής κατάρτισης.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5902/2318179610453

Este artigo analisa o processo de masculinização e de envelhecimento da população rural dos estados meridionais do Brasil (Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina e Paraná)a partir dos dados dos dois últimos censos demográficos. A ênfase dos autores está em discutir algumas de suas possíveis causas, demonstrar a importância destes fenômenos, assim como do debate em torno ao futuro da ruralidade nessa parte do país.

El servicio de extensión agrícola es uno de los principales vínculos entre la producción y el uso del conocimiento para la agricultura de los países en desarrollo. En la literatura, se han identificado agentes que actúan como intermediarios para vincular a dos o más actores que no se encuentran conectados. Sin embargo, pocos estudios abordan los mecanismos que éstos utilizan para intervenir y menos aún, una tipología que los caracterice e integre. Aplicando el concepto de intermediarios de la innovación, el propósito de este artículo fue develar los mecanismos que utiliza el extensionismo agrícola para articular la oferta y demanda de conocimiento e innovación. Para ello, se analizaron cuatro estudios de caso que emplearon diferentes estrategias de extensión. Los resultados indican que una caracterización de intermediarios se realiza por el nivel de participación en la toma de decisiones de los agricultores, la estrategia que utiliza el intermediario para orquestar el proceso de gestión de innovación, el contexto del sistema de producción en que se interviene y si el intermediario se orienta hacia la oferta, demanda o juega un papel neutral en ese proceso. A partir de ello, los intermediarios se clasificaron como gestores, mediadores, moderadores e implementadores, concluyendo que cada uno de ellos requiere recursos, soporte y evaluación de resultados de forma diferenciada en los procesos de extensión.

The present study was conducted in the year 2016-17 in Bagalkot district of Karnataka state witha sample size of 120 farmers. Random sampling procedure was used to select the sample. The data was collected with the help of pre structured interview schedule. The socio-economic profile of the respondents revealed majority (72.50 %) of the farmers was belonged to middle age category, 54.27 per cent of respondents belong to semi medium land holding category, 85 percent) were in medium income category,

This paper analyzed the factors determining participation in irrigation project on agro pastoral household and their perception towards the scheme. The study result depends on cross-sectional data collected from a sample of 144 households of which 72 irrigation users and 72 non-users using a combination of multistage, stratified and random sampling. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and logistic regression to assess factors that affect participation in irrigation. Result revealed that agro pastoralists do have medium to very strong perception towards different aspects of irrigation performance indicator variable. It is observed that among the variables in logistic regression age, sex, income, input use and participation in cooperative organization have affected participation significantly and positively, while, farm experience, distance to the district market, and total livestock unit, affected participation in irrigation significantly and negatively. The study has also substantiated that irrigation in the study area has significant role on income and recommend that it shall be great and rewarding if policy makers, designers, implementers, and any funding agencies with similar interest. Further, capitalize and scale up the project to achieve the development plan and objective.

This study investigated information needs and challenges of agricultural researchers and extension workers in Edo State, Nigeria. Proportionate sampling technique was used to select 106 respondents. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. The majority (71.6 %) of respondents indicated their need for information with respect to climate change and adaptation measures (71.6 %). Extension workers communicated more with agricultural researchers monthly (77.5 %). Lack of office-wide internet connectivity (2.06±1.08), unstable power supply (2.05±1.07), and non-subscription to relevant online resources by employer (2.05±1.07) inhibited respondents from meeting their information needs. The study recommends that Edo State ministry of agriculture and the management of the research institutes, should improve ICT infrastructure in their establishments in order to enhance access to e-resources by staff.

Although cocoa is a commodity of excellence in Indonesia after oil palm and rubber, its production has not improved much
possibly due to the lack of technological improvement and extension support to improve the competence of cocoa farmers. This
study aimed to (1) identify the characteristics of cocoa farmers, extension roles and competence of cocoa farmers, (2) determine
the effect of farmer characteristics and extension service role on cocoa farmers competencel, (3) analyze the extension approach
in improving farmers’ competence. The study was conducted in four regencies of Central Sulawesi Province, namely Poso, Sigi,
North Morowali and Donggala. A cluster random sampling technique was applied to classify into a relatively advanced and
less developed village clusters in each regency. The research sample was 380 in total. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)
was used to analyze data. The results showed that the level of competence of cocoa farmers is low because of the weakness in
cosmopolitan. The low competence is also due to the weak role of extension workers as communicator, advisor, dynamics role,
motivator, organizer and educator. The efforts to improve farmer's competence will require an improvement in the cosmopolitan
level and roles of extension workers as communicators, advisors, motivators, organizers, educators and dynamic role.

This present quantitative study documented the demographic base of 21st century Extension Master Gardener (EMG) volunteers in the United States. As the EMG program approaches its fifth decade and momentum builds for national leadership, collaborative programming, and innovative impact reporting, it is important to understand the characteristics of the current volunteers and their coordinators. A national study of EMG coordinators and volunteers was conducted in Fall 2016. Response was strong, representing 71.4% of state programs and 7498 volunteers. Responding state coordinators are primarily white females, have a mean age of 51.2 years, and have served in their position an average of 7.2 years. Most state coordinators (94.1%) have a graduate degree (master's or higher). Responding local coordinators are primarily white females, have a mean age of 51.9 years, and have served in their position 7.5 years. Some local coordinators (57.4%) have a graduate degree (master's or higher). EMG volunteers responding were primarily female, white, educated, retired, and of economic means; have a mean age of 64.8 years; and have served an average of 7.7 years. Four generations [Traditionalist (born 1925-42), Baby Boomer (born 1943-60), GenX (born 1961-81), and GenY (born 1982-2000)] were represented in survey responses. EMG volunteers were 14.5% Traditionalists, 73.2% Baby Boomers, 11.5% GenX, and 0.9% GenY. There were significant differences in the age, age at initial training, years of active service, and service hours reported in 2015 (the prior complete program cycle) among four generations of EMG volunteers. Responses from EMG volunteers and their coordinators represented all six extension programmatic regions established by the EMG National Committee. Significant differences in age, years of service, and number of volunteer service hours reported in 2015 exist among EMG volunteers across extension programmatic regions. The majority of EMG volunteers responding to the survey indicated they volunteered in an urban county (80.5%), whereas 17.2% of respondents served in a suburban county and 2.1% were connected with rural counties. There were no significant differences in the average age, years of service, and number of volunteer service hours reported in 2015 for EMG volunteers in urban, suburban, and rural programs. Historical data and the present study share similar trends within demographics, including age, income, gender, education, and race/ethnicity, yet offer important considerations for future program growth and development.

Education professionals must re-examine the use of labels for education and learning in diverse settings in light of new understandings of how people learn and updated goals for broader interdisciplinary work. The varied use of the terms informal education, nonformal education, and formal education draw distinctions that serve to divide, not unite, those working to support a wide variety of learners for similar agriscience education goals. What in Extension education is nonformal learning is informal learning in science education. Juxtaposing informal learning or nonformal learning with formal learning also serves, in the eyes of some outside the profession, to devalue the learning that actually predominates human learning, at least in terms of time and opportunity. Education privileges the facilitator, not the learner. One potential new term for consideration is free-choice learning. By breaking down silos, working across disciplinary boundaries, and embracing common terminology that puts the learner at the center, a profession of educators can better leverage resources, increase visibility, and ultimately, support constituents

Tendo em vista a importância da Política Nacional de Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural (PNATER) para o processo de reestruturação, reorientação e renovação do serviço extensionista no país, buscamos neste artigo apresentar e analisar as ações destinadas à sua implementação, assim como identificar os avanços alcançados e os desafios enfrentados pela referida política. A partir da análise de estudos produzidos sobre a PNATER e de informações e dados disponíveis em documentos disponibilizados pelos órgãos gestores, constatamos que, não obstante as mudanças teórico-conceituais, metodológicas e a ampliação dos investimentos federais nas entidades extensionistas, diversos problemas estruturais e conjunturais ainda persistem e limitam a adoção de metodologias participativas, a transição agroecológica e a exclusividade no atendimento aos grupos sociais marginalizados. Ademais, constatamos que a distribuição de recursos financeiros destinados à execução das ações de ATER em todos os estados da federação ocorreu de forma bastante desigual, privilegiando as regiões e estados mais desenvolvidos e/ou com número pouco expressivo de agricultores familiares.

Scholars in science education have reported an increase in scientific literacy due to socioscientific issues (SSI)-based instruction. While several SSI are related to agriculture, such as climate change, whether to eat organic food, land use issues, and the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), literature that connects agricultural education to the theoretical framework is scant. This collective case study investigates how National Future Farmers of America (FFA) Organization teachers utilize school gardens to teach science, including whether and how SSI are utilized as an educational framework. Qualitative data was collected by conducting semi-structured interviews with two Ohio school-based agricultural educators, and data was analyzed using the constant comparative method. Findings indicated both teachers utilized applied science teaching methods and expressed frustrations regarding the difficulty of meeting mandated science learning standards. While the teachers often integrated controversial topics in classroom discussions, fidelity to the SSI framework did not appear to be utilized.

En México el extensionismo como actividad profesional ha sido revalorizada, por parte del propio Gobierno de la República mexicana, de acuerdo con datos de la SAGARPA existen al menos 23 mil técnicos en el padrón registrado. Se han definido los segmentos de atención de los productores en México y se construyen nuevos programas donde la inclusión es un común denominador. Durante dos años un grupo de 20 especialistas de otras tantas instituciones se reunieron con el auspicio del CIMMYT-Mas Agro, para convencionar acerca del concepto de extensionismo, se llegó elaborar un documento de trabajo donde se describen los principios filosóficos, metodológicos y operativos del extensionismo en México.

Recently, the applications scope of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) has been broadened. WSN communication security is important because sensor nodes are vulnerable to various security attacks when deployed in an open environment. An adversary could exploit this vulnerability to inject false reports into the network. En-route filtering techniques have been researched to block false reports. The CFFS scheme filters the false report by collaboratively validating the report by clustering the nodes. However, CFFS is not considered effective against repetitive attacks. Repeated attacks have a significant impact on network lifetime. In this paper, we propose a method to detect repetitive attacks with cluster-based false data filtering and to identify the compromised nodes and quickly block them. The proposed scheme uses fuzzy logic to determine the distribution of additional keys according to the network conditions, thereby improving energy efficiency.

The present study was carried out during 2017-18 in the Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh state. This study was conducted in randomly selected 6 villages of two purposively selected blocks i.e. Burhar and Sohagpur of Shahdol district. The aim of this study to know the profile of audience farmers of Kisanvani programme. A total of 120 farmers were selected randomly as respondents. The data collection was done by the use of interview schedule through personal interview. Data were analyzed with help of suitable statistical tools. Majority of respondents belonged to middle age group, had formal education, belonged to nuclear families, had up to five members in their families, were small farmers and possessed 1-2 bullocks. Majority of the respondents were in the medium categories of annual income, social participation, extension participation and information seeking behaviour. Majority of the respondents had high attitude & opinion towards adoption of improved production technology.

This study examined the extension and forestry development training for rural women on forest exploitation with a view to enhancing their participation in forestry activities in the Central agro-ecological zone of Delta State, Nigeria. Three hundred and fifty women involved in forest related activities were randomly chosen from 10 forest communities purposively selected. Structured interview schedule was used to elicit information from the respondents about the necessary preparation, pre-training, training and post-training steps for the improvement of women’s participation in sustainable forest activities. Data collected were subjected to descriptive and inferential statistics using frequency counts and percentages. Chi-square was used to test for significant differences between the means. The results showed that the training needs indicated by the respondents included alley farming, controlled bush burning, chemical application, financial management and record keeping. Significant relationships were observed between the degree of involvement in forest activities and preference of training personnel (x2 = 88.05; P<0.05) as well as time of training (x2 = 52.21; P <0.05). Appropriate recommendations were given along the findings. This study has established that training of women in forest exploitation has a high significant effect on increased forestry development by enhancing their involvement in forest activities.

Due to the increasing population of Latino students in the Iowa secondary agricultural education program and the need for minority leaders in agriculture, the goal of this study was to survey a group of students in agricultural classes to understand their perspectives towards the learning components of the program. This study found that Latino students in Iowa secondary schools were supportive of the agricultural education program and interested in participating in experiential programs. Recommendations from this study are to encourage Latino students to actively participate in secondary agricultural classes. A greater effort from educators to recruit and research minority students is recommended as well as the involvement of colleges of agriculture in land grant universities. Together they ought to demonstrate a greater interest and take action in the recruitment of Latinos. Their effort to recruit Latinos in agricultural education programs is the best logical answer to diversify the agricultural sciences.