Department of Development and Environmental Studies

ABSTRACT
Harvesting of forest resources in the Lawra Municipality is an everyday activity that is mostly carried out by especially communities that are very close to the reserve; notably among these communities are Yagpelle, Kolbognuor, Zingkaa and others.
The people from these communities see the forest reserve as their source of livelihood in one way or the other because the forest reserve is a stock of many resources that are of so many benefits to them, such as edible fruits (e.g. Itarum senegalensis, Diospyros mospiliformis, Adansonia digitata and Vitellaria paradoxa), bushmeat, vegetables, medicinal plants/herbs, water, fodder and materials (grasses and poles) for constructing shelter, amongst others.
The effects of harvesting these forest resources also have profound impacts on biodiversity. Some of these effects include habitat degradation and fragmentation, creation of canopy gaps, and erosion of topsoil, among other things. This has contributed to the simplified structure of most forest habitats and the removal of ecological niches, which ultimately results in the diminution of species diversity. Although not all forest-dependent species are threatened by the loss of primary forest, the demise of some large mammal and primate species in the Lawra forest is directly linked to forest degradation caused by extensive logging and timber extraction.

VAT is considered to be the main source of state funding, given the importance of the revenues it generates. Thus, this work evaluates the performance of the VAT throughthe estimation of its potential and its tax gaps, following the "top-down" approach of deducting the VAT gap from national accounts and consumption survey data, thus providing an exhaustive assessment of revenue losses that may be due mainly to two factors: the lack of compliance by taxpayers and tax policy effects. This work also takes a closer look at the structure of the VAT tax base, analysis of which has shown that the wealthiest population absorbs the largest share of consumption expenditure, and therefore benefits from a relatively higher share of VAT-related tax expenditure, while the least wealthy households devote a higher share of their consumption to under-taxed and exempted products. It is also shown from the calculation of VAT tax gaps from 2007 to 2015, that its performance is largely impacte...

Jasmonates (JAs) are a family of oxylipin phytohormones regulating plant development and growth and mediating ‘defenseversusgrowth’ responses. The upstream JA biosynthetic precursorcis-(+)-12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (cis-OPDA) has been reported to act independently of the COI1-mediated JA signaling in several stress-induced and developmental processes. However, its means of perception and metabolism are only partially understood. Furthermore,cis-OPDA, but not JA, occurs in non-vascular plant species, such as bryophytes, exhibiting specific functions in defense and development. A few years ago, a low abundant isoleucine analog of the biologically active JA-Ile, OPDA-Ile, was detected in wounded leaves of flowering plants, opening up to the possibility that conjugation ofcis-OPDA to amino acids might be a relevant mechanism forcis-OPDA regulation. Here, we extended the analysis of amino acid conjugates ofcis-OPDA and identified naturally occurring OPDA-Val, OPDA-Phe, OPDA-Ala, OPDA-Glu,...

Concept of ecosystem services has been gaining enormous popularity after the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 2005. Identification of ecosystem services is crucial to estimate economic values of ecosystems and calculate monetary benefits or loses against its destruction, modification or restoration. Payment for Ecosystem Service (PES) scheme for certain ecosystem service is being used as a mechanism to provide incentive to supplers of the services by the beneficiaries. In Nepal, PES like schemes are in practice since a long time; though the discussions on formal PES schemes have recently been started.
This study has been carried out at Begnas Lake Watershed (BWS), a Ramsar site, at Pokhara-Lekhnath Metropolitan of Nepal. It aims to identify the principle types of ecosystem services on the categories of ecosystem services provided by MEA i.e. provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services and prioritize them. It also aims to fulfill the knowledge gap on total economic value of Begnas Lake Watershed by estimating it and ouline key components of PES for the watershed. Market Price Method (MPM), Travel Cost Method (TCM), Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and Benefit Transfer Method (BTM)  has been used to estimate its economic value. The study identifies variety of provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services of BWS. Recreation and ecotourism service has been prioritized most important followed by erosion control, fishing and irrigation, ground water recharge and discharge and habit for worldlife. The total economic value of BWS has been calculated to be US$ 9,744,539 year-1 and potential economic value of US$ 89,586,772. Recreational and aesthetic service is valued highest with annual value of US$ 8,592,863.
The key components of PES have been outlined based on perception of upstream and downstream communities. The willingness to pay (WTP) of watershed residents and beneficiary groups suggests the potential of PES in BWS.  The study outlines major stakeholders, existing PES mechanism, funding mechanism, SWOT analysis of priorized ES as potential PES scheme and roles of key stakeholders in PES development. The study recommends for development of PES mechanism for conservation and sustainable management of ecosystem resources for which ‘Begnas Watershed PES Advisory and Coordination Committee’ is to be formed to initiate PES mechanism development.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) defines ecosystem services as the benefits that humans receive from the nature, such as clean water, food, fiber, wood, timber, medicinal herbs, leaf-litters, bush meat, groundwater recharge, flood mitigation and climate regulation. Ecosystem services and human well-being are linked together, and the socio-economic factors mediate the linkage. Baghmara Buffer Zone Community Forest of Chitwan National Park (CNP) lies in Bachhauli Village Development Committee (VDC) of Chitwan District, Nepal. This study is based on review of available literature, records, statistical documents as well as online database of publications.. It suggests PES could be a best mechanism for conservation financing if planned in a way and guided by expert agencies.  Community Development works of BBZCF has instigated ownership for forest & wildlife conservation among communities. Community now believes that more benefits can be accrued from conservation of forest than from its destruction. Though there are different types of ecosystem services, the concerns are focused on only recreational and aesthetic services. More concerns should be given to various regulating services like carbon sequestration which could be prominent source of extra income. This Buffer Zone Community forest has not only reduced the burden of tourist inflow at Chitwan National Park but has been proved prominent source of income to finance conservation and community development.

Payment for Ecosystem Service (PES) scheme for certain ecosystem services is being used as a mechanism to provide incentive to suppliers of the services by the beneficiaries. In Nepal, PES like schemes is in practice since a long time, though the discussions on formal PES schemes have recently been started. This study has been carried out at Begnas Lake Watershed (BWS), a Ramsar site, at Pokhara-Lekhnath Metropolitan of Nepal. It aims to understand the perception of local residents towards the implementation of PES scheme in BWS. Furthermore, it also identifies key actors for PES implementation at BWS, their role in PES design and implementation as well as potential payment mechanism for the ecosystem services within the PES scheme at BWS. Finally, institutional structure for PES design and implementation is also presented. The study finds positive perception of local people towards initiating payment mechanism for the use of ecosystem services to ensure environmental conservation a...

Environment mainstreaming across the humanitarian operations and long-term development programs is imperative to the new way of working agreed in the World Humanitarian Summit (2016). Mainstreaming environment in Humanitarian-Development nexus is crucial to minimize the environmental impacts of humanitarian projects and to build long term resilience against environmental and climatic risks and vulnerabilities of communities. This study explores the current environmental mainstreaming strategies of humanitarian and development organizations at the institutional and operational level based on specific attributes. This study conducts the case study of leading humanitarian and development organizations, namely, WFP, IFRC, UNDP, and USAID, based on the conceptual framework on mainstreaming strategies derived from various literature. Multiple case study approach was employed based on information collected through various secondary sources and personal consultation with the organizations. ...

The aim of the study was to evaluate the work of the Local Democracy Agencies (LDAs) in Mostar and Zavidovići to provide a deeper understanding of the processes and changes instigated through their activities. The evaluation report provides accounts of the outcomes of the engagement of the LDAs in their communities. Based on the evaluation findings, the authors then formulate recommendations for LDAs and for ALDA on what actions might these actors consider undertake in order to improve their effectiveness.
The first part of the report describes the origins and development of LDA Mostar and LDA Zavidovići, envisioned objectives for their work, strategies they apply, their financial and human capacities and
major projects they have been implementing. The report then analyzes various stakeholders’ perceptions of the roles the LDAs play in local communities.
The main part of the report is structured along the outcome areas the LDAs envisioned they would impact through their work. For each of these areas, specific activities and projects aimed at tackling the relevant areas are described and individual outcomes are identified.