Papers by Ea Christina Willumsen
Proceedings of DiGRA 2020, 2020
Based on data gathered from an analysis of 99 digital single-player games, this paper presents a ... more Based on data gathered from an analysis of 99 digital single-player games, this paper presents a framework named the PO-VE model for analysing player objects in virtual environments. Player objects are understood as objects integrated in the virtual environment which constitute the player's point of control and thus frame their actions in the game system. A necessary distinction is made between player object and the presentation of characterisation, separating the notion of "character" from player object, which yields certain analytical benefits. The PO-VE model, which consists of 16 different categories and thus provides a high-granularity analysis tool, is presented using two primary examples from the data set-The Witcher III: Wild Hunt and VVVVVV-and discussed in relation to its potential applications, limitations, and contributions to the more theoretical domain of game studies.
Proceedings of DiGRA '19 - Proceedings of the 2019 DiGRA International Conference: Game, Play and the Emerging Ludo-Mix, 2019
Rumble is a feature of most modern games published for home consoles, yet no existing studies on ... more Rumble is a feature of most modern games published for home consoles, yet no existing studies on rumble and haptic feedback consider its various manifestations and functions in digital games. Likewise, analytical frameworks for understanding digital games tend to overlook rumble as a significant component of the game object or experience. Building on analyses of nine games from the PlayStation family of home consoles, this paper explores rumble as a two-level semiotic structure, consisting of a feedback source and (a) level(s) of operation. The two components are suggested as the base for a typology that accounts for the specific feedback source-environment, object, interface, or body-and its specific levels of operation as ludic, dramatic, technical, or an overlap of any of these. We present examples of each type to discuss the uses, applications, and limitations of the framework in relation to both analysis and design.
This paper will explore the borders between the avatar and character dimensions of the player fig... more This paper will explore the borders between the avatar and character dimensions of the player figure, as outlined by Vella (2015), particularly in cases where this line is blurred. Through investigation of five different examples, I suggest we use the measures of avatar control and character complexity to study the relationship between avatar and character in a given instance. Avatar control refers to the amount of agency the player has in a given instance in a game compared to the default mode of agency, whereas character complexity builds on transmedia and literary theory approaches to characters, to explore what constitutes complexity of the character in question. The analysis allows us to assess whether the instance can be considered representing either character autonomy or automated avatar actions, and in turn may help us understand the relationship between the player, the avatar, and the character.
Analysis of the source code of video games is not an integrated part of the formal analysis. Rath... more Analysis of the source code of video games is not an integrated part of the formal analysis. Rather, few scholars have investigated how an analysis of the source code can inform a hermeneutic reading of the game. In this paper, I will present a reading of the source code of Passage (Rohrer, 2007), argue for why a traditional focus authorial intention is unnecessary when investigating the symbolism and metaphors of a game, and illustrate how source code analysis can inform the formal analysis of the executed game. Finally, I will discuss how the source code relates to the game as a 'work', and how it can be used for studies of symbolism and metaphors. Thus, I will conclude that it is indeed a valuable method for game studies, although further studies should expand on the textual relation between executed game and source code.
This article explores how the concept of formalism and the resulting method of formal analysis ha... more This article explores how the concept of formalism and the resulting method of formal analysis have been used and applied in the study of digital games. Three types of formalism in game studies are identified based on a review of their uses in the literature, particularly the discussion of essentialism and form that resulted from the narratology-ludology debate: 1) formalism focused on the aesthetic form of the game artifact, 2) formalism as game essentialism, and 3) formalism as a level of abstraction, related to formal language and ontology-like reasoning. These three are discussed in relation to the distinctions between form and matter, in the Aristotelian tradition, to highlight how the method of formal analysis of games appears to be dealing with matter rather than form, on a specific fundamental level of abstraction, and in turn how formal analysis becomes a misleading concept that leads to unnecessary confusion. Finally, the relationship between game essentialism and the more computer science-centric approach to ontology is studied, to account for the contemporary trend of identifying the unique properties of games and opposing them with properties of, e.g., traditional storytelling media like literature and film, explored through their aesthetic form.
White-box analysis of video games is not an integrated part of the formal analysis. Rather, few s... more White-box analysis of video games is not an integrated part of the formal analysis. Rather, few scholars have investigated how an analysis of the source code can inform a hermeneutic reading of the game. In this paper I will present a reading of the source code of Passage (Rohrer, 2007), argue for why a focus on authorial intention is unnecessary when investigating the symbolism and metaphors of a game, and illustrate how the white-box analysis can inform the formal analysis of the executed game. Finally, I shall discuss how the source code relates to the game as a 'work', and how it can be used for studies of symbolism and metaphors. Thus I will conclude that it is indeed a valuable method for game studies, albeit needing more studies on the textual relation between executed game and source code.
This thesis explores the phenomenon of character autonomy, which I define as situations
where cha... more This thesis explores the phenomenon of character autonomy, which I define as situations
where character complexity is prominent in one or more categories while avatar control is
limited or non-existent. Avatar control describes the levels of the player’s control of the
avatar in a specific instance under study, while character complexity refers to how
characterisation is communicated in that instance. I argue that both concepts can be
measured on a four-point scale, ranging from high/full character complexity/avatar control to
no character complexity/avatar control.
Using the two models, I define various types of character autonomy; cutscenes,
forced dialogue, quick-time events, idle animations, unwillingness, and (other) unmotivated
actions. These six types are discussed in relation to the concepts of avatar and character to
uncover how the two are often interrelated and thus difficult to assess as separate.
Various theories from game studies (Lankoski et al, 2003; Vella, 2015), literary
studies (Margolin, 1986; Forster, 1985), and transmedia studies (Bertetti, 2014) are used to
explore the notion of character in video games and discuss how the model of character
complexity can function with the inherent connection between avatar and character.
Moreover, I discuss the various approaches to the notions of avatar (Linderoth, 2005;
Klevjer, 2007; Bayliss, 2007), player character (Westecott, 2009; Lankoski, 2011), and
playable figure (Vella, 2015) to outline how various terminologies are used to make sense of
the subject matter, and to critically engage in a discussion of what I refer to as the trinity
between player, avatar, and character.
The concept of character autonomy is studied through various examples, uncovering
how this can easily be mistaken for what I term automated avatar actions and define as
actions which are automatically performed by the avatar promoting the player’s focus on
game mechanics. Such actions, as for example the act of walking, can be understood as
limitations to the player’s agency and hence her avatar control, but have formal functions
that are very different from character autonomy. When studied in comparison, the two
phenomena illustrate how characters in video games cannot be productively studied as
characters in non-ergodic media, as an avatar is in many games necessary for playerinteraction.
The avatar may have its own functions and attributes, unrelated to the character
it can represent, constituting a paradoxical relationship between the two, where they cannot
be studied either in isolation or as one and the same thing.
I conclude by arguing that this illustrates how some core concepts such as avatar and
character are not sufficiently established to ground a theory of games. Being an
interdisciplinary field, game studies, including this very thesis, builds on concepts and
theories from other disciplines, especially that of narratology, and while much of this work is
productive and relevant for the study of digital games, we must constantly ensure that such
concepts are revised as medium-specific. If not, we may easily overlook some of the
intrinsic and fundamental elements of the digital, ergodic medium.
Books by Ea Christina Willumsen
The PO-VE Framework: Understanding the Relationships Between Player Objects and Virtual Environments in Digital Games, 2021
Based on a qualitative analysis of 99 different digital games, this study develops a framework fo... more Based on a qualitative analysis of 99 different digital games, this study develops a framework for understanding the functionality and relationships between player objects and virtual environments, explored in what has been named the PO-VE framework. The PO-VE framework encompasses a general theory, a dedicated terminology, and an analysis model. A virtual environment is a navigable geometry and a computational, relational model that represents the relative positions and functions of objects within it. Based on a relational and functional approach, objects are conceived of as integrated in the virtual environment by being spatially and functionally related to other objects within it, thus emphasising the virtual environment’s relational system-structure. Within the virtual environment, player objects constitute the player’s point of control. As integrated and movable objects, they consist of attributes (properties such as health, speed, and size) and affordances (possible actions such as running, shooting, and jumping). In most cases, player objects are dynamic (i.e., their attributes and affordances are altered over time); they can not only move along a single axis, but also be used for navigating the virtual environment along multiple axes; and they have some sort of visual presentation, which varies according to the specific visual framing of the player object and the virtual environment. The PO-VE framework results from an analysis and iterative coding process of 99 digital games. The games were chosen using a purposive sampling method guided by a pre-conceptualisation of what constitutes an avatar-based game (the initial focus of the study), popular game examples from game studies literature, and certain diversity labels: year of publication, platform, and country of origin. The PO-VE framework thus results from observational data iteratively translated into codes from games published between 1978 and 2018, across 32 different platforms, developed in 17 different countries. The iterative data collection and coding process, which resembled to some extent that of grounded theory, was finally conceptualised into the PO-VE framework, consisting of a general theory of virtual environments as relational systems, a terminology of player objects in virtual environments, and an analysis model that consists of seven categories related to different aspects of PO-VE relations. To illustrate the applicability of the PO-VE model, two levels of application were employed. The first was a broad analysis of the 78 of the 99 games in the sample that meet the player object definition, which reveals general trends and patterns according to types, genres, and production year of games. The second were close readings of ten chosen games from the sample: Space Attack, Altered Beast, Passage, Hotline Miami, Subway Surfers, ZombiU, LEGO Marvel Super Heroes, Papers, Please, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, and Reigns: Her Majesty, that each illustrate the depth of the PO-VE framework, while also clarifying some of the limitations of the framework, including how and why some games, such as Papers, Please and Reigns: Her Majesty, cannot be analysed using the PO-VE framework. The relational foundation of the PO-VE model offers a unique and descriptive approach to analytical game studies that utilises a functional understanding of the digital object. This enables a focus on the environment as a relational system and on integration within it, rather than, for example, on rules, goals, or player experiences. Utilising an OOA/D inspired terminology in the analytical framework is a step towards bridging the gap between humanities-based, theoretical game studies, more technical game studies, and game development. This study is thus a contribution to the most fundamental level of any research endeavour: attempting to map out (parts of) the research object and develop a language that facilitates closer inspection and ultimately a better understanding of digital games and virtual environments.
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Papers by Ea Christina Willumsen
where character complexity is prominent in one or more categories while avatar control is
limited or non-existent. Avatar control describes the levels of the player’s control of the
avatar in a specific instance under study, while character complexity refers to how
characterisation is communicated in that instance. I argue that both concepts can be
measured on a four-point scale, ranging from high/full character complexity/avatar control to
no character complexity/avatar control.
Using the two models, I define various types of character autonomy; cutscenes,
forced dialogue, quick-time events, idle animations, unwillingness, and (other) unmotivated
actions. These six types are discussed in relation to the concepts of avatar and character to
uncover how the two are often interrelated and thus difficult to assess as separate.
Various theories from game studies (Lankoski et al, 2003; Vella, 2015), literary
studies (Margolin, 1986; Forster, 1985), and transmedia studies (Bertetti, 2014) are used to
explore the notion of character in video games and discuss how the model of character
complexity can function with the inherent connection between avatar and character.
Moreover, I discuss the various approaches to the notions of avatar (Linderoth, 2005;
Klevjer, 2007; Bayliss, 2007), player character (Westecott, 2009; Lankoski, 2011), and
playable figure (Vella, 2015) to outline how various terminologies are used to make sense of
the subject matter, and to critically engage in a discussion of what I refer to as the trinity
between player, avatar, and character.
The concept of character autonomy is studied through various examples, uncovering
how this can easily be mistaken for what I term automated avatar actions and define as
actions which are automatically performed by the avatar promoting the player’s focus on
game mechanics. Such actions, as for example the act of walking, can be understood as
limitations to the player’s agency and hence her avatar control, but have formal functions
that are very different from character autonomy. When studied in comparison, the two
phenomena illustrate how characters in video games cannot be productively studied as
characters in non-ergodic media, as an avatar is in many games necessary for playerinteraction.
The avatar may have its own functions and attributes, unrelated to the character
it can represent, constituting a paradoxical relationship between the two, where they cannot
be studied either in isolation or as one and the same thing.
I conclude by arguing that this illustrates how some core concepts such as avatar and
character are not sufficiently established to ground a theory of games. Being an
interdisciplinary field, game studies, including this very thesis, builds on concepts and
theories from other disciplines, especially that of narratology, and while much of this work is
productive and relevant for the study of digital games, we must constantly ensure that such
concepts are revised as medium-specific. If not, we may easily overlook some of the
intrinsic and fundamental elements of the digital, ergodic medium.
Books by Ea Christina Willumsen