Word Classes

Keywords: Infinitive; Nominalizations; Word-class change.

In ancient Indo-European languages, the infinitive arises from the grammaticalization of a deverbal noun as a part of the verbal paradigm (Kuryłowicz 1964: 158-170; Bauer 2000: 337-349; Ramat 2002; Kapović 2017: 104; Lundquist & Yates 2018: 2110). This process is somehow completed in some languages (Latin, Ancient Greek, Balto-Slavic), where the infinitive shows the accusative government (Lat. mulcere dedit fluctus ‘(he) allowed (you) to rule the sea’ Verg. Aen. 1.66; Gk. líssom’ Akhillêï methémen khólon ‘I beg (you) to let go (your) anger against Achilles’ A, 283), while still ongoing in others (Vedic, Avestan), where it shows both genitive and accusative government (Ved. kó […] gāt práṣṭum etát ‘who will go to ask it? R̥V. 1.164.4d’; dhánānām sātáye ‘for the conquering of wealth’ R̥V. 1.4.9c). As a result, the infinitive has acquired a consistent number of verbal categories in Greek and Latin (namely, tense, aspect and diathesis: Fabrizio 2018a-b-c), unlike in Vedic (García Ramón 1995, 1997, 2009; Lazzeroni 2012): as such, it is conceivable as an action noun (Comrie & Thompson 1985) and cross-linguistically as an Action-Argument (in Croft’s terms: Croft 2001).
This contribution aims at: 1) investigating the morphological encoding of the Action-Argument correlation in three ancient Indo-European languages: Early Latin, Homeric Greek, and R̥gvedic Sanskrit; 2) giving an account of the process of word-class change that the infinitive undergoes.
In order to do so, following the methodology adopted by Alfieri (2020), we collect 300 tokens of Action-Arguments in each language and carry out a morphological analysis of the means with which it is encoded (e.g., the kind of suffixes involved), and a syntactic analysis of the government strategy. We expect to find both nominal strategies (i.e., primarily nominalizations by means of suffixes, with both accusative and genitive government, as Lat. -tio, -tus, Gk. -sis, -tis, -tus, Skt. -ti, -tu) and verbal strategies (i.e., infinitives, with accusative government, as Lat. -are, -ari, -isse, Gk. -ein, -nai, -men, Skt. -tavai, -ase, -tum) to be adopted. We then put into relation the stage of grammaticalization of the infinitive (i.e., the degree of its integration into the verbal paradigm)  in each language with the frequency of the different Action-Arguments found.
We expect to conclude that the word-class change of the infinitive takes place in the following scenarios: 1) in Vedic, where the infinitive is not fully grammaticalized, a wider variety of nominal strategies to encode the Action Arguments are found; 2) in Greek and Latin, where the infinitive mood has a higher degree of grammaticalization, the Action-Arguments are encoded more frequently with verbal strategies; 3) lastly, fewer but more specialized nominalization strategies are found in Greek and Latin, alongside the infinitive.

Keywords: Infinitive; Nominalizations; Word-class change.

In ancient Indo-European languages, the infinitive arises from the grammaticalization of a deverbal noun as a part of the verbal paradigm (Kuryłowicz 1964: 158-170; Bauer 2000: 337-349; Ramat 2002; Kapović 2017: 104; Lundquist & Yates 2018: 2110). This process is somehow completed in some languages (Latin, Ancient Greek, Balto-Slavic), where the infinitive shows the accusative government (Lat. mulcere dedit fluctus ‘(he) allowed (you) to rule the sea’ Verg. Aen. 1.66; Gk. líssom’ Akhillêï methémen khólon ‘I beg (you) to let go (your) anger against Achilles’ A, 283), while still ongoing in others (Vedic, Avestan), where it shows both genitive and accusative government (Ved. kó […] gāt práṣṭum etát ‘who will go to ask it? R̥V. 1.164.4d’; dhánānām sātáye ‘for the conquering of wealth’ R̥V. 1.4.9c). As a result, the infinitive has acquired a consistent number of verbal categories in Greek and Latin (namely, tense, aspect and diathesis: Fabrizio 2018a-b-c), unlike in Vedic (García Ramón 1995, 1997, 2009; Lazzeroni 2012): as such, it is conceivable as an action noun (Comrie & Thompson 1985) and cross-linguistically as an Action-Argument (in Croft’s terms: Croft 2001).
This contribution aims at: 1) investigating the morphological encoding of the Action-Argument correlation in three ancient Indo-European languages: Early Latin, Homeric Greek, and R̥gvedic Sanskrit; 2) giving an account of the process of word-class change that the infinitive undergoes.

In ancient Indo-European languages, the infinitive arises from the grammaticalization of a deverbal noun as a part of the verbal paradigm (Kuryłowicz 1964: 158-170; Bauer 2000: 337-349; Ramat 2002; Kapović 2017: 104; Lundquist & Yates 2018: 2110). This process is somehow completed in some languages (Latin, Ancient Greek, Balto-Slavic), where the infinitive shows the accusative government (Lat. mulcere dedit fluctus ‘(he) allowed (you) to rule the sea’ Verg. Aen. 1.66; Gk. líssom’ Akhillêï methémen khólon ‘I beg (you) to let go (your) anger against Achilles’ A, 283), while still ongoing in others (Vedic, Avestan), where it shows both genitive and accusative government (Ved. kó […] gāt práṣṭum etát ‘who will go to ask it? R̥V. 1.164.4d’; dhánānām sātáye ‘for the conquering of wealth’ R̥V. 1.4.9c). As a result, the infinitive has acquired a consistent number of verbal categories in Greek and Latin (namely, tense, aspect and diathesis: Fabrizio 2018a-b-c), unlike in Vedic (García Ramón 1995, 1997, 2009; Lazzeroni 2012): as such, it is conceivable as an action noun (Comrie & Thompson 1985) and cross-linguistically as an Action-Argument (in Croft’s terms: Croft 2001).
This contribution aims at: 1) investigating the morphological encoding of the Action-Argument correlation in three ancient Indo-European languages: Early Latin, Homeric Greek, and R̥gvedic Sanskrit; 2) giving an account of the process of word-class change that the infinitive undergoes.

This paper deals with the phonotactics of noun derivational affixes in the dialects of German. An analysis of the PhonD2 corpus with phonologically and morphologically annotated spontaneous speech data from 64 dialect speakers is presented. The results show the different frequencies of use of the derivational affixes and their phonotactic cluster. Correlations between form and function can also be demonstrated insofar as certain phonotactic clusters are used in a polyfunctional manner i.e. occur with many different derivational affixes, while other clusters are restricted to individual affix types. Furthermore, the study reveals asymmetries between prefixes and suffixes, for example regarding their phonological word status and sonority sequence. In addition, regional distributions appear for certain phonotactic patterns, such as the syncope of Ge+ and plosive after velar nasal in +ung.

English. This paper illustrates methods and tools to study the development of research topics in the TEI community across the years. For this purpose, automatic terminology extraction technologies were exploited. Italiano. Questo contributo illustra metodi e strumenti per studiare il cambiamento diacronico degli interessi di ricerca della comunità TEI grazie all'uso di metodi di estrazione automatica della terminologia da corpora di dominio. 1

Living languages are in a continuous motion, adapting to the social contexts in which they are used; they take form as different registers or dialects, they appear in the written or spoken mode, and, above all, they move withtime, changing chronologically. A specific instance of chronological change occurs in the individual. When languages are acquired or lost, they adapt to the successively changing constraints of the speaker's mind and to the conditions of the social environment.

Since the Middle Ages, the Danish indirect object (IO) has undergone a narrowing of its potential in terms of semantic role and its ability to occur without a valence slot provided by a 3-place verb, i.e. the possibility of free IOs. The study examines a particular stage in this diachronic process: the IOs in 16th c. Danish. The study is based on three religious texts. It finds that about half the IOs designate Recipients, which is a lower share than what has been found in a study of 17th c. Danish IOs. The 16th c. IOs include around 10% free IOs, which is noticeably higher than in the 17th c. data. The results of the study provide empirical underpinning for the theoretical account of the IO's narrowing process.

Handout for paper given at the M.O.T. (Montreal Ottawa Toronto) Graduate Conference in Linguistics, Toronto, May, 1989. The general argument was that there are many prepositions or case suffixes in some languages, and thus they should be seen as open classes, not closed ones, even though they might be regarded as functional categories (though that is not clear).

am thankful for the comments from the WCCFL 34 reviewers and audience members. I also want to thank Brent Henderson, and Youssef Haddad for their help on this topic. 2 The Revised Subset Principle (De Belder & Van Craenenbroeck 2014), a technical mechanism for the use of functional forms in a lexical domain in DM, is not used here as it drastically overgenerates, suggesting that any FVI can be inserted at a root node despite such examples being limited. This idea also contradicts unidirectionality and grammaticalization, whereby lexical items become functional, not the other way around. 3 Adpositions of a strictly functional nature are argued to be the realization of the F-nodes that define the domain.

Previous research suggests that the size and social structure of the community may play a crucial role in shaping linguistic features in the early stages of language evolution (e.g., Lupyan & Dale, 2010; Meir & Sandler, to appear; Raviv, Meyer, & Lev-Ari, 2019). Specifically, it was hypothesized that emerging sign languages that develop in small and tightly-knit communities (village sign languages) tend to have less conventionalized structure. In contrast, languages emerging in bigger communities and/or in communities whose members have less shared background (deaf community sign languages) tend to be more uniform (Meir, Israel, Sandler, Padden, & Aronoff, 2012). Here, we directly investigate this hypothesis by focusing on a fundamental feature of languages: word order. Word order is one of the most basic linguistic conventions, and is essential for expressing semantic roles (i.e., who did what to whom). Using naturalistic data, we aim to uncover how such a key element becomes a con...

This study analyzes the transitive constructions of ago in combination with concrete nouns and especially with artefact nouns. Since within the same basic meaning, attributed by the lexicographic tradition to the verb ago, a wide semantic variability can be noted, the analysis aims to investigate which semantic parameters are relevant in the modification of the meaning of ago in these verb-nominal combinations. For the
purposes of the study, the data analysis is conducted within the theoretical framework of Pustejovsky’s Generative Lexicon. The findings of the study make it possible to point out that the variation of meaning of ago is actualized in the syntagmatic relations that the verb establishes with the nouns that constitute its direct object.

Uvodno se razmatra termin leksikografska definicija. Obrađuju se osnovna pitanja u vezi s definicijom, posebno definicijski vokabular. Definicijski vokabular istražen je na primjeru tridesetak leksičkih jedinica u engleskim i američkim rječnicima, te kontrastiran s istim vokabularom u hrvatskim jednojezičnim rječnicima. Na korpusu definicijskih tekstova utvrđeni su čestotni odnosi i leksički kontekst najčešćih riječi u definicijskom vokabularu.Initially the term lexicographic definition is studied. The basic issues of the lexicographic definition are discussed with particular reference to the defining vocabulary. Defining vocabulary has been studied on a sample of some thirty lexical entries retrieved from British and American dictionaries and contrasted with the same for their counterparts in the Croatian monolingual dictionaries. On the basis of a computer-compiled corpus of definition texts, frequencies and lexical context have been determined for the most frequent words in the d...

This paper examines inflection and derivation in Modern Irish within a layered structure of the word (LSW) in a way analogous to the layered structure of the noun phrase and the layered structure of the clause in RRG. In addition to characterising elements of the morphology of Irish for inflection and derivation, we examine the role of the lexicon and the need for a morpheme inventory. We consider both inflection and derivation within an account that addresses the marking and formation of nominals, adjectives, determiners, and other elements including sort type, case, agreement, gender and number. For derivation, we discuss examples of how a new member of a lexical category is formed, and how lexical meaning may be modified within the LSW in RRG. We indicate in our conceptualisation of the layered structure of the word how it would cater for derivation and inflection. We discuss the need for an inventory of morphemes to support inflection, similar to the syntactic inventory. Morphemes will be expressed, and represented, as part of a language specific morpheme inventory. In contrast, we claim that morphemes with a meaning or concept definition, i.e., lexemes, are to be found within the lexicon and formulated as concepts compatible with Qualia Theory, and the recent Lexical Constructional templates of Mairal et al (Mairal Usón, and Ruiz de Mendoza 2008, 2009), and connect with the RRG linking system. The basic theory of RRG is to be found in and , including accounts of the layered structure of the clause (LSC), the layered structure of the noun phrase (LSNP) and Qualia Theory

Расим Садыхов
Грамматика немецкого языка
Учебник для русскоязычных
«Грамматика немецкого языка» является учебным  материалом для собирающихся изучать немецкий язык русскоговорящих граждан любой страны. В книге приведены описания всех основных законов и правил немецкой грамматики на русском языке, а также необходимые для ускорения процесса изучения многочисленные примеры. Настоящий учебник оснащён простыми словарями и таблицами и предназначен для учащихся всех возрастов. Учебник написан с единственной целью – помочь русскоязычному читателю в изучении правильного немецкого языка. С этим учебным пособием вы сможете изучать немецкий как в домашних условиях, так и в школах, университетах и на языковых курсах. В этом случае изложение правил грамматики на доступном вам языке (на русском) ускорит процесс в несколько раз.
Все права защищены. Полное или частичное копирование материалов и передача их третьим лицам запрещены.
Согласование использования материалов в научных целях производится с автором в письменном виде.

Rasim Sadikhov
Grundlagen der Deutschen Sprache
Das Lehrwerk für Russischsprechende
“Die Grammatik der deutschen Sprache” ist ein Lehrwerk für die Russischsprechenden, die Deutsch lernen wollen. Im Lehrwerk wurden die Grammatikregeln des Deutschen auf Russisch beschrieben. Durch viele Beispiele, allesamt auf Deutsch, soll der Lernprozess beschleunigt werden. Abschließend mit einem einfachen Wörterbuch versehen, ist es für alle Altersgruppen, die Deutsch lernen wollen, geeignet.
Alle Rechte vorbehalten. Die Vervielfachung und Weitergabe des Inhalts des Lehrwerks ist untersagt. Die Nutzung der Materialien des Lehrwerks für wissenschaftliche Zwecke ist vorher mit dem Autor schriftlich zu vereinbaren.

Hinweis zu § 52a UrhG: Weder das Werk noch seine Teile dürfen ohne eine solche Einwilligung überspielt, gespeichert und in ein Netzwerk eingespielt werden. Dies gilt auch für Intranets von Firmen und von Schulen und sonstigen Bildungseinrichtungen.

Расим Садыхов
Грамматика немецкого языка
Учебник для русскоязычных
«Грамматика немецкого языка» является учебным  материалом для собирающихся изучать немецкий язык русскоговорящих граждан любой страны. В книге приведены описания всех основных законов и правил немецкой грамматики на русском языке, а также необходимые для ускорения процесса изучения многочисленные примеры. Настоящий учебник оснащён простыми словарями и таблицами и предназначен для учащихся всех возрастов. Учебник написан с единственной целью – помочь русскоязычному читателю в изучении правильного немецкого языка. С этим учебным пособием вы сможете изучать немецкий как в домашних условиях, так и в школах, университетах и на языковых курсах. В этом случае изложение правил грамматики на доступном вам языке (на русском) ускорит процесс в несколько раз.
Все права защищены. Полное или частичное копирование материалов и передача их третьим лицам запрещены.
Согласование использования материалов в научных целях производится с автором в письменном виде.

Rasim Sadikhov
Grundlagen der Deutschen Sprache
Das Lehrwerk für Russischsprechende
“Die Grammatik der deutschen Sprache” ist ein Lehrwerk für die Russischsprechenden, die Deutsch lernen wollen. Im Lehrwerk wurden die Grammatikregeln des Deutschen auf Russisch beschrieben. Durch viele Beispiele, allesamt auf Deutsch, soll der Lernprozess beschleunigt werden. Abschließend mit einem einfachen Wörterbuch versehen, ist es für alle Altersgruppen, die Deutsch lernen wollen, geeignet.
Alle Rechte vorbehalten. Die Vervielfachung und Weitergabe des Inhalts des Lehrwerks ist untersagt. Die Nutzung der Materialien des Lehrwerks für wissenschaftliche Zwecke ist vorher mit dem Autor schriftlich zu vereinbaren.

Hinweis zu § 52a UrhG: Weder das Werk noch seine Teile dürfen ohne eine solche Einwilligung überspielt, gespeichert und in ein Netzwerk eingespielt werden. Dies gilt auch für Intranets von Firmen und von Schulen und sonstigen Bildungseinrichtungen.

Pravopis nekoga jezika donosi skup pravila pisanja na tome jeziku, ali ne obuhvaća i ne može obuhvatiti sve specifične uporabne kontekste u kojima se pisani jezik ostvaruje. Pravopisi, i hrvatski i drugih jezika, uglavnom vode računa o općeobvezujućoj jezičnoj primjeni koja se pojavljuje u administrativnome i znanstvenome funkcionalnom stilu te u dijelu publicističkoga stila. Različita područja djelatnosti i različite struke imaju različite uzusne pravopise, koje bi svakako valjalo ovjeriti funkcionalnim pravopisnim priručnicima. u Hrvatskome jeziku objavljen je već rad o specifičnome odnosu pravopisa i dizajna.1 i u novinskim se tekstovima sustavno primjenjuju neka pravopisna pravila koja ne bilježi opći pravopis, a o kojima ćemo govoriti u ovome radu.2

This chapter reviews the fundamental classifications of nouns in Romance languages, as well as the criteria by which they are established. The main cross-linguistic differences to which these divisions give rise are also analysed, together with the fundamental controversies that are usually recognised in each of them. The main distinctions addressed are 'common-proper', 'count-mass', and 'individual-collective', but other less traditional distinctions among noun classes (such as 'argumental/non-argumental' or 'eventive/non-eventive') are also considered. The chapter pays special attention to the syntactic consequences of lexical distinctions. It concludes with an overview of class switching processes, in which lexical recategorisations are distinguished from syntactic ones.

The paper discusses the empirical generalizations in [Lyutikova 2024] concerning the distribution of short and long adjectival forms in finite and non-finite clauses. A novel hypothesis is formulated according to which short form adjectivals possess two case forms – Nominative and Instrumental – and hence are not devoid of case, as standardly assumed. The paper shows that with this novel assumption the empirical description of the relevant phenomena can be significantly simplified, in particular, the long form passive participles can be described as completely disallowed in the predicative position. I also propose an analysis, according to which: (a) long and short forms are in complementary distribution depending on the attributiveness; (b) the case of an adjectival can be assigned by certain (lexical) verbal heads, as well as several non-finite heads (c) short forms can also be assigned Nominative by the closest T in the case it is finite.

Acing language structure is fundamental for English dialect learners, however it frequently presents one of the most noteworthy challenges. Among the foremost foundational components of English language structure are word classes (parts of discourse) and tenses, both of which play a basic part in sentence development and meaning. This consider looks at the interconnecting of word classes and tenses within the setting of TEFL/TESOL, highlighting how a more profound understanding of these components can upgrade both educating hones and learner results. Drawing on classroom-based inquire about, learner corpora, and educational hypothesis, the paper examines common learner troubles, such as verb tense abuse and disarray between word lesson capacities (e.g., recognizing between things and gerunds, or descriptive words and participles). The inquire about assist investigates how unequivocal linguistic use instruction, communicative errands, and contextualized hone can offer assistance bridge the hole between frame and work. Discoveries recommend that coordination word course and tense instruction inside significant settings altogether progresses learners' linguistic exactness and familiarity. Commonsense suggestions for syllabus plan, classroom techniques, and materials advancement are talked about to bolster instructors in conveying more viable and locks in language structure lessons.

The verbal noun in the modern, currently spoken p-Celtic language Welsh is of a different nature than any other word class known in Standard Average European Languages (SAEs), to which the Insular Celtic tongues do not belong. This subject has occasionally attracted attention. Welsh language grammars clearly identify a berfenw 'verb noun', which Thomas (1996, p. 28) calls a citation form with no specific person or time allocation. However, non-Welsh descriptions of the verbal noun tend to trigger confusion by allocating varied SAE terms to it, like 'verb noun infinitives' (Myhill, 1985), 'verbal noun infinitives' (Carnie & Guilfoyle, 2000, p. 10), 'infinitives' (Borsley et al., 2007, p. 70), and 'non-finite verb(al) forms' (Sackmann, 2022, p. 2), most of them belittling the prominent nominal functions of this word class. Coming from a historical perspective, Scherschel et al. (2018) call the Welsh verbal noun an 'event noun', which seems more appropriate, as is shown in this paper, in which a detailed analysis of the major features of this Welsh word class is carried out.

The developpement of world economy generated the apparition of big multinational companies that implement their activities at global level. This generates new working and communication methods and procedures designed to take advantage of the current context. Nevertheless few authors really analyzed the effects and evolutions producced by them. Our paper will therefore try to illustrate the new relations and concepts that appear within multinational companies by analyzing how the headquarter and the subsidiaries are communicating by pointing out the effects of different variables. A special point will be given to the national dimension of the subsidiaries and especially to those in developping countries in order to identify the position of the managers and the local structures in the multinational network. Our results will help managers and academics improve the communication in multinational companies and more especially to treat their relations with their subsidiaries across the gl...

Complex sentences display a relation between two or more events, and different languages have different strategies to deal with the encoding of the participants in each event. This study explains how referent tracking is maintained in switch-reference clauses in Santiago del Estero Quichua (Quechua, Argentina). However, since some data cannot be explained in terms of the marking of the (dis)continuity of referents at the sentence level, a functional perspective that contemplates phenomena of syntax-discourse interfaces is needed in order to fully understand the use of switch-reference clauses in this particular language. This is not an exception in switch-reference systems across languages of the world. The systems under study are usually functionally complex as they may provide information about the congruence between eventualities, with referential continuity being only one of their sub-functions. Therefore, these systems are closely linked to the marking of referential and temporal meanings. According to the findings of this study, the switchreference system in Santiago del Estero Quichua plays an important role in maintaining discourse coherence. This property of switch-reference clauses in the language is crucial for comprehending their role, not only in complex syntax but also in the organization of discourse.

RESUMEN: El objetivo de este artículo es analizar los valores semánticos
que suelen asociarse con los adjetivos grande y pequeño
más allá de sus sentidos puramente dimensionales
(vinculados, en principio, con el tamaño de las entidades
del mundo físico). En el apartado dedicado a la propuesta
lexicográfica, dichos valores semánticos se separarán y
agruparán de modo que, una vez ordenados y definidos,
se muestren como posibles acepciones de un diccionario.
A lo largo del artículo se pondrá el foco en mostrar
el carácter polisémico de las palabras que nos ocupan y
se tratará de explicar cuáles son los procesos cognitivos
que subyacen al desarrollo de los sentidos metafóricos o
metonímicos con que estas se relacionan habitualmente.
Las decisiones de carácter lexicográfico tomadas posteriormente
se pondrán en relación con ese primer análisis
semántico; con ello se busca dotar de coherencia la propuesta
y justificar, en la medida de lo posible, los pasos
dados a la hora de elaborar las entradas de los vocablos
grande y pequeño.

ABSTRACT: The aim of this article is to analyze the semantic values
that are usually associated with the Spanish adjectives
grande and pequeño beyond their purely dimensional
senses (linked, in principle, with the size of the entities
of the physical world). In the part dedicated to the lexicographic
proposal, these semantic values will be separated
and grouped in such a way that, once ordered and
defined, they will be shown as possible meanings of a
dictionary. Throughout this article, the focus will be on
showing the polysemic character of the concerning words
and on explaining the cognitive processes that underlie
the development of the metaphorical or metonymical
senses to which they are usually related. The lexicographical
decisions made later on will be related to this first
semantic analysis; the aim is to provide coherence to the
proposal and to justify, as far as possible, the steps taken
in the elaboration of the entries for the words grande and
pequeño.

Constructional models of grammar are helpful tools for the analysis and description of un(der)-studied languages, leading to more accurate analyses. This is despite the fact that as a whole, working with and describing un(der)studied languages has been afforded little or no room in theoretical or empirical discussions in the Construction Grammar community. In particular, we suggest here that The Constructicon is a useful tool for the description and analysis of individual functional domains, and that thinking in Constructicon terms is likely to improve the accuracy of descriptions, reduce descriptive ambiguity, and point at areas of incipient and completed grammaticalization. To illustrate this, we focus on the domain of nominal modification in two typologically distinct languages: Alsea (Oregon Coast Penutian / Isolate; Oregon, USA) and U̠ t-Ma'in (Niger-Congo, Kainji; Nigeria). We analyze the domain of nominal modification in each language as composed of sets of constructional families with different typologies of vertical and horizontal connections between them. This exercise illustrates how this type of work may contribute to typological comparisons of whole functional domains. Further, using Constructicons in descriptions allows scholars to explore general properties of constructional-networks based on a more linguistically diverse, and hence representative, picture.

After introducing the definition of exclamations, the boundaries between them and the phenomena that are referred to in the literature as similar are also explained in the book, such as: interjections, ideophones, onomatopoeia, formula (routine), fillers and invectives.
A special focus in the book is given to establishing firm boundaries between exclamations and other types of words. In special sections, the relations of exclamations with nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, adverbs,
conjunctions and particles are also analyzed.
.........

This paper explores the predestinative category in Samoyedic languages, focusing on Forest Nenets. It examines the syntactic and semantic properties of predestinative forms, comparing them with nominal tense and low applicative. The study proposes a bundling hypothesis, suggesting that predestinative markers spell out a bundle of an argument-introducing i* head and the D head. This analysis explains the mixed properties of predestinative possessors and unveils another possible bundle along with its syntactic effects.

Los adjetivos ALTO, BAJO, PROFUNDO y SUPERFICIAL presentan una red de significados de origen metafórico en los que estas palabras se relacionan con conceptos cualitativos alejados, aparentemente, del mundo físico. Estos conceptos se pueden agrupar, en el caso de ALTO y BAJO, dentro de las categorías ESTADO DE ÁNIMO ("ánimo bajo"), MORAL ("bajos pensamientos") e IMPORTANCIA ("alto ejecutivo"). En el caso de PROFUNDO y SUPERFICIAL, su vínculo cualitativo lo mantienen con aquello que, de modo general, podemos identificar con la esencia de las cosas ("sentimientos profundos"). Estos dos pares de antónimos presentan importantes paralelismos en sus procesos de evolución metafórica. Este artículo analiza la base cognitiva de estas extensiones semánticas y aborda su clasificación de cara a su tratamiento lexicográfico.

The adjectives alto, bajo, profundo and superficial present a network of
meanings of metaphorical origin in which these words are related to qualitative concepts apparently far from the physical world. These concepts can be grouped, in the case of high and low, within the categories MOOD (ánimo bajo), MORAL (bajos pensamientos) and IMPORTANCE (alto ejecutivo). In the case of deep and shallow, their qualitative link is maintained with that which, in a general way, we can identify with the ESSENCE OF THINGS (sentimientos profundos). These two pairs of antonyms present important parallels in their metaphorical evolution processes. This article analyzes the cognitive basis of these semantic extensions and discusses their classification for lexicographic treatment.

A Note on the Jifa in Chinese Buddhist Writing
Abstract: This is a preliminary study of the term “jifa” (presumably an equivalent of maṅgala) and its use in Chinese Buddhist catalogues and commentaries. From this corpus of texts, we learn details that help us to identify the opening marks in Sanskrit manuscripts as well as inscriptions on the one hand, and on the other the title mark on the scroll jacket discovered from Dunhuang library.

В статье анализируется понятие предикативной конструкции, предикативные конструкции в современном английском языке рассматриваются на материале современной англоязычной прозы. Представлены результаты анализа частоты употребления предикативных конструкций в различных синтаксических функциях, а также способы перевода предикативных конструкций на русский язык: простым предложением, придаточным предложением, деепричастием, прилагательным, сочетанием «инфинитив + местоимение в дательном падеже». Сделан вывод о главном способе перевода предложения, имеющего в своем составе предикативную конструкцию – простое предложение. На основе сопоставления различных способов перевода предикативных конструкций с глагольным элементом в составе и без глагольного элемента в различных синтаксических функциях сделаны выводы о синтаксической родственности подобных предикативных конструкций, зависимости выбора средства перевода от синтаксической функции предикативной конструкции. Зафиксировано употребление предикативной конструкции без глагольного элемента в функции сложного определения.

Pravopis nekoga jezika donosi skup pravila pisanja na tome jeziku, ali ne obuhvaća i ne može obuhvatiti sve specifične uporabne kontekste u kojima se pisani jezik ostvaruje. Pravopisi, i hrvatski i drugih jezika, uglavnom vode računa o općeobvezujućoj jezičnoj primjeni koja se pojavljuje u administrativnome i znanstvenome funkcionalnom stilu te u dijelu publicističkoga stila. Različita područja djelatnosti i različite struke imaju različite uzusne pravopise, koje bi svakako valjalo ovjeriti funkcionalnim pravopisnim priručnicima. u Hrvatskome jeziku objavljen je već rad o specifičnome odnosu pravopisa i dizajna. 1 i u novinskim se tekstovima sustavno primjenjuju neka pravopisna pravila koja ne bilježi opći pravopis, a o kojima ćemo govoriti u ovome radu. 2

Во многих языках функционируют так называемые условные формы глагола, маркирующие действие, которым обусловлено другое действие, выраженное основным предикатом предложения. Исследователями излагаются противоречивые точки зрения по вопросу семантико-грамматических особенностей таких форм в кавказских языках. В статье сделана попытка определить место рассматриваемых форм в системе чеченского глагола, а также их отношение к таким понятиям, как наклонение и предикативность. Ключевые слова: гипотаксис, наклонение, условные формы, предикативность, неосновная клауза, конверб.

The term demonstrative refers to a particular class of function words that are (primarily) defined by their communicative function and meaning. In their basic use, demonstratives serve to coordinate interlocutors’ joint focus of attention and to indicate the location of a referent relative to the deictic center (Diessel 2006, 2014). In addition, demonstratives are often characterized as members of particular word class categories. Traditionally, they are categorized as pronouns and adjectives (e.g. Bloomfield 1933: 203). However, recent research in typology has argued that demonstratives can also function as adverbs of space, manner, and degree, determiners, nonverbal predicators, presentatives, and verbs (Himmelmann 1997; Diessel 1999; Dixon 2003; König 2012; Guérin 2015; Breunesse 2019; Killian 2021).
This paper provides an overview of grammatical word class categories of demonstratives from a cross-linguistic perspective. The paper builds on data and analyses from current research in typology and presents some new statistical information on the cross-linguistic distribution of demonstrative word classes from a large and balanced language sample. The sample consists of 150 languages distributed across 128 genera and six large geographical areas, which are commonly distinguished in typology (Dryer 1992), i.e. Eurasia (N=36), Africa (N=26), South East Asia and Oceanic (N=17), Australia and New Guinea (N=30), North America (N=21), and South America (N=20). Although the sampling method has not been fully systematic, the sample is arguably sufficient to provide estimates regarding the cross-linguistic distribution of demonstrative word classes.

Pauli Brattico’s book Word Order and Adjunction in Finnish discusses the so-called free word order in Finnish. In his book Brattico’s starting point is Holmberg & Nikanne’s (2002) paper on the word order in Finnish finite sentences. The syntactic model Brattico is following in his analysis is Chomskyan minimalist theory.

Se trata de una investigacion acerca de la ensenanza-aprendizaje del analisis sintactico de las oraciones compuestas subordinadas en los estudiantes de duodecimo grado del Bachillerato en Humanidades del Instituto Urraca, con la finalidad de contribuir a mejorar el proceso de ensenanza-aprendizaje de la gramatica espanola. Mediante dos encuestas (una a docentes y la otra a estudiantes), se intento saber cuales son las estrategias metodologicas empleadas por los docentes para ensenar el analisis sintactico de la oracion subordinada. Tambien, se identificaron los problemas mas frecuentes en el analisis sintactico de este tipo de oracion compuesta y sus posibles causas. Se Incluyen topicos como las dificultades en la ensenanza-aprendizaje de la sintaxis espanola y estrategias metodologicas para la ensenanza del analisis sintactico de oraciones subordinadas. Con base en los resultados de la investigacion, se sustenta que hay deficiencias durante el desarrollo del proceso de ensenanza-ap...

В статье рассматривается категория атрибутива в арчинском языке (нахско-дагестанская семья). При отсутствии прилагательного как самостоятельной части речи, в арчинском языке выделяется атрибутив – класс форм, регулярно образующихся от четырех основных частей речи: существительных, глаголов, наречий и послелогов. Синтаксически атрибутив выполняет роль прилагатель-
ного, т.е. служит определением к существительному и выполняет роль присвязочного элемента в именном сказуемом. Атрибутив в арчинском языке обладает своей собственной согласовательной парадигмой и одновременно сохраняет морфосинтаксические свойства производящего слова. Это позволяет охарактеризовать арчинский атрибутив, с одной стороны, как представителя типологи-
чески известной категории «смешанного» класса словоформ (mixed category), а с другой – как редкое явление формально обособленного класса производных слов, регулярно образующихся от всех имеющихся в языке частей речи. Kлючевые слова: нахско-дагестанские языки, арчинский язык, морфосинтаксис, смешанные категории, прилагательное.

Word classes are linguistic categories serving as basis in the description of the vocabulary and grammar of natural languages. While important publications are regularly devoted to their definition, identification, and classification, in the field of Romance linguistics we lack a comprehensive, state-of-the-art overview of the current research. This Manual offers an updated and detailed discussion of all relevant aspects related to word classes in the Romance languages. In the first part, word classes are discussed from both a theoretical and historical point of view. The second part of the volume takes as its point of departure single word classes, described transversally in all the main Romance languages, while the third observes the relevant word classes from the point of view of specific Romance(-based) varieties. The fourth part explores Romance word classes at the interface of grammar and other fields of research.

Romance Creole languages are spoken around the world by some 18 million speakers. They are mainly plantation Creoles but some Portuguese Creoles developed around trading posts and Spanish-related Palenquero is a Maroon Creole. Although Romance Creoles share commonalities within each specific group of Creoles, whether Portuguese, Spanish or French, clear differences also exist between the French creoles of the Atlantic and of the Indian Ocean or between the Iberian creoles of South America, of Africa and of Asia. Romance Creoles are mainly analytic languages with fixed grammatical categories, and reduced inflectional and derivational morphology as compared to their Romance lexifiers. These languages are also characterized by the flexibility and iconicity of some of their linguistic categories. The chapter surveys three major lexical classes (Nouns, Verbs and Adjectives), ideophones and the morphological process of reduplication in Romance Creoles.

Abordagem do verbo nos livros didáticos do ensino fundamental: um caso de morfossintaxe Este trabalho nasceu dentro da disciplina de Morfossintaxe I, ministrada pela professora Doutora Jammara Oliveira Vasconcelos de Sá, na Universidade do Estado do Rio Grande do Norte-UERN. Essa proposta tem como escopo promover uma análise do Livro Didático, com foco na observação crítica de como, o material selecionado para o corpus do presente trabalho, aborda a classe de palavra do verbo. A ênfase foi dada nos verbos e como eles são apresentados para alunos do Ensino Fundamental, se é pelo ponto de vista da gramática tradicional, ou seja, gramática normativa, ou se a temática é abordada pelo ponto de vista dos estudos morfossintáticos, ou mesmo se esse campo da ciência linguística é trazido para o cotidiano da sala de aula. Sendo assim, foi selecionado duas obras intituladas Geração alpha língua portuguesa: ensino fundamental: anos finais: 6º ano, organizada pelos autores Costa et al. (2019); e se liga na língua: leitura, produção de texto e linguagem, de autoria de Ormundo et al.