Tribal Colleges and Universities

This report shares findings from a three-year longitudinal study of three Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander-Serving Institutions (AANAPISIs)-one of the newest minority serving institution (MSI) designations-and provides evidence for the impact of federally-funded campus programs on persistence, degree attainment, and transfer to four-year institutions for low-income Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) students. This report demonstrates the important role of inquiry in enhancing the capacity-building efforts of institutions that serve disproportionately high concentrations of low-income minority students. For each campus, we studied the impact of grant-funded programs that were either new or modified interventions with explicit goals to address challenges that the campuses identified as barriers to student success. We utilized a research design that enabled us to compare AAPI students in AANAPISI-funded programs (participant) to a comparable group of AAPI students who did not participate in the AANAPISI-funded program (comparison group). The analysis was based on cross-sectional and longitudinal cohort data that contain information on student demographics, course-taking behavior, and course outcomes. The metrics for evaluating student outcomes were aligned with the stated goals of each program's intervention: • Short-Term Outcomes: transition from developmental to college level courses, credit accumulation, and course performance (i.e., grade point average) • Long-Term Outcomes: persistence from one academic term to the next, degree attainment, and transfer from two-to four-year institutions Below are descriptions of each AANAPISI-funded intervention and the findings associated with each campus. de Anza College -IMPACt AAPI De Anza's Initiatives to Maximize Positive Academic Achievement and Cultural Thriving among AAPI (IMPACT AAPI) developed their first AAPI-focused learning community, Readiness and Success in College-Level English (LinC). This learning community paired a developmental English reading and writing course that is two levels below collegelevel English with a college-credit bearing Asian American literature course. This learning community included: comprehensive wrap-around support services, including an embedded counselor providing services for students in and out of class; culturally-relevant, critical, and engaged pedagogies; and culturally-relevant, critical, and civic curriculum. Key findings for our analysis of De Anza's IMPACT AAPI learning communities: • Students in the IMPACT AAPI learning community were more likely than the comparison group to transition from developmental to college-level English. • Compared to the comparison group, students in the IMPACT AAPI learning community passed their college-level English course, and accomplished the transition in less time. • Students in the IMPACT AAPI learning communities were more likely than the comparison group to earn associate's degrees. Both a program and a dedicated site, the AANAPISI STEM program is an academic space that provides a supportive community and a variety of targeted services, including tutoring and study groups, supplemental instruction, priority registration for impacted STEM classes, internship and research opportunities, and special events for students in the program. Support also includes dedicated counselors, specialized tutoring, additional core course sections, and a book loan program. The services offered were determined by a group of faculty and staff who were interested in infusing culturally-responsive approaches to serving low-income AAPI students. Key findings for our analysis of City College of San Francisco's AANAPISI STEM program: • AANAPISI STEM program students attempted more academic credits per term than the comparison group, which shortened their time to completion. • Compared to the comparison group, AANAPISI STEM program students enrolled in more academically rigorous coursework. • AANAPISI STEM program students had a higher transfer rate to four-year institutions and transferred in fewer terms compared to the comparison group. SSCC chose to use their AANAPISI funding to pilot learning communities, as their data indicated that students in developmental education struggled to transition to college-level coursework. This trend was particularly pronounced among low-income AAPI students who tended to be English Language Learners. The AANAPISIfunded learning communities featured developmental coursework linked to a college success course, as well as access to tutoring and mentoring from peer navigators. Counselors taught the college success course and covered topics such as time management and study skills. Counselors also worked closely with faculty teaching developmental education to enhance curricula, ensure the materials and assignments in each linked course reinforce one another, manage the peer navigators, and follow up with students outside of class. Key findings for our analysis of South Seattle Community College's AANAPISI-funded learning communities: • Learning community participants were more likely than the comparison group to transition from developmental to college-level courses. • Compared to the comparison group, students in the AANAPISI-funded learning communities had a higher rate of persistence in the term following the intervention. • Learning community participants were more likely than the comparison group to graduate with an associate's degree or certificate. A primary goal of the AANAPISI program is to afford campuses an opportunity to experiment with practices that help students reach their full degree-seeking potential. For each campus, we conducted analysis to estimate the potential for larger, campus-wide efforts to bring AANAPISI-funded programs to scale. We began with a gap analysis to identify the number of students served by these programs and the number of students who met the same qualifications for participating in the program. For the latter group of students, we estimated the numerical increases in short-term and long-term outcomes for AAPI students at the campus level.

Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) have a unique position in the landscape of higher education vis-à-vis trauma-informed pedagogy insofar as nearly all of their students identify with a cultural group that has experienced genocide, that continues to experience discrimination and poverty, and whose families are inevitably affected by serious psychological problems that plausibly might be considered as responses to trauma. In this paper, we principally concern ourselves with the healing role that TCUs are playing in the quest to repair the historical damage that has been done and also that continues to be done. Accordingly, we detail the important work they do. But, in doing so, we also closely examine the Indigenous historical trauma theoretical framework, which figures prominently in the thinking of many TCU staff, and suggest that a resiliency focus can helpfully assist with resolving a number of theoretical difficulties. We then move to assess the practical dimensions of healing and resilience in the Tribal College as staff members tackle the myriad challenges facing not only their students, but Tribal Nations more generally in the 21st century and beyond.

The effort to expand the U.S. study abroad programs to have a global impact has never been fully expressed by Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and study abroad administrators. Study Abroad since its inception has not been a truly global platform. This article constructively points out the existing potential of Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs) to make the U.S. study abroad a truly global program capable of defending U.S. national interest in this era of interdependence among nations, especially as the global knowledge economy and cultural competence advantage take center stage. Study abroad is at a crossroads at the moment, new ideas must be developed for study abroad to justify the true potential of education abroad. Over two decades, four countries in Western Europe have been hosting the highest number of U.S. students in study abroad. There is no evidence that this trend will reach the entire globe as a reciprocity of international students in U.S. colleges and universities.

Cardiovascular disease is the number one cause of death among American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/AN). Utilizing narratives from members of a Pacific Northwest tribe, this paper explores perceptions about behaviors affecting cardiovascular health through tribal members' lived experiences related to place-based environmental historical trauma. Findings from narrative analysis indicate that ambivalence is an effect of historical trauma and complicates the adoption of protective cardiovascular health behaviors. Tribal narratives indicate a path to overcome this ambivalence stemming from historical environmental trauma through revitalization, adaptation, and re-integration of traditional cultural practices to contemporary contexts. By creating their own health promotion response, one that is not imposed or colonizing, tribal members are re-generating cultural practices and health behaviors associated with lowered risks of cardiovascular disease.

This study applies Tribal Critical Race Theory in the Native business domain to analyze six distinct Native Nations’ approaches to for-profit enterprises by and through Native stories and voices. Specifically, Native management and legal scholars conducted a qualitative study asking Native American business leaders 24 open-ended questions pertaining to their experience in Native Nations Social Enterprise in order to critically analyze legal, organizational, business, social and cultural practices in this unique setting. Based on our findings, we build a model for Native Nations’ Social Enterprise as embedded in and affected by dominant culture’s legal, organizational and business norms, and through Native cultural values toward social and environmental sustainability. Framed using the tenets of Tribal Critical Race Theory, the model challenges Nation building as filtered through a non-Native legal, organizational and business economic lens, as assimilative forces that constrain Nati...

The public increasingly requires that higher education institutions demonstrate their return on investment by measuring graduation rates, cost per student, job placement rates, and income. The motivation is economic: public institutions are accountable to the investor, in this case, the taxpayer. Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs), on the other hand, are indebted to and inspired by the revolutionary vision of their founders: the ancestors, elders, and community members who believed that higher education rooted in tribal sovereignty, identity, systems, and beliefs would ensure the survival and prosperity of their people. TCUs are advancing Native student access and completion, developing scholars who are contributing to knowledge creation through community-based research, and promoting economic and entrepreneurial development in tribal communities.

Bull (Sicangu Lakota) is President and CEO of the American Indian College Fund. Cheryl is an Indigenous education activist promoting access, success, and equity for all Native students. Her expertise is with tribally-controlled higher education, indigenous leadership, and analysis and dissemination of the contributions of Indigenous people to American society. CCrazyBull@collegefund.org ** Colleen "Co" Carew (Mescalero Apache descendent), is the past department chair for the accredited Social Work Program at the Salish Kootenai college. She is a faculty member at Salish Kootenai College, instructing courses in social work, art, and Native American studies. Currently, she leads weekend workshops for Native American adults and youth, in many of Montana's tribal communities. She promotes wellness and healing through art making and the stories embedded in the artwork.

advocacy
strategies of and technologies of resistance utilized by the United Negro College
Fund (UNCF), an organization established to raise funding, awareness, and
engage in policy advocacy on behalf of Historically Black Colleges and Universities
(HBCUs). Providing an overview of the literature on minoritized policy advocacy,
as well as highlighting the dearth of inquiry on minoritized organizations that
engage in policy advocacy on behalf of and in consortium with HBCUs, this article
highlights the work of the UNCF, its history, and its evolving role in policy advocacy
to combat policy borne out of predominantly White policy arenas. We identify
the ways UNCF challenge deficit narratives about HBCUs and the minoritized populations
these institutions serve as well as offer concrete strategies and technologies
of resistance that can be used for engaging in policy advocacy on behalf of minoritized
organizations and communities.

Native Hawaiian and Pacifc Islander (NHPI) students represent a diversity of backgrounds, including wide variations in histories, cultures, languages, and religions. They often bring to their educational experiences a number of assets, including the ability to speak more than one language, a deep commitment to their families and communities, and a desire to maintain rich cultural heritages. The NHPI community is one of the most overlooked groups in higher education, despite their unique lived experiences.

Institutions within the Latin American and Caribbean Consortium of Engineering Institutions lack sufficient resources and knowledge to take significant advantage of national and international computational resources available to advance computational science research and education. Such institutions, just like the USA‟s Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs), can provide a critical yet untapped human resource potential. The US National Science Foundation‟s TeraGrid has attempted to define, promote and deliver an integrated set of high performance computing resources to the US academic research community. However, a gap persists in the connections between the TeraGrid program and non-TeraGrid national computational resources and data. For MSIs and other users, these circumstances hinder seamless, natural use of resources from local, campus infrastructure through national and international high performance computing research tools. In spite of impressive TeraGrid advances, its user comm...

One of the fundamental responsibilites of higher education is to provide open and equal opportunities for students to learn, succeed and positively contribute to their local, national and global societies. Great strides are being made in increasing educational access, retention, completion and success, yet there is still work to be done particularly for students from disadvantaged or marginalized groups. Unprecedented shifts in migration patterns are causing demographic changes around the world. Additionally, governments, societies and higher education institutions are increasingly recognizing the need and responsibility to create legal and institutional frameworks for providing more and better opportunities for people from historically marginalized groups to gain access and achieve success at the university level.

nation and forced assimilation, in 1968 Dine College opened its doors as the first Tribally controlled post-secondary institution, marking a new era of self-determination for Native American students. Since then, Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) have grown to include 37 institutions, serving over 28,000 students and are actively working to revitalize Native languages and culture, promote Tribal sovereignty and further economic growth aligned with Tribal values in the communities they serve. These remarkable institutions often go unrecognized for their achievements, and most remain unjustly underfunded in spite of the fact that their work redefines the valuable impact that higher institutions can have within their local communities.

To date the US has experienced the greatest number of cases and deaths due to COVID-19 in the world, but the impact has been even greater for American Indians and Alaska Natives (AIAN). Despite numerous disadvantages related to poor socioeconomic status and preexisting health conditions, Tribal sovereignty, community strength and resiliency have been important factors in limiting the burden of disease on Indigenous Americans. AIAN Tribes have repeatedly chosen to protect lives over Tribal income, choosing to close businesses that are the economic lifeblood of the reservations.

US census data on Indigenous American Indians have progressed from no data at all to very poor and inconsistent data to smaller (but still significant) undercounts on Indigenous lands. The first US census, conducted in 1790, explicitly excluded American Indians from being counted, in accordance with the US Constitution. Much has changed. As the U.S. gears up for the 24 th decennial census in 2020, the very first Americans to be counted reside in the remote Indigenous village of Tooksook Bay, Alaska. This paper describes how the Indigenous American Indians and Alaska Natives came, first to be counted and secondly, to be counted accurately in national censuses. Joint efforts by American Indian Tribes, the National Congress of American Indians and the U.S. Census Bureau have evolved to obtain accurate and complete counts. The results of these efforts may be useful in other countries to improve participation in censuses of Indigenous people in other countries.

This paper contains an examination of how we identify and describe American Indians and Alaska Natives (AIAN) people, present what we know and discuss how we can develop measures to better improve policies and programs that affect the AIAN people and improve their lives. Specifically, this paper consists what we know about health and socio-demographic characteristics profiles and discussions of current and emerging issues. This paper was written almost entirely by Indigenous people and is an attempt to present research by us and for us, rather than to us.

Given the critical role that Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs) play in U.S. higher education, it is vital that they have motivated and effective leadership. Ensuring that MSIs have strong leadership is essential to accomplish their goals of serving low-income, first-generation, and students of color, providing a 21 st century curricula, and preparing students for the workforce and beyond. The purpose of this study is to explore why leaders pursue the presidency at MSIs. How, specifically, have they developed an interest in and passion for leading MSIs? What draws them to lead this type of institution? We use Greenleaf's (1977/2002) Servant Leadership model as a framework for this study and our analysis. Our findings indicate that aspiring presidents are focused on the unique purpose of MSIs, a desire to "give back" or "pay it forward" in terms of their experience, a passion for helping underserved students, a commitment to ensuring people of color are in leadership positions, and an interest in solidifying the future of MSIs.

This study applies Tribal Critical Race Theory in the Native business domain to analyze six distinct Native Nations’ approaches to for-profit enterprises by and through Native stories and voices. Specifically, Native management and legal scholars conducted a qualitative study asking Native American business leaders 24 open-ended questions pertaining to their experience in Native Nations Social Enterprise in order to critically analyze legal, organizational, business, social and cultural practices in this unique setting. Based on our findings, we build a model for Native Nations’ Social Enterprise as embedded in and affected by dominant culture’s legal, organizational and business norms, and through Native cultural values toward social and environmental sustainability. Framed using the tenets of Tribal Critical Race Theory, the model challenges Nation building as filtered through a non-Native legal, organizational and business economic lens, as assimilative forces that constrain Nati...

Background: Alcohol and drug (AOD) use represent an important public health issue among college students that has serious implications for both academic success and personal health. Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) are a unique network in higher education that serves many American Indian/Alaskan Native (AI/AN) college students and their communities. This study aims to address a gap in the literature regarding the relationship of TCU AOD policies, policy enforcement, and substance use at TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER

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In this article, Bryan McKinley Jones Brayboy explores how the experiences of Tom, Debbie, and Heather, three Native American students attending Ivy League universities in the 1990s, reflect larger societal beliefs and statements about the perceived place of Native Americans in higher education and U.S. society. Brayboy posits that Native Americans are visible in these institutions in ways that contribute to their marginalization, surveillance, and oppression. In response, the three Native American students exercise strategies that make them invisible to the largely White communities in which they attend school. These strategies help to preserve the students' sense of cultural integrity, but further serve to marginalize them on campus. At times, the students in the study make themselves visible to emphasize that they are a voice in the campus community. Brayboy argues that these strategies, while possibly confusing to the layperson, make sense if viewed from the perspective of t...

Numbers of students of color enrolling in higher educational institutions is expected to increase across all racial groups. With continued increases in minority enrollments, minority-serving institutions have and will continue to play a major role in educating student of color. A large national data set was used to examine the numbers of bachelor' s degrees awarded to students by minority-serving institutions, predominantly minority institutions, and predominantly white institutions. The analysis indicates that minority-serving institutions are important producers of students of color who earn bachelor' s degrees.

The G.I. Bill had the potential to aid the progress of African American veterans after World War II. While this benefit made it possible for veterans to pursue higher education, this paper will look at some of the obstacles they had to overcome to enroll in and ultimately graduate from college. After World War II, most veterans attended historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), because of discrimination. This paper will provide an historical overview of African American veterans in higher education; examine the factors that impact their enrollment and success; and explore for-profit colleges and universities (FPCUs) and their dependence on G.I. Bill money.

Community •Connectednessstudent contact with community through work in community health care setting •Student contributionsbringing their skills and education to bear on community issues •Interactions among student, community health staff, college/university faculty nurture evidence-based approaches

Federal allocations to HBCUs originated with the Higher Education Act of 1965.* Title III, part B of the act specifically targeted increasing capacity at HBCUs. Through this act, funds are provided to HBCUs as grants to support financial management, physical plant renovations and improvements, endowment building infrastructure, and academic resources. The average grant per institution is roughly $2 million-an amount that does not significantly narrow the gaps in funding disparities between HBCUs and Historically White Institutions (HWIs) given historic discrimination. Additional funding and recognition of HBCUs came in 1980 when President Jimmy Carter signed Executive Order 12232 in an effort "to overcome the effects of discriminatory treatment and to strengthen and expand the capacity of historically black colleges and universities to provide quality education." 1 According to T.R. Wolanin, the purpose of the order was to remedy past discrimination on the part of the federal government and individual states. Wolanin also describes a secondary purpose: recognizing and supporting the extraordinary job that HBCUs do in providing quality higher education to blacks. 2 Some researchers, including James T. Minor, have criticized the lack of federal funding of HBCUs, including the White House Initiative on HBCUs. In 2008, Minor noted that the Initiative had "not produced noticeable results." In fact, the Initiative's own advisory board criticized it, citing "decreased federal funding for HBCUs, lack of cooperation among federal agencies, and disregard of board recommendations as serious concerns." 3 President Obama has recognized the Initiative's inactivity and lack of authority and has worked to empower and reinvigorate it. However, Obama's approach, with its emphasis on accountability, 4 has not necessarily been embraced by HBCU leaders. Although the President has every right to expect higher graduation rates and increased accountability from HBCUs, he must also realize and acknowledge that HBCUs enroll more low-income and under-prepared students who are typically part of the first generation in their family to attend college. Such students pose greater risks in terms of graduation and require more resources to succeed. Measures of institutional success need to take into account the individual characteristics of students attending HBCUs. 5 Another area of concern in terms of federal support of HBCUs is grant allocations to foster and sustain research. According to a 2008 report by the Congressional Research Service, "Many HBCUs face difficulty competing for federal research dollars with other research-performing universities." Federal trend data reveal that research-performing HBCUs have not shared proportionately in the distribution of federal research and development (R & D) dollars going to colleges and universities. Although funding to HBCUs has increased in the past 10 years in absolute terms, it remains only a small fraction of the total awarded to all U.S. colleges and universities. Moreover, the report noted that among HBCUs, funding was unevenly distributed and, as with non-HBCUs, concentrated at selected institutions. For example, in FY 2005, the top 10 HBCUs (in terms of receipt of federal R & D support to HBCUs) accounted Comprehensive Funding Approaches for Historically Black Colleges and Universities *The Freedmen's Bureau was the first federal investment in HBCUs, but it was not systemic.

In this essay, I touch upon three themes. First, I discuss the field of higher education and my views on the scholarship that we are producing within the field. Second, I discuss higher education graduate education and what contributes to sound training of doctoral students. And third, I provide commentary on how I’d like to see the field move forward.

In many cases, student activism on college campuses stems from alienation-alienation of one generation from another, alienation of students from administration. The atmosphere in Nashville, Tennessee, at Fisk University during the early 1950s included neither of these ingredients. Most students admired their professors and respected the University president. In the case of Fisk, activism grew out of a shared sense of values and demonstrated leadership-as well as a response to outside oppression. This leadership and these values were passed on to students by Fisk's charismatic president, Charles S. Johnson. The purpose of this historical research is to explore the approach to activism that Charles S. Johnson advocated and instilled in the students at Fisk University. How did Johnson develop his values and convictions? On which principles were they based? How did he pass them on to others? And, how can Johnson's example help today's college presidents contribute to a renewed sense of activism among their students? Through the use of archival materials, interviews, and secondary sources, I will highlight Johnson's "sidelines" approach and discuss his student's reactions to it. Further, I will explore their own approaches to activism-that in their words "were heavily influenced by their Fisk experiences."

In many cases, student activism on college campuses stems from alienation-alienation of one generation from another, alienation of students from administration. The atmosphere in Nashville, Tennessee, at Fisk University during the early 1950s included neither of these ingredients. Most students admired their professors and respected the University president. In the case of Fisk, activism grew out of a shared sense of values and demonstrated leadership-as well as a response to outside oppression. This leadership and these values were passed on to students by Fisk's charismatic president, Charles S. Johnson. The purpose of this historical research is to explore the approach to activism that Charles S. Johnson advocated and instilled in the students at Fisk University. How did Johnson develop his values and convictions? On which principles were they based? How did he pass them on to others? And, how can Johnson's example help today's college presidents contribute to a renewed sense of activism among their students? Through the use of archival materials, interviews, and secondary sources, I will highlight Johnson's "sidelines" approach and discuss his student's reactions to it. Further, I will explore their own approaches to activism-that in their words "were heavily influenced by their Fisk experiences."

Increasing Diversity 6 Closing the Gender Gap 7 Creating Global Citizens 8 Embracing lGBT Students 9 Improving Graduation and Retention Rates 10 Embracing Change: Fundraising and Leadership 12 Increasing Stability through Fundraising 12 Supporting Faculty 13 Promoting Forward-Thinking Presidents 14 Guidelines for Success 15 References 16

Graduate School of Education GSE Publications University of Pennsylvania Year 2004 Creating an Image for Black Higher Education: A Visual Examination of the United Negro College Fund's Publicity, 1944-1960 MaryBeth Gasman * Edward Epstein "ï * University of Pennsylvania, ...

Tribal Colleges and Universities in the United States and Ethnic Minority-Serving Institutions in China play a significant role in changing the underrepresented status of American Indians and Alaska Natives (AIANs) and Chinese Ethnic Minorities (CEMs) in their respective higher education systems. This comparative study of two ethnic minority-serving institutions-Diné College in the US and Yanbian University in China-examines strategies and practices each institution uses to address challenges in serving Navajo and Korean Chinese students and communities. Through conducting semi-structured interviews with senior administrators from two institutions and AIAN and CEM content area experts, this study confirms that Diné College and Yanbian University play important roles in providing higher education opportunities and preserving indigenous and ethnic cultures and languages. From a comparative perspective, the efforts of Diné College and Yanbian University in addressing challenges differ because of their respective political and higher education contexts.

The tribal college movement shows no signs of slowing, yet there are significant issues that need examination. Growing from a handful of community colleges to almost three dozen in 12 states and Canada, tribal colleges now offer advanced academic degrees. This paper examines the current status of the tribal college "movement" by looking at the origins of tribal colleges, their statistics and demographics including enrollments, funding, programs, and accreditation. Discussion of issues related to distance learning and appropriate pedagogy, vital to tribal college success, are described in this article. Using historical data and the critical observations of contemporary Indigenous education theorists, this study points to areas for ongoing discussion by supporters of tribal colleges and universities.

nation and forced assimilation, in 1968 Dine College opened its doors as the first Tribally controlled post-secondary institution, marking a new era of self-determination for Native American students. Since then, Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) have grown to include 37 institutions, serving over 28,000 students and are actively working to revitalize Native languages and culture, promote Tribal sovereignty and further economic growth aligned with Tribal values in the communities they serve. These remarkable institutions often go unrecognized for their achievements, and most remain unjustly underfunded in spite of the fact that their work redefines the valuable impact that higher institutions can have within their local communities.

This paper traces the rise of corporate philanthropy in terms of its support of Black colleges, explores fi nancial support overall of Black colleges during the 1960s and 1970s, and describes the relationships between corporations and private Black college leaders.

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

Family connections are critical for Native student persistence, yet families’ voices are absent in research. Using an Indigenous-specific version of educational debt, land debt, we center familial perspectives by exploring the financial struggles among Native families as their students transition to a Predominately White Institution. Findings indicate that Indigenous families experienced fear and frustration surrounding college affordability and the financial aid process. Regardless, these Native families made extreme sacrifices in paying for college. These findings were contextualized within the economic conditions created by land theft from Indigenous peoples. Returning to land debt, we argue that institutions need to begin from a perspective of what is owed to Native peoples in their policy decisions. That is, such decisions should take account of the benefits historically accrued by institutions residing on forcibly taken Indigenous land, and then examine how that debt can be re...

The Strengthening Institutions Program is one of the most important federal programs for rural community colleges. Created by the Higher Education Act of 1965, Title III provides institutional aid to qualified colleges and universities that serve large numbers of first-generation, low-income students and students from groups historically underrepresented in higher education. Title III is particularly valuable for rural community colleges because: Title III is an unusually flexible grant program that addresses locally defined needs, a particular benefit to community colleges serving low-income rural areas.

As a general consensus, postsecondary credentials are key to ensuring that the United States produces economically competitive and contributing members to society. It should also be stated that postsecondary opportunities stretch beyond traditionally recognized needs; they also contribute to the capacity building of sovereign tribal nations. The Native population has increased 39 percent from 2000 to 2010, but Native student enrollment remains static, representing just 1 percent of total postsecondary enrollment (Stetser and Stillwell 2014; Norris, Vines, and Hoeffel 2012). Despite the need and growing population, American Indians and Alaska Natives do not access higher education at the same rate as their non-Native peers. Tribal colleges and universities (TCUs) continue to provide a transformative postsecondary experience and education for the Indigenous population and non-Native students from in and around Native communities. The 37 TCUs enroll nearly 28,000 fulland part-time stud...

The tribal college movement shows no signs of slowing, yet there are significant issues that need examination. Growing from a handful of community colleges to almost three dozen in 12 states and Canada, tribal colleges now offer advanced academic degrees. This paper examines the current status of the tribal college "movement" by looking at the origins of tribal colleges, their statistics and demographics including enrollments, funding, programs, and accreditation. Discussion of issues related to distance learning and appropriate pedagogy, vital to tribal college success, are described in this article. Using historical data and the critical observations of contemporary Indigenous education theorists, this study points to areas for ongoing discussion by supporters of tribal colleges and universities.

Envisioning Black Colleges is a well-written history of the United Negro College Fund (UNCF) from its founding in 1944 through the late 1970s. The UNCF, which is the permanent fundraising organization for private black colleges, was the brainchild of Frederick D. Patterson, then president of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. After becoming president of Tuskegee in 1935, Patterson realized that black private colleges were approaching the same donors for dwindling funds. The Great Depression greatly impacted the funds donated to black colleges. Gasman notes that many of the previous donors had lost fortunes. Between 1930 and 1943, private donations to black colleges dropped by 50 percent. Black colleges responded to this financial situation in a variety of ways. Some, such as Roger Williams, Mary Allen, Walden, and Howe Institute, permanently closed their doors, while others such as New Orleans and Straight Colleges merged to form Dillard University. A few private colleges obtained state land grant status. Beginning with this backdrop of the Depression and utilizing both primary documents and oral histories, Marybeth Gasman tells the story of the early history and challenges of the UNCF. Although founded by blacks for primarily black support, an initial donation of US$25,000 by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., son of the founder of the Standard Oil Company, was a mixed blessing. Rockefeller provided the large gift to get UNCF off the ground and also persuaded other wealthy industrialists to invest in the organization. However, the subsequent decades of white dominance in funding the organization as well as service on the UNCF Board of Trustees served as an albatross around the necks of the black college presidents. The UNCF ran into serious challenges in its first decade, emerging during the time that the NAACP was shifting its strategy from cases that challenged the ''equal'' aspect of the 1896 Supreme Court ruling of Plessy v. Fergurson ''separate but equal'' doctrine to that of challenging the ''separate'' aspect of this ruling. Thus, the 1954 landmark Brown v. Board decision created a serious crisis for the UNCF in rethinking its rationale for sustaining predominately black colleges. Gasman discusses how profoundly competent and talented black men, including William J. Trent who served as the first Executive Director of UNCF for twenty years and the other black college