Security of Energy Supply

Energy diplomacy is a complex and pivotal aspect of international relations, yet remains rather underexplored in academic discourse. This study aims to address this gap by examining how states utilise energy diplomacy to bolster their power in a global landscape marked by significant transitions. It begins by exploring the strategic engagements of states in energy diplomacy, particularly in light of heightened concerns over energy security amid persistent geopolitical conflicts. Furthermore, this study analyses the evolving role of energy diplomacy in the context of the global shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources. By examining these dynamics, this research aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of energy diplomacy's role in contemporary international politics and its implications for sustainable energy transitions.

Particularly influential was the contribution of Védegylet's Environmental Justice Working Group (Eszter Kovách, Judit Bari, Kristóf Szombati, Bódvalenke's project, etc.) in the definition, description and understanding of fuel poverty in Hungary. E. Kovách also provided detailed explanations on the Hungarian social service system and was of great help for the case studies in Section 3. Our gratitude extends of course to all the persons and organisations who shared their time and perceptions in interviews and the field visit to Bódvalenke. Katja Korytarova (3CSEP) provided useful information on policies in Hungary, Krista Harper (University of Massachusetts) shared the results of a relevant case study of Roma households in the Borsod county and Attilla Melegh (Népességtudományi Kutatóintézet, KSH) kindly led us to the core of the KSH energy expenditures statistics staff. The final version of this report also benefited substantially from comments by Tracey Wheatley and Zsolt Boda (Védegylet). As usual, the sole responsibility for mistakes or omissions remains on the authors.

The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the structural characteristics of the European gas supply system and changes in its network structure and the interaction and clustering among its nodes defined as countries, following the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine conflict. The methodology relies on social network analysis, which employs mathematics of the graph theory to examine the state and dynamics of the given network structure. The impacts identified involve the reduced reliance of the system on Russian gas, a considerable reduction in the strength centrality of Russia and Germany, and a higher dispersion of gas flows, largely due to the increased import of LNG flows. After the conflict outbreak, countries such as Italy, Austria, the Slovak Republic, and Hungary retained their high influential position, in terms of the PageRank centrality, while the Balkan countries, together with the Middle East gas suppliers (Turkey and Iran), formed a common group with Russia. The estimated changes stress the challenges posed to the EU countries to enhance connectivity infrastructure investments and explore alternative ways of gas supply to support the objectives of strategic autonomy, while promoting resilience and the path toward a carbon-free transition.

Southeast Asia is at a pivotal point where the demands of economic growth converge with the existential threats of climate change. The region's increasing energy requirements, swift urban development, and vulnerability to climate-related calamities underscore the necessity of shifting to cleaner, more robust energy systems. This research examines the influence of national and regional policy frameworks on facilitating the transition, highlighting the development of clean energy infrastructure and the implementation of fiscal and regulatory incentives. This study conducts a comparative analysis of specific Southeast Asian nations to examine how governments synchronize energy policies with climate resilience goals, the efficacy of incentive mechanisms in attracting investment, and the institutional capacities that facilitate or obstruct this alignment. The research employs policy analysis, case studies, and stakeholder interviews to critically assess the incorporation of climate adaptation into energy planning, highlighting best practices and structural limitations. The study aims to enhance scholarly debate and inform policymakers by providing actionable recommendations for local reformers, ASEAN, and international organisations focused on promoting an inclusive and sustainable energy transition in the region.

This paper aims to analyze the news content published in the Paraguayan press regarding the negotiations of Annex C of the Treaty of Itaipu. Annex C deals with the financial aspects of the binational hydroelectric plant managed by Brazil and Paraguay, signed in 1973. After 50 years of its signature, negotiations are expected for new financial terms to share the energy produced by Itaipu in the Paraná River. Given the economic and territorial relevance of Itaipu for both countries, negotiations are part of the public debate, especially in Paraguay. In this work, which focuses on news articles from 2021, we analyzed content related to the themes of sovereignty and bilateral Brazil-Paraguay relations.

The article shows the consumption of primary energy carriers in selected European Union (EU) countries, including Poland. The trend of consumption of primary energy carriers was compared with the global trend, which is different from that observed in the EU. The consumption of primary energy sources has been increasing steadily for many decades, due to the growth of the world population and the aspirations of developing countries to raise the standard of living of their citizens. In the EU, the opposite trend, i.e., a decrease in primary energy consumption, has been observed since 2007. This article presents tables and graphs showing these phenomena. The authors tried to answer the following questions: (a) What influences the decrease in demand for primary energy in highly developed countries? (b) Why the demand in less-developed countries is constantly growing? The trends in countries, such as Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Poland, i.e., countries with the most dev...

The energy relationship between the European Union (EU) and Russia has historically been a cornerstone of European energy policy, marked by a complex interdependence rooted in extensive pipeline networks, geopolitical tensions, and shifting market dynamics. However, Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022 catalyzed a dramatic shift, forcing the EU to reduce its dependency on Russian gas and adopt comprehensive diversification strategies. This article delves into the historical dependency, the immediate impacts of the Ukraine conflict on energy relations, and the postwar strategies employed by the EU to enhance energy security and sustainability. Emphasis is placed on the geopolitical implications, infrastructure developments, and the role of renewable energy in shaping the EU's future energy landscape.

The Strait of Hormuz, a narrow yet strategic maritime corridor linking the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, plays a vital role in global energy security by accommodating nearly 25% of the world’s crude oil shipments daily. Due to its geopolitical significance, the strait has been a hotspot for conflict, particularly involving Iran, the United States, and Gulf nations. Historically a key trade route, its importance surged in the 20th century with the discovery of oil in the region. Recent threats by Iran to close the strait reflect both military assertiveness and coercive diplomacy aimed at resisting international pressure. This paper explores the historical background, recent crises—including the Iran-Iraq Tanker War and modern-day threats—and the international legal framework under UNCLOS. It argues that despite legal provisions for freedom of navigation, the strait remains a theater of strategic rivalry where geography, power, and law intersect. From a realist perspective, control over the strait equates to significant political leverage, highlighting the enduring tension between international norms and national interests.

This article aims at evaluating the historical determinants and implications of Turkey's natural gas import dependency. We implement principle component analysis (PCA) methodology to construct a natural gas import vulnerability index (NGIVI) for the period between 1986 and 2014 using five factors: (1) the share of natural gas in primary energy consumption, (2) the share of natural gas in primary energy imports, (3) the nondiversification of natural gas import sources, (4) the share of LNG in total natural gas imports, and (5) natural gas import prices. Results reveal that the first two factors have always dominated the NGIVI, while the others were consequential but different times. Turkey's NGIVI increased until 2008, when it peaked, and remained relatively flat since then, indicating neither an improvement nor a worsening in its vulnerability. We also compared the NGIVI with the oil import vulnerability index (OIVI) of Turkey, constructed in 2011 by the authors. Although there has been a remarkable decline in the OIVI since the mid-1980s, the NGIVI has remained high until the present day. This result could be attributed to Turkey's different historical experience in importing oil and natural gas.

Iran war could fundamentally disrupt regional dynamics, impact global energy markets, and force energy-importing countries like Turkey to reshape their security strategies. This article examines the long-term effects of such a conflict on Turkey's energy supply security, focusing on energy infrastructure, diplomatic relations, economic sustainability, and the potential for direct military escalation, incorporating the latest developments as of June 18, 2025.

The article by Rayyan Ahmed "Oil Surges, Markets Shudder as Israel-Iran Clash Stokes Global Tensions" (https://rb.gy/6bwyka, June 14, 2025) examines the economic repercussions of escalating hostilities between Israel and Iran. With recent military confrontations intensifying geopolitical instability, global oil prices have spiked, triggering volatility in financial markets. The analysis highlights concern over potential supply disruptions, inflationary pressures, and broader economic risks, particularly for energy-dependent nations. The piece underscores how regional conflicts can reverberate through the global economy, influencing trade, investment, and energy security. This discussion is relevant to scholars studying conflict economics, energy geopolitics, and Middle Eastern security dynamics.
https://rb.gy/6bwyka

Key Themes: Geopolitical risk, oil markets, economic instability, Israel-Iran tensions.

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This paper explores the evolving dimensions of global energy security through the lens of two major geopolitical hotspots: Ukraine and the Middle East. Drawing on recent disruptions caused by war, sanctions, and infrastructure attacks, it identifies vulnerabilities within global energy systems and proposes strategic pathways for resilience. Key focus areas include diversification of supply, decentralisation, geopolitical realignment, and equity-driven response mechanisms. The paper further outlines implications for the Global South, particularly Africa, and concludes with actionable policy and private sector recommendations.

Η παρούσα παρουσίαση εξετάζει την κρίσιμη καμπή στην οποία βρίσκεται η Σαουδική Αραβία, αντιμέτωπη με νέες γεωπολιτικές προκλήσεις και στρατηγικά διλήμματα που επαναπροσδιορίζουν τον παραδοσιακό της ρόλο στην περιφερειακή και διεθνή σκηνή. Αναλύονται οι μεταβαλλόμενες ισορροπίες ισχύος στη Μέση Ανατολή, η δυναμική των σχέσεων με τις Ηνωμένες Πολιτείες, με ιδιαίτερη αναφορά στις πιέσεις που ασκήθηκαν κατά την προεδρία Τραμπ και τις συνεχιζόμενες αναπροσαρμογές, καθώς και τα αναδυόμενα εσωτερικά και εξωτερικά προβλήματα που καλείται να διαχειριστεί το Βασίλειο. Ιδιαίτερη έμφαση δίδεται στην στάση της Σαουδικής Αραβίας έναντι του Παλαιστινιακού ζητήματος, υπό το πρίσμα των νέων περιφερειακών δυναμικών και των εθνικών της συμφερόντων. Η ανάλυση εστιάζει στον τρόπο με τον οποίο αυτές οι προκλήσεις και τα διλήμματα διαμορφώνουν τις στρατηγικές επιλογές του Ριάντ και επηρεάζουν τη μελλοντική του πορεία.

This paper explores the concept of energy security, emphasizing its significance to national stability, economic development, and sustainability. Drawing from definitions by the International Energy Agency, UNDP, and the World Bank, it presents energy security as the uninterrupted, affordable, and sustainable supply of energy. The study examines the vital role energy security plays in driving economic growth, attracting foreign investment, and ensuring price stability. Using Nigeria as a case study, the paper identifies challenges such as supply disruptions, outdated infrastructure, and over-reliance on fossil fuels. It proposes solutions including investment in renewable energy, infrastructure modernization, domestic refining, and energy diversification. The paper concludes that strengthening energy security is essential for Nigeria’s long-term development and economic resilience.

The evolution of global power dynamics, driven by industrialization and resource competition, has shaped the modern world's economic and political landscape. Since the 19th century, increasing demand for raw materials has fueled conflicts, including world wars, as states sought control over strategic resources to secure their hegemony. Britain, the dominant global power in the late 19th century, established its supremacy through financial influence, maritime control, and access to coal and oil. The discovery of oil further intensified global energy struggles, with the United States emerging as a key consumer and industrial powerhouse in the 20th century.

As global consumption continued to rise, the 21st century saw new actors, such as China, challenge U.S. dominance. With China's accession to the World Trade Organization in 2001, competition in energy and resource acquisition intensified, driving the exploration of alternative energy sources such as solar, wind, and biofuels. However, an increasingly vital yet often overlooked resource—Rare Earth Elements (REEs)—has become the focal point of modern technological advancements. Comprising 17 critical elements, REEs are essential in various sectors, including green energy, defense, telecommunications, and pharmaceuticals.

China holds 36% of the world's REE reserves and has strategically positioned itself as the leading supplier, disrupting global markets and challenging U.S. economic and security interests. This study examines the policies, strategies, and institutional efforts of China and the United States in securing and controlling REE supplies. By analyzing these geopolitical and economic developments, it will be demonstrated that REEs are emerging as a resource as strategically significant as oil, shaping the future of global power structures and technological innovation.

The contemporary world system is undergoing profound changes marked by the displacement of its most dynamic economic centers, from Europe and the United States of America (USA) to Asia. These changes represent not only new trends in the logic of accumulation in the global economy but also profound geopolitical and territorial restructurings. Since 2015, according to the International Monetary Fund report, the global ranking of economies measured by their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) indicates that China has overtaken the USA, occupying the first position with a GDP of $18.979 trillion by purchasing power parity (PPP). Following China are the USA, India, Japan, Germany, Russia, Brazil, Indonesia, the United Kingdom, and France in tenth place. In other words, of the ten largest economies in the world, five belong to the BRICS and Indonesia. According to the prospective analysis by PwC, by 2030 the Chinese economy will remain in first place, and the U.S. economy will be in second place, but will represent only two-thirds of the size of the Chinese economy. According to the same source, these changes will intensify by 2050, when eight of the ten largest economies in the world will belong to countries from the Global South, including one African country. China will remain in first place, India will rise to second place, displacing the USA to third, followed by Indonesia,

Twenty years have passed since the European Union launched the
European Neighborhood Policy in 2004. During this period, the European
Neighborhood Policy has needed to be updated. This has necessitated a
renewal of the European Union's policy towards the countries in its southern
and eastern neighborhood. In this context, the research aims to make a
political analysis of the extent to which the European Union has come closer
to this political goal with the European Neighborhood Policy over a twentyyear period. The hypothesis to be tested is whether the European
Neighborhood Policy has been a successful foreign policy tool or not. In order
to defend its hypothesis, this study prefers qualitative methods. In this context,
literature was reviewed through primary and official sources, and the findings
were tested with case studies and used to prove the hypothesis. The conclusion
of the research in the context of soft power is that in the European Union's
foreign policy towards neighboring countries through its normative values has
been partially successful. With this policy, the EU has failed to bring the
expected prosperity and peace to the eastern and southern regions.

A sufficient security level of energy supply is vital to the functioning of modern economy since reliable supply is necessary to ensure industrial activities and satisfy population needs. In our previous papers (Lithuanian energy security level assessment based on indicator dependence (2011), Dynamic model for energy security level assessment (2012)) there was constructed a system of energy security indicators for the investigation of the Lithuanian energy security level. A security indicator is a special index which provides numerical values to important issues for the security of energy sector. Further, a dynamic indicator model, which includes interdependencies between indicators, was created for assessment of the energy security level. This model enables us to forecast the Lithuanian energy security level according to different development scenarios, such as a building of liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminal, electricity connection between Sweden and Lithuania (NordBalt), etc. Since technical parameters of new objects are not exactly known; their influence on indicators are expressed as random variables with known probabilistic distributions. A security indicators model based on historic data is adjusted by a probabilistic model of LNG or NordBalt influence on indicators using the Bayesian approach. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the coefficients in a dynamic model of indicators for energy security level assessment. These coefficients are calculated in two ways: using algebraic and least square methods. This paper presents the dynamic indicator model, calculation methods of coefficients of indicators equations system and pilot calculations.

Effective functioning of the energy sector is very important for the economy of every modern state. Thus, energy security is an inseparable part of the total economic security of the state. Energy security indicators were constructed for the investigation of the Lithuanian energy security level. The purpose of the paper is to construct a dynamic model for energy security level assessment. Dynamic model of indicators will enable us to forecast the Lithuanian energy security level according to different factors, such as building of liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminal, power interconnections between Lithuania and Poland (LitPolLink), etc. Since technical parameters of new objects are not exactly known, these uncertainties should be reflected in the initial conditions of a differential equations system. Thus, in such conditions, the values of indicators are random variables. The paper presents a model of dynamic indicators and pilot calculations.

Oil-producing states in the Global South adopt different strategies to influence and control their oil sectors. Why does an oil-producing state choose one approach over others? Why does a state change its approach? This dissertation argues that a government's ideological orientation and a country's oil balance combine in different ways to generate an oil-sector strategy that is either closed, mixed or open. While the variable of orientation represents the degree to which the government wants to intervene in the economy, the variable of oil balance constrains, facilitates or moderates a government's preferred oilsector strategy, depending on the interaction effects that occur from the specific aligning of these independent variables. This research presents four key findings. First, the strategy that immediately follows oil-sector nationalization sets the parameters for politically acceptable oil-related policies going forward. This original strategy often has lasting effects. Second, these constraints allow for change to occur but often limit the extent of that change. Third, a radical change in a government's orientation or oil balance opens space for major change to an oil-sector Oil-sector strategies in the Global South MCKNIGHT iii strategy. Fourth, the new strategy that comes after this critical juncture sets new parameters for oil policy. This argument emerged inductively from intensive study of 'big' Global South oilproducing countries of Brazil, China and Mexico, which included elite interviews as well as studying relevant works in political science, especially historical institutionalism, constructivism and certain theories of public policy. The methods of process-tracing and comparative historical analysis helped uncover the causal variables of government orientation and oil balance, and to identify the processes and logic that ultimately produced this mid-range theoretical argument about oil strategies. The need to identify causes and systematize explanations for a state's choice of oil-sector strategy stems from the fact that an oil industry is often the most capital-intensive, largest tax contributor and employer in an oil-producing country of the Global South with far-reaching impacts on governance and policy, as well as on political institutions and economic development. This doctoral dissertation would've been impossible without the constant support and encouragement from many people. First, my committee, who always had my best interest at heart and from the beginning wanted to see this dissertation come to fruition. Dan Breznitz, who led the committee in direction as well as insight, provided me with pragmatic advice to the proposal, fieldwork and writing stages, while always having an eye toward my future. At every moment he believed in my work and in me. Louis Pauly kept my focus at the 5,000foot level, always connected to bigger debates and real-world issues. Stefan Renckens acted as the indispensable middle-manager of the committee, posing meticulous questions about the logic of the argument as well as about methods, all of which ultimately helped make this dissertation purr and hum. Darius Ornston and Mark Blyth, who acted as internal and external readers respectively, joined the process in the later stages, giving valuable feedback on the quasi-finished product with suggestions for the research agenda going forward. I learned from many others at University of Toronto as well. I exchanged ideas with professors Wilson Prichard and Lynette Ong, largely on more region-specific matters, which is crucial for a dissertation as case-centric as this one. I was also supported by many colleagues with whom we exchanged ideas and notes, and generally were good friends during these arduous years when we all just need friends:

The authors would like to thank representatives, associations and agencies of the German electricity industry, David Newbery, Wolfgang Pfaffenberger and the participants of the SESSA workshop "Refining Market Design" in Cambridge 14/15 July 2004 for helpful comments and discussion. Gert Brunekreeft also gratefully acknowledges support from the CMI project 045/P Promoting Innovation and Productivity in Electricity Markets. Sven Twelemann would like to thank Lothar Hübl for support.

The new stage of the scientific and technological revolution has led to the development of all industries that provide and serve any sphere of human life. At the same time, manufacturing enterprises are the biggest polluters of the environment. Therefore, finding ways to improve resource efficiency is an important part of improving all economic systems, especially industrial cities. The industrial development of the world economy, which accelerated during the twentieth and early twenty-first century, has largely identified modern global contradictions, when the rapid development of one area has led to problems in another-environmentalone. So there was a need to addressthe effect of the STP on restoration and preservation of the environment, which created the basis for the formation of the seventeen goals of sustainable development by The United Nations for all countries in the coming decades. Ensuring environmental responsibility is associated with defining the goals of sustainable environmental development and a set of measures to achieve them.The Sustainable Development Goals are a global benchmark that every country must achieve by the governments, citizens, entrepreneurship and business. The main institutions involved in the process of forming the strategy of energy supply of cities on the basis of sustainable development are the state, local governments, municipal enterprises. Their interaction, despite the differences in the interests of different groups of stakeholders, is possible if the needs and interests of consumers are met and a regular dissemination of reliable information and active interaction between public authorities and local governments as well as municipal enterprises and civil society institutions is present [1]. The sustainable development goals for energy supply in industrial cities should help reduce the negative impact of pollutants, including the urban environment; reducing the volume of waste generation and increasing the volume of their processing and reuse; ensuring sustainable use of chemicals through the use of innovative technologies in enterprises [2].The dynamics of the number of cities in which the average daily maximum permissible concentrations are exceeded. Furthermore, the dynamics of the emissions indicate a rather low level of innovation and technology in industrial enterprises to protect and restore the country's environment.The number of these cities is growing.For example, in 2020 in 25 cities of Ukraine exceedances of nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde, ammonia, nitric oxide, carbon monoxide and other substances were recorded. Achieving this goal is possible through the use of new means and technologies of production, training of personnel in the mining and processing industries; a decrease in resource intensity indicates a decrease in resource costs and increase production efficiency.In addition, ensuring the preservation of cultural and natural heritage with the involvement of the private sector is also an important aspect in achieving sustainable development. Thus, the incorporation of the principles of sustainable development for environmental protection in the activities of domestic enterprises, which forms the overall level of pollution, being the most noticeable for the ecology of industrial cities, should occur at all levels of organization with a clear division of roles and responsibilities.In addition, thereisa need to invest in new technologies with less useof energy or better cleaning.

CHAPTER 1 ___________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________________________ I. BACKGROUND AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS OF THE THESIS __________________________ II. METHODOLOGY _____________________________________________________________ III. STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE OF THE THESIS ______________________________________ CHAPTER 2 ___________________________________________________________________ THE PROBLEM OF LONG-TERM SUPPLY CONTRACTS IN THE EUROPEAN ENERGY MARKETS _____________________________________________________________________ Commission Regulation (EU) No 330/2010 of 20 April on the application of Article 101(3) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union to categories of vertical agreements and concerted practice [2010] OJ L 102/1 Council Regulation (EC) No 1/2003 of 16 December 2002 on the implementation of the rules implementation of the rules on competition laid down in Article 81 and 82 of the Treaty OJ L 1 Regulation (EC) No 1228/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2003 on conditions for access to the network for cross-border exchange in electricity [2003] OJ L 176 Regulation (EC) No 1775/2005 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 September 2005 on conditions for access to the natural gas transmission networks [2005] OJ L 289/1) Regulation (EC) No 714/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 July 2009 on conditions for access to the network for cross-border exchanges in

The objective of this thesis is to examine the approach adopted by the European Commission in recently regulated energy markets. Antitrust investigations indicate that the European Commission increasingly tends to implement competition law, in particular through commitment decisions, in order to create a quasi-ex ante regulatory effect in the markets. The main conclusion of this thesis is that a lack of legal certainty and insufficient clarification of the law originating from this approach might have detrimental impacts on a single and competitive energy market design in Europe. This thesis consists of three substantial chapters in addition to the introductory and final conclusion chapters. The first chapter analyses long-term supply contracts concluded in the wholesale markets from both an economic and a legal perspective. The economic analysis of the contracts shows that the functioning of European energy markets remains ambiguous. The European Commission thus seems to adopt a st...

Gas exports to the Continent are regulated by long term take-or-pay contracts. The contracts are described and analyzed. We thereafter examine whether the most central European gas market, the German market, is integrated. Are there substantial price differences between gas from different export countries, and do prices move together? Time series of Norwegian, Dutch and Russian gas export prices to Germany in 1990-1998 are examined. Cointegration tests show that the different border prices for gas to Germany move proportionally over time, indicating an integrated gas market (the Law of One Price holds). We find differences in mean prices, with Russian gas being sold at prices systematically lower than Dutch and Norwegian gas. Among the explanatory factors for price discrepancies are differences in volume flexibility (swing) and perceived political risk.

This commentary presents some of the key issues discussed during two workshops organised by IAI, which brought together industrial and steel sector representatives from both Germany and Italy. The events are part of a broader IAI project, "An Italian-German Dialogue on Energy Security and Transition amid Russia's War on Ukraine", supported by the German Federal Foreign Office.

This article is purported to analyze the experience of energy policy implemented by governments of Germany and Russia in the field of alternative energy, and assess a possibility of applying an accumulated experience of foreign countries in today’s Russian environment. The profitability of energy production based on usage of alternative sources is still substantially lower compared to energy production based on fossil fuels combustion process. Governmental measures aimed at developing alternative energy include the following ones: formation of a new pricing policy, shifting towards alternative energy sources, use of insurance schemes, establishment of a minimum level of prices for energy produced from utilization of alternative energy sources, etc. A lot of countries have accomplished a long process in the field alternative energy technology introduction. Meanwhile Russia, in spite of its considerable experience of alternative energy development in the second half of the 20th centur...

Finding necessary resources for energy production geographically, determining the amount of reserve to be found, digging them up, determining distance to market, solutions to transportation issues, creating distribution channels and observing supply demand equilibrium are tasks that are done by supply chain professionals. Many different countries along with multinational corporations create a union of forces to overcome while planning these. Every corporation in the system is responsible for overcoming a certain stage of these tasks, however delivering these resources and goods happen with the collaboration of logistic sector creating a solution partnership. Logistics provide energy supply chains all the required resources, distributing these to a location of function and deliver all these produced goods to required places. In this article, Turkey's involvement to these energy delivery systems is discussed. Difficulties of being part of an existing system can only be overcome with mutual agreement for all parties, coming up with alternative solutions. By evaluating its location as a crossing route for petroleum and natural gas market, Turkey can take a determinant role in this market while providing sellers with certain benefits.

The article presents the use of the ARDL model to identify military expenditure determinants of the Baltic States (Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia). Factors influencing military expenditure include the variables characterizing the economic environment of the analyzed countries (GDP per Capita, Government Deficit/Surplus, General Government Gross Debt, Inflation), and the security environment measured by Risk of Foreign Pressures, Risk of Cross-border Conflict, and Democratic Accountability. General conclusions about the analysis of relationships between the military expenditure level and selected economics and security determinants were confirmed in the cases of Government Deficit/Surplus, GDP per Capita and Inflation. The results, therefore, indicate that the military expenditure of Estonia and Lithuania depended on the state budget deficit where military expenditure tended to go down in relation to an increasing deficit within the assessed period. As far as Estonia is concerned, the findings about relationship between the economic position and military expenditure was validated as an increasing economic performance tended to increase military expenditure.

The article presents the use of the ARDL model to identify military expenditure determinants of the Baltic States (Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia). Factors influencing military expenditure include the variables characterizing the economic environment of the analyzed countries (GDP per Capita, Government Deficit/Surplus, General Government Gross Debt, Inflation), and the security environment measured by Risk of Foreign Pressures, Risk of Cross-border Conflict, and Democratic Accountability. General conclusions about the analysis of relationships between the military expenditure level and selected economics and security determinants were confirmed in the cases of Government Deficit/Surplus, GDP per Capita and Inflation. The results, therefore, indicate that the military expenditure of Estonia and Lithuania depended on the state budget deficit where military expenditure tended to go down in relation to an increasing deficit within the assessed period. As far as Estonia is concerned, th...

The European Union's effort to reach the targets set by the Green Deal has met with a concrete barrier to potential energy crises fuelled by the scarcity of green energy resources. The introduction of nuclear energy along with natural gas thus becomes a controversial desideratum. This paper aims to analyse the issue of integrating the two new resources into the green energy catalogue. The analysis is divided into two sections. The first will focus on a qualitative approach by analysing the gaps and issues of labelling these resources in the 'green' sphere of the European Union by highlighting production disparities, pro-nuclear lobbying and differentiated political views. The second approach will use quantitative methods to capture possible adjustments of the ranking of the EU countries in terms of sustainability, fulfilment of the objectives assumed through the Green Deal, and energy production. Both sections of the analysis will help us to outline the change generated by the new European directive on the labelling of nuclear energy and natural gas as green energy, forming a future perspective for the European energy gear.

This article aims to elucidate the foreign policy implications of the EU's energy diplomacy endeavors in the Eastern Mediterranean. Building on the conception of "energy diplomacy", it examines its internal energy policy (in)competences and the external dimension of the EU energy policy. It is argued that because of Russia's asymmetrical advantage over energy supplies and its geopolitical aggressiveness, the EU is forced to re-regulate its policy takes on energy security and promote diversification of energy supply which cause a gravitation towards new strategic environments such as the Eastern Mediterranean. Herein, this article assesses the effectiveness of the EU's energy diplomacy; and by applying energy diplomacy model, it evaluates the results of the EU's endeavors in diversifying external energy supplies and providing energy security.

The conducted research indicates the elements characteristic of power relations among states in Eastern Europe by describing them in mathematical terms. Using existing assumptions and resulting universal powermetric models, the study adapts them to the specifics of the region, enabling the implementation of the negative role of the imports of Russian energy resources in calculating the power of individual states. The role of trade links based on the two main energy resources - natural gas and crude oil - has been indicated. Imports of these raw materials from Russia, which constitute a significant part of the balance of resources used in the energy sectors of the importing countries, are the source of reduction of the geopolitical position of these states in the region, in relation to the position held by the Russian Federation. By taking into account the negative impact of trade in energy resources due to their use by the Russian Federation as a tool in achieving geostrategic goals, the conclusions obtained in the study allow for an increase in the accuracy of existing powermetric models in research on power distribution in Eastern Europe.

The growing demand for gas, supply interruptions, increasing gas prices, transportation and distribution bottlenecks, and a growing reliance on imports over longer distances have rekindled a debate on gas security of supply. Natural gas has become an increasingly valuable resource. Its consumption is expected to increase into the future because of its low environmental impact, ease of use and an increase in the number of natural gas-fired power plants. It is one of the fuels that drive the economy. The demand for it, as a replacement for more expensive, less environmentally-friendly and less efficient resources, has already significantly increased (Cabalu and Manhutu, 2009). The world is dependent on natural gas for power generation. In 2008, it fulfilled more than 24 per cent of the total global primary energy demand (BP, 2009). OECD countries accounted for 50 per cent of gas use, transition economies, especially Russia, used about 20 per cent with developing countries accounting for the rest. Natural gas is forecast to be the fastest growing energy source by 2025, with global consumption rising by almost 60 per cent from 99 trillion cubic feet to 156 trillion cubic feet. The emerging markets of Asia will be the centre of this growth where gas consumption is projected to triple by 2025 (EIA, 2005).

The article is aimed at assessing the impact of reducing coal mining on the energy mix of Poland. Taking into account the current economic situation in the mining industry and its key role in the raw material economy of the country, the authors have attempted to assess the impact of the reduction the size or abandoning the production of hard coal mining in Poland on the situation in domestic energy sector and to present some of the resulting consequences. It is important that the share of coal in the national energy mix decreases each year, mainly in favor of natural gas and renewable energy sources. The wind power share in energy systems is increasing each year. This situation takes place both worldwide and in Poland. This development is a result of introducing requirements dictated by the conduct of climate policy. The energy solutions, which have a positive impact on the environment and climate change are mainly supported. However, it should be noted that in 2015 more than 50% of electricity was generated from burning hard coal in power generation plants. The vast majority of Polish power plants are hard coal fired power plants. A much smaller number are power plants powered by another type of fuel, including power plants powered by renewable energy sources. Currently, new capacities based on this fuel, i.e.: Kozienice, Jaworzno, and Opole power plants, are being built. The abovementioned conditions and the results of detailed analysis indicate that hard coal will continue to be used in Poland for many years.

Since the beginning of the new millennium, various initiatives have been taken to promote EU-Russian relations. In this context, a triangle centered around the capitals of Berlin, Paris and Moscow may be of particular interest as a driving force for the evolution of EU-Russian relations. The initiatives have also been criticized for going too far in accommodating Russian interests while neglecting the interests of other EU-partners. The first triangle meeting of this kind took place in 2003 with German Chancellor Schroder, French President Chirac and Russian President Putin airing criticism of the US war in Iraq. This meeting was criticized on both sides of the Atlantic. It was followed by further triangle meetings in 2004 and 2006. Leadership changes in all three countries, the fallout of the Russo-Georgian war in 2008 and Western critique on growing authoritarianism in Russia have put further activities on hold. All the more surprising was a new meeting of the Berlin-Paris-Moscow ...

When US President Joe Biden stepped on the podium in Warsaw to deliver his speech on Russia’s war against Ukraine, he looked confident.1 Not so much of Ukraine’s ultimate victory – though he pledged US support for that outcome to materialise. He looked confident that his Ukraine policy is part of a broader fight for the defence of democracy that the United States can neither neglect nor elude. Persuading the Americans that this is a cause worth fighting for apparently is how Biden has come to frame his presidency and, most likely, his re-election bid.

Italy inaugurated its year of G7 presidency with the Italy-Africa summit on 28-29 January in Rome, an event representative of the current government’s ambitions. The long-awaited meeting was the first test for the strategy of “cooperation as equals” with African states that Giorgia Meloni has repeatedly proposed as central to her government's foreign policy. It was also the first occasion to test the real scope of the so-called Mattei Plan for Africa, the project with which the Italian government wants to substantiate this strategy but whose official strategic outline has yet to be announced.

Rising energy costs have led to increased discussion about the social impact of the energy transition in Germany in recent years. In 2021, a gradually increasing CO2 tax was introduced. This paper analyzes the question of whether a CO2 tax can be socially just. Using data analysis and desk research, correlations between income and energy consumption in Germany are shown. In a short analysis, it is investigated which additional burdens different types of private households have to expect in the coming years due to the introduction of CO2 pricing on energy. In particular, the introduction of a per capita flat rate fed by CO2 tax revenues could be a suitable way to reduce the burden on low-income households.

Energy and energy supply development determines the rate of production intensification, including agricultural production. The current state of rural power supply is characterized by a high degree of deterioration of electrical equipment, long distance overhead power lines, low reliability of low-voltage electrical networks, and a higher accident rate. With an aim of ensuring food security and export orientation of the industry for the next 5 years, it is necessary to implement a set of measures to improve the efficiency of energy supply to agricultural production. This task will be hampered by a constant rise in prices and tariffs for energy resources. Thus, over the last 20 years, energy costs have increased from 3-5 % to 30-40 % in agricultural production. The specific capital investment (per 1 kW of power) and the cost of 1 kWh of electricity were reported to depend on a type of local energy source and its capacity. The paper proposes a method for marking out the economic bounda...

The European Union's effort to reach the targets set by the Green Deal has met with a concrete barrier to potential energy crises fuelled by the scarcity of green energy resources. The introduction of nuclear energy along with natural gas thus becomes a controversial desideratum. This paper aims to analyse the issue of integrating the two new resources into the green energy catalogue. The analysis is divided into two sections. The first will focus on a qualitative approach by analysing the gaps and issues of labelling these resources in the 'green' sphere of the European Union by highlighting production disparities, pro-nuclear lobbying and differentiated political views. The second approach will use quantitative methods to capture possible adjustments of the ranking of the EU countries in terms of sustainability, fulfilment of the objectives assumed through the Green Deal, and energy production. Both sections of the analysis will help us to outline the change generated by the new European directive on the labelling of nuclear energy and natural gas as green energy, forming a future perspective for the European energy gear.

The study's relevance lies in the fact that the important problem is ensuring the sustainability of the development of the Russian economy. Its financial system is influenced by many factors, among which are increased risks and market uncertainty, aggravation of the global military-political confrontation between the largest world powers, and technological innovations associated with the emergence of a new technological order "Industry 4.0". The purpose of the work is to study the financial stability of the state as a complex system based on a cognitive model that involves the use of an artificial intelligence system and a VaR model. The novelty of the study lies in the proposed approach, which involves the formation of a cognitive model of economic processes, which includes the Decision Tree artificial intelligence system and the VaR model, both generate GDP forecasts, then their forecast values are compared. A hypothesis has been put forward and proved that with the help of a cognitive model that includes an A.I. system and a VaR model, it is possible to obtain a forecast of the volume of Russia's GDP, the dynamics of which allows us to assess the sustainability of the development of the country's economy.

There are strong political and strategic arguments for a deeper energy cooperation between Italy and Germany, despite some differences. Hydrogen and gas infrastructure is a key area where intensified cooperation is crucial. Through the SouthH2 Corridor, the two countries have indeed expressed their willingness to collaborate precisely on hydrogen infrastructure, notably the SoutH2 Corridor.

Economic development and rising welfare lead to higher demand for energy services, which can limit or even negate the results of costly energy efficiency (EE) upgrades. At present, some consumption patterns in Central and Eastern European countries are more sustainable compared to the European Union (EU) average but are rapidly approaching it. Energy sufficiency (ES) leading to an absolute reduction in energy demand will be essential for achieving net zero climate goals, as it will contribute to reducing energy use and the significant investment needs associated with the electrification of the energy system. Various regulatory solutions can be deployed in pursuit of ES targets, but little information is available on the possible impacts on energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, especially at the national level. This paper focuses on the residential building sector of two Central and Eastern European countries: Lithuania and Hungary. It attempts to quantify the potential ener...

ABSTRACT Policies focusing on strategic energy resources play a key role in achieving certain goals of states by integrating them with other areas. Con- sidering the opportunities and threats associated with energy resources, the energy problem may be perceived as a chronic ailment that is difficult to solve for some states. It is also a fact that these resources increase the depen- dence of states. Energy is seen as a factor that forms the basis of interdepen- dence in Turkish-Russian relations. With the increase in Türkiye’s energy needs, its energy relations with Russia have gained great importance in the 21st century. Russia, with its rich energy resources, plays an important role in Türkiye’s energy supply, and Türkiye is an important market for Russia’s energy exports. This study analyses the energy relations between Türkiye and Russia within the framework of interdependence theory. Despite the tensions in the political arena, energy relations have been and continue to be conducted according to the principle of interdependence. The study introduces the interdependence theory and analyses the energy policies and energy situation of Türkiye and Russia in detail.

The key function of an electricity transmission network is to transfer electrical energy from generators and imports to all customers reliably, at low cost, and sustainably as far as possible. The regional or country-level networks are usually highly interconnected with a large number of nodes and redundant subnetworks. Various types of power plants provide energy for the network. They are mainly nuclear-, fossil- or renewables-based. The power generation technologies have different availabilities, costs, and sustainability indicators. In the present work, the systems analysis of electricity transmission networks is performed, based on the cost, the availability and sustainability indicators. The P-graph framework has been used, where all feasible structural options are enumerated. Naturally, these indicators are inter-dependent; for example, increasing the share of renewables in the overall energy supply for better sustainability may reduce the availability of the system. On the ba...

Obszar wokół Morza Bałtyckiego jest ważnym regionem w kształtowaniu stosunków międzynarodowych, a zatem również bezpieczeństwa europejskiego. Jego strategiczne położenie zarówno dla Federacji Rosyjskiej, jak i Unii Europejskiej sprawiło, że stał się atrakcyjny pod względem gospodarczym i politycznym. Krzyżowanie się w nim szlaków ze wschodu na zachód oraz z północy na południe daje szerokie możliwości handlu i współpracy państw tego obszaru 1. Przedstawiając państwa, za Anną Moraczewską, w celu określenia obszaru bałtyckiego autor przyjmuje, że są to Litwa,