Second Temple Period

Violence in the Hebrew Bible is a subject that is uncomfortable, and so scholars often ignore or gloss over it, favouring instead metaphorical or even pacifistic interpretations of uncomfortable texts, rather than interpreting them in their cultural setting. This is especially true for the violent language used in the later books. However, the language is present and needs to be addressed.
One of the most important metaphors used in exilic and post-exilic literature was the New Exodus. New Exodus language was used to describe the Exile and return from Persia, which opens the question as to whether or not, like the original Exodus, the figurative Exodus ended in a New Conquest. Coupled to this, there are similarities between the elements of the ban (חרם), which was implemented during the Conquest by the Israelites, and the events of the Restoration, and between the justification of the ban in the Conquest and the attitude of the returnees to those in the land.
Over the course of this study themes will be discussed that relate to both the original Exodus and Conquest and the Exile and Restoration, in order to clarify the figurative links that were made between the two time periods. Themes that are covered include the use of violent language, the New Exodus, Yahweh as the Divine Warrior, the ban, and the second temple. They are looked at, primarily, to understand how the golah community was interpreting the events and changes that were happening around them. The focus will be on violent language and imagery, which will be followed from its roots in early conquest stories through to its role in the development of apocalyptic literature. The main goal is to demonstrate whether or not the community purposefully used New Conquest language, and for what reason.

It is difficult to imagine a more dramatic and gory death than that which befell the elder, Razis, as narrated in 2 Maccabees 14 (in Catholic bibles). Highly theatrical, and even comedic would it have been, were it not for the seriousness of the incident and its grim circumstances.

Comparative studies of John's Apocalypse and the War Scroll (1QM) are limited, typically focusing on the final eschatological battle and the New Jerusalem. Within the context of the eschatological battle, scholars have explored three main areas: (1) the use of biblical traditions in 1QM and Revelation, (2) the active and passive role of battle participants, and (3) shared liturgical elements. However, analyses comparing the genre, function, and role of violence in both works remain scarce and could prevent biased interpretations. This paper seeks to fill this gap by analyzing three key aspects: (1) the genre of 1QM and Revelation, (2) the function of these texts within their communities, and (3) the role of violence committed by the saints toward the wicked in each narrative.

There are many parallels and similarities between the stages and processes of the creation of the Pentateuch and the book of Ezra-Nehemiah. Both literary compositions were written and edited in the Persian period by small circles of priests, in some stages probably even the same circles, and they represent the ideologies of these circles and their development during the postexilic period. Both compositions used older sources and traditions, edited them and added to them, and in both cases Jerusalem, the temple, the cult and the Torah stand in the center of the composition, side by side with the returnees' right on the land, the relations of these returnees with other groups in the same land, the status of Jerusalem as the only center and cult place and the place of priests and Levites among the people. Furthermore, in both literary compositions, the place of the "Holiness Code" ("H") as a later addition to the Priestly text is particularly important, and there are clear connections between the legal material in Leviticus 17-26 and the rest of the texts belonging to H and the final redactional phase of Ezra-Nehemiah. In a way quite similar to the interpretation of the activity of the Holiness School in the Pentateuch, there are several late additions in Ezra-Nehemiah across different parts of the text that reflect its ideological concerns, distinct laws and interpretations, not only as later additions to the text but also in shaping its final form. Furthermore, in line with the observations by Otto (1994; 1999; 2009), Nihan (2007; 2008) and Wöhrle (2021), it is clear that the Holiness School consistently drew upon Deuteronomy and based its ideas and laws upon the wider text of the already existing precursor Pentateuch, in which the Priestly Writing and the book of Deuteronomy had already been compiled. The aim of the Holiness Code was to balance and harmonize the different traditions of the older legal material. 1 If Ezra-Nehemiah was indeed produced by circles connected to the Babylonian Golah in the early fourth century BCE, then the latest phase of this book, which emphasizes the place of Priestly and Levitical circles not connected to the Jerusalemite temple, was not interested in the cult and the sacrifices and put the Torah and the laws of Moses at the center of the Judean existence both in Babylon

[Paper and slides provided] Having previously presented papers on the use of “Greek” in Romans as an intra-Israelite marker for Northern Kingdom Israelites, I examine other uses of this term in the New Testament, specifically in Galatians 2:1-3 and Acts 16:1-3, and the impact of this reading on contemporary readings of circumcision in Second Temple Period and early Christianity. I interact with the works of several contemporary scholars writing on circumcision and recommend how this reading can mesh with many of their conclusions. I also highlight the work of Jason Staples, suggesting that, similar to his “de-conflation” of the terms “Jew” and “Israel/Israelite,” the terms “Greek” and “Gentile” must also be separated and allowed to carry their respective meanings as intended by the first century authors. Contemporary application of this intra-Israelite reading as an analog for modern-day diaspora and mixed-race populations and their relationship(s) with cultures of origin will be discussed.

Paper delivered at Ezra-Nehemiah and the Dead Sea Scrolls Conference, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK, 8 December 2019.

Thanks for your interest in this paper. All content has been transferred to Zenodo and Knowledge Commons (https://hcommons.org/members/michaeldevries). You can access it there or email me at MXD695@alumni.bham.ac.uk or mdevries@apu.edu for offprints or copies.

Paper delivered at Categories and Boundaries in Second Temple Jewish Literature Conference 2021, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK, 5 March 2021.

Thanks for your interest in this paper. All content has been transferred to Zenodo and Knowledge Commons (https://hcommons.org/members/michaeldevries). You can access it there or email me at MXD695@alumni.bham.ac.uk or mdevries@apu.edu for offprints or copies.

Paper delivered at European Association of Biblical Studies 2021 Graduate Symposium, Mainz, Germany, 27 May 2021.

Thanks for your interest in this paper. All content has been transferred to Zenodo and Knowledge Commons (https://hcommons.org/members/michaeldevries). You can access it there or email me at MXD695@alumni.bham.ac.uk or mdevries@apu.edu for offprints or copies.

Paper delivered at Department of Theology and Religion, Postgraduate Research Forum, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK, 26 May 2022.

Thanks for your interest in this paper. All content has been transferred to Zenodo and Knowledge Commons (https://hcommons.org/members/michaeldevries). You can access it there or email me at MXD695@alumni.bham.ac.uk or mdevries@apu.edu for offprints or copies.

Paper delivered at The Dead Sea Scrolls as a Scholarly Phenomenon Conference, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway, 13 December 2022.

Thanks for your interest in this paper. All content has been transferred to Zenodo and Knowledge Commons (https://hcommons.org/members/michaeldevries). You can access it there or email me at MXD695@alumni.bham.ac.uk or mdevries@apu.edu for offprints or copies.

Paper delivered at The Lying Pen Dead Sea Scrolls Symposium, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway, 4 June 2024.

Thanks for your interest in this paper. All content has been transferred to Zenodo and Knowledge Commons (https://hcommons.org/members/michaeldevries). You can access it there or email me at MXD695@alumni.bham.ac.uk or mdevries@apu.edu for offprints or copies.

Paper delivered at Fighting Talk – Motivating Violence in Ancient Judaism Conference, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway, 5 June 2024.

Thanks for your interest in this paper. All content has been transferred to Zenodo and Knowledge Commons (https://hcommons.org/members/michaeldevries). You can access it there or email me at MXD695@alumni.bham.ac.uk or mdevries@apu.edu for offprints or copies.

Paper delivered at Second Temple Early Career Academy (STECA) Virtual Conference, 23 May 2025.

Thanks for your interest in this paper. All content has been transferred to Zenodo and Knowledge Commons (https://hcommons.org/members/michaeldevries). You can access it there or email me at MXD695@alumni.bham.ac.uk or mdevries@apu.edu for offprints or copies.

Reviewed for Reading Religion, posted on 29 July 2024. https://readingreligion.org/9781481317641/

Thanks for your interest in this publication. All content has been transferred to Zenodo and Knowledge Commons (https://hcommons.org/members/michaeldevries). You can access it there or email me at MXD695@alumni.bham.ac.uk or mdevries@apu.edu for offprints or copies.

Reviewed for Journal of Jewish Studies, 75.1 (Spring 2024), 188–90. https://doi.org/10.3828/jjs.2024.75.1.188

Thanks for your interest in this publication. All content has been transferred to Zenodo and Knowledge Commons (https://hcommons.org/members/michaeldevries). You can access it there or email me at MXD695@alumni.bham.ac.uk or mdevries@apu.edu for offprints or copies.

The aim of this article is to analyse the theme of envy and its complexity in Josephus' works in rhetorical and strategic sense rather than just as a literary topos. The paper focuses on two cases motivated by envy: Korah's rebellion against Moses and the conflict between Josephus and John of Gischala. In these two cases, both the characteristics of envious persons and the richest descriptions of their sinister activities appear. The idea of Korah's envy was not based on the Bible or the Second Temple literature or traditions but on Josephus' own experiences from the period of his short-term command in Galilee (December 66-July 67) when he was in conflict with envious John of Gischala. Thanks to this procedure, he was able to create the self-apologetic impression that his fate and that of Moses were intertwined because they had opponents with similar characteristics who were motivated by the same vice. Moreover, Josephus in both narratives follows the specific sequence according to which the envy leads to a "plot" (ἐπιβουλή), then to "false accusations" (διαβολή) and finally to a "sedition" (στάσις). He strategically used the theme of envy for his own apology to condemn his enemy, John of Gischala. The envy he felt disclosed the character of a person who was worse than Josephus in terms of personality traits. Josephus instead appears before the readers as a stoic sage who is free from weakness such as envy. At the same time the author draws attention to his own well-deserved success, thus the presence of envy becomes an indicator of his achievements. He conceals his own negative actions during his command in Galilee and tries to direct the audience's attention to a specific arrangement of events that will lead to blaming his opponent.

The surprising presence of Arabic anthroponyms in the Aramaic ostraca of Idumea, several centuries before the earliest known Arabic texts, reveals unexpected insights into interesting morphological phenomenon. This paper examines the Arabic anthroponyms found in this corpus to explore the status of case endings in ancient Arabic during the Persian Period. Current research on Arabic largely focuses on the internal historical and genealogical development of its case system. The corpus of anthroponyms of Persian Idumea uniquely reflect an intense language contact situation, a multi-ethnic and multilingual milieu which captures linguistic features from oral dialects otherwise not reflected in the historical epigraphic sources. Applying modern linguistic methodology, including cognitive linguistics, sociolinguistics, and language contact studies, we conceptualize the complex dynamics of oral communication in this setting. Specifically, we analyze the interaction between the lingua franca and lingua receptiva axes which likely shaped this linguistic phenomenon.

The excavation at Khallat Abu Ḥalaḥ uncovered part of a Byzantine-period structure comprising several rectangular rooms, corresponding to five construction phases. One of these rooms may have functioned as a bathhouse. Remains of another nearby structure decorated with a cross were also revealed, along with the upper fragment of a small chalkstone altar incised with a cross; a road paved with small stones and flanked by two walls that led to the site and continued toward Naḥal Dalia; and several field walls, one of which may have served as an enclosure. The finds from the site—including a fragment of a marble chancel screen incised with a cross within a medallion and the altar fragment decorated with a cross—indicate that the site was inhabited by a Christian population, likely part of the agricultural hinterland of Caesarea.

This article explores the Temple ideology that characterizes the book of Haggai and its innovative features. It explains Haggai's new approach in terms of the particular situation of the period, including its geo-political circumstances and its implications for theological thinking in ancient Israel.

Atlantis, maybe more than any other legend, has roused our curiosity for nearly 2,500 years.
Well, the legend of Atlantis is not a myth anymore. Actually, it was never a myth, nor a moralistic tale hiding behind the
description of a fictional utopian society.
Atlantis is more real that we would had ever imagined, and, it has played a more important role in our history than
anyone could have guessed.

If [Louis] Ginzberg is correct, then the fact of Haman’s Jewishness is surely a priceless piece of information towards our identifying a character so enigmatic that he is variously called an “Agagite”; an “Amalekite” (or Edomite); a “Bougean” [Septuagint]; and a “Macedonian”.

The archaeological excavation at Silwan Pool revealed both continuity and change as regards the site's entrance over the past 2,000 years. This article presents the preliminary results of the excavation and discusses changes in accessing the pool.

This study explores the religious and cultural background of King Herod the Idumean in Palestine during his reign from 40 to 4 BCE. Certain historians, particularly those aligned with the Jewish narrative-such as Flavius Josephus (The Jewish War 1.9.13; Jewish Antiquities 13.15.4)-argued that the Idumeans had been Judaized by the Hasmoneans. This claim led many subsequent historians to assume that Herod's religion was Judaism. However, through scholarly debate, historical inquiry, and extensive archaeological evidence, it becomes evident that Herod's religion was in fact paganism, while his cultural orientation was distinctly Hellenistic. These factors directly shaped Jewish opposition to Herod, rooted in his violations of Jewish law, as well as Herod's antagonistic policies toward the Jewish population, which included punishment, execution, repression, and their exclusion from political life. The archaeological remains attributed to Herod provide further confirmation of his pagan identity, particularly his construction of numerous pagan temples and his consistent efforts to preserve the pagan character of the territories under his rule. Likewise, evidence of his Hellenistic cultural outlook is clearly reflected in the urban projects he initiated, such as theaters, stadiums, baths, and various facilities for entertainment and leisure, which he introduced in cities including Jerusalem, Caesarea, Sebaste, Asqalan, and other sites.

Paweł Paszko’s Mundus inversus nei cantici femminili dell’Antico Testamento (AB 227, Rome: Gregorian & Biblical Press, 2019) is the published version of his doctoral dissertation at the Pontifical Gregorian University (2018), supervised by Núria Calduch-Benages. The study focuses on four biblical songs attributed to women (Miriam: Ex 15:20–21; Deborah: Judg 5; Hannah: 1 Sam 2:1–10; Judith: Jdt 16:1–17), read as inset psalms and interpreted through the literary topos of the mundus inversus (“world upside down”). Paszko develops a typology of inversion in three domains—nature, culture, and religion—and applies literary, exegetical, and theological analysis to each canticle.

The second part offers detailed exegesis of the four hymns, while the third synthesizes their theological significance, highlighting their role both in reinforcing the immediate narrative and in providing broader theological perspectives. The book concludes with a study of the Magnificat (Lk 1:46–55), which, though formally outside the Old Testament, resonates with the earlier female victory songs and recapitulates the biblical theme of mundus inversus in anticipation of the paschal mystery.

The reviewer praises the work’s methodological precision, its extensive bibliography, and its innovative proposal of mundus inversus as a fruitful hermeneutical category for biblical studies. He notes minor methodological issues (e.g., dependence on R. Meynet’s terminology, the canonical status of Judith), but overall commends the volume as a consistent, thorough, and promising contribution, offering a new thread uniting Old and New Testament theology through the theme of divine reversal.

Within the Textus Receptus, no book has provoked more textual scrutiny than Revelation, in part because several of its readings appear scarcely, if at all, in surviving Greek manuscripts. One such passage is found in Revelation 21:24, a reading that has been the subject of considerable debate regarding its authenticity. In this research the author presents the available data as well as offers interpretations for accepting the questioned phrase as canonical.

This paper explores the inclusive cultural landscapes of the Jhunjhunu district in Rajasthan, focusing on road connectivity patterns and the challenges associated with them. It discusses broader state-level trends in road development. It investigates how infrastructure can influence heritage preservation and related commercial development at the district level, despite Jhunjhunu being an administrative headquarters and a commercially successful town. Despite the establishment of government bodies for the preservation of heritage with the inflow of road infrastructure, the lack of adequate planning has hurt the sustainable growth of the district. The lesser-known issue of poorly organized roads negatively impacts the district's image of well-known heritage sites, particularly concerning accessibility and recognition. On the other hand, the study highlights the role of government projects in fostering cultural development with commercial activities. A key focus is the comprehensive analysis of year-based road network patterns, followed by the important temporal trends. Utilizing secondary data, including maps, flow charts, and supporting materials from QGIS and other spatial data, the study examines both challenges and opportunities. It demonstrates how infrastructure can benefit heritage-rich yet overlooked districts like Jhunjhunu. This study is motivated by the need for heritage preservation and infrastructural development for robust sustainability in these sectors, and it aims to inform government officials, administrators, urban planners, and policymakers about how road development can harmonize modern needs with cultural preservation in historically and economically significant areas.

Hosea came from the northern kingdom and perhaps from the tribe of Ephraim. He lived and preached in the northern kingdom during the last decades of Israel's life. His activity covers the last years of Jeroboam II’s reign. Therefore, Hosea was active from 750 to 725 BC and perhaps shortly after 722 BC.
In our study we chose the texts Hos 2:16ff;3:4-5.12:10, because they have a special theological sense for the community and the people of Israel. The above belong to the texts related to the tradition of the selection in the desert, because they mainly announce the return of Israel to the desert land. The prophet Hosea had a series of historical events at his disposal, as it can be seen in his prophetic speech. The reference to historical events aims to presenting the guilt of Israel, due to its sinful behavior. At the same time, it aims to emphasizing the need for Israel to “return” to its God. In this context, the tradition of the exodus, and particularly the desert, plays an important role in Hosea.

Hammam Ibrahim al-Khalil, built in 1266 during the Mamluk period, is one of the earliest Mamluk public bathhouses in the Land of Israel. Remarkably, it has survived with all of its facilities intact and remained in continuous use for more than 700 years, until it ceased operation in 1986. Situated near Hebron’s historic Jewish Quarter, the bathhouse served as a central institution for both Muslims and Jews.
Sephardi Jews used it weekly and on festive occasions, especially for women’s ritual immersion, while the Ashkenazi community traditionally visited once a year on the eve of Passover. The study presents the bathhouse’s architectural layout—including large dressing halls, heated rooms arranged in a cruciform plan, private chambers, and advanced water-heating systems—and compares it with other Mamluk and Ottoman hammams.
The article argues that Hammam al-Khalil was built by ‘Ala’ al-Din al-Basir, inspector of holy places under Sultan Baybars, for the benefit of Muslim pilgrims on their way to Mecca and visitors to the Cave of the Patriarchs. Its exceptional state of preservation makes it a unique case study for understanding social, religious, and urban life in Hebron across the centuries.

Shivtiel Y. 2024. "Underground Cavities in the Galilee and their Preparation during the Roman Revolts". In A. Frumkin and Y. Shivtiel (eds.) Atlas of East Galilee Caves. Jerusalem. Pp. 39–59 (Hebrew).
Summary
Many caves in the Galilee were used as shelters, underground hideouts, or as escape caves during various Jewish rebellions against the Roman Empire.    Many of them were installed and prepared, or were even carved out by humans from the start .
The underground spaces that were used in various uprisings can be divided into three types:
. 1. Cliff shelters: Natural caves that were originally formed by karst processes, but in many cases, rock-hewn facilities such as water cisterns, purification baths, rope loops, bunks, chimneys, and passages between levels were prepared. Cliff shelters were found mainly in cliffs in the Galilee, such as Mount Arbel, Mount Nitai, Nahal Amud, Sela Ackhbara, Mount Eviatar, as well as sites in the Western Galilee. These caves were probably used as temporary shelters. Reaching many of the shelters requires the use of a rope or difficult and dangerous climbing over the steep rock faces. Josephus mentioned in his writings several times the use made of such caves in Galilee, during the first Jewish revolt in particular he noted that he himself took care to fortify caves around the "Sea of Gennesaret" (War, 2: 572-576)
2. Hiding Complexes: Hewn caves, located under sites that were inhabited by Jews in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. These include, in many cases, intricate systems of cavities , and tunnels connecting cavity  to cavity . This method of hiding and defense, the purpose of which was survival, was done by hewing out tunnels that required crawling, often with sharp turns at 90° angles, with the aim of making it difficult for an armed and well-equipped enemy to crawl on his equipment into these hiding tunnels. The choice of the quarrying sites involves the existence of suitable geological conditions, i.e. brittle limestone or chalk rock. The tunnels, which had few entrances and exits, were designed for hiding underground for a limited period of time and allowed people to hide in survival conditions. Hundreds of them have been discovered in the Land of Judea and southern Samaria. In the Galilee, there are 83 hiding complexes, and they have similar outlines to the hiding complexes of the Land of Judea. Almost all of them are located within or near ancient Jewish settlements. The typology of the hiding complexes throughout the country indicates a similar quarrying method and common characteristics. The distinct defensive use of these hiding complexes required the camouflage of their entrances and exits; for example, the openings of some of the systems were located in cisterns or purification baths. In many cases, the quarrymen used existing underground agricultural facilities that they connected to each other with tunnels. Therefore, the hiding complexes sometimes include cisterns, purification bath, wine presses, cellars and other facilities, and in a few cases also burial caves. Archaeological evidence accumulated from these hiding Complexes dates their use mainly to the Roman period, and especially to the first and second centuries BCE, the time when the first Jewish revolt took place - the Grate Revolt and the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Similar underground systems have recently been documented in the Benjamin region and in southern Samaria. In addition, hiding  complexes from the Hasmonean period have also been discovered in various places in the country.  In a number of hiding complexes in the Galilee, findings from the fourth century BCE have recently been discovered, which can be attributed to the period of the Gallus revolt, about which historical information is scarce.
3. Refuge caves: Natural karst caves, located mainly on steep slopes or hidden between folds of the ground in difficult-to-reach places, especially in the Judean Desert and the Judean and Samarian mountains. The caves include karst spaces, some of which are connected by tunnels or cracks that can be moved through with great difficulty. Jews fled to these refuge caves from areas that were relatively distant from them. The escapees used these caves without any training in their contents, and it seems that they fled to them during times of distress and danger regardless of their proximity to the settlements from which they fled. To date, dozens of caves of this type have been discovered throughout the Land of Judea. Numerous archaeological finds have been discovered in the refuge caves, indicating that the use of many of them should be dated to the period of the Grate  Revolt, and especially to the end of the Bar Kokhba Revolt. This type of refuge cave was not discovered in the Galilee until 2016. Subsequently, a number of difficult-to-access caves were discovered in the Meron Valley (see this area in the Atlas), in which pottery and jar fragments dating to the first and second centuries CE were uncovered. This type of cave was called the Refuge Caves, following the use of this name for caves in central Israel.

We observed that India is one of the oldest countries in the world with its oldest heritage importance and the area that are developed around it. We have seen the vast range of structure from the oldest stone structure to the period of the welldeveloped cities. Early settlements were mainly occurred around the river and mainly the major structures were built for its religious purpose at the particular era.

This essay reflects on why the second century may be deserving of closer scholarly attention and on ways to leverage fresh insights into this period. It argues for the importance of studying Jewish and Christian sources in close conjunction on the basis of their shared history and the similar methodological challenges involved in the study of Jewish and Christian history and literature of this period. To elucidate these methodological challenges and potential ways to address them, the chapter draws on the metaphor of the map. It explores the possibility of working towards an 'atlas' of Jews and Christians in this period that may allow us to move beyond the traditional categories bequeathed to us by ecclesiastical and rabbinic tradition, and to work towards a more complex and multilayered construal of the Jewish and Christian worlds of the second century.

This study explores archaeological remains of the Jewish chalk-vessel industry in Galilee and the Golan during the Early Roman period. It examines recent excavations at 'Einot Amitai, Reina and Lower Wadi es-Sufera, focusing on raw materials, manufacturing techniques and typologies of vessels produced at these sites. The study also looks at the chronology of this industry, exploring when chalk-vessel production in the north first began and when it ended. Throughout the paper, the archaeological remains from the northern sites are compared and contrasted with findings from Jerusalem-area workshops. Finally, the study investigates what the archaeological remains analyzed here may indicate about the observance of the Jewish ritual purity laws among Jewish communities in Galilee and Golan.

Las naciones y la extranjería en el libro de Tobit Emilio López Navas Centro superior de estudios teológicos de Málaga ORCID: 0000-0002-3943-6974 Q uien se acerca al libro de Tobit (Tob) de una manera superficial se puede llevar la impresión de que en esta obra deuterocanónica se trata el tema de la extranjería y de las naciones, cuanto menos, con un espíritu distante. Las reiteradas veces en las que se llama a la endogamia, las ocasiones en las que se describe la situación de los deportados como «catastrófica» o la visión amenazante de la asimilación con la cultura dominante pueden inducir a una interpretación de este tipo. En este estudio, en cambio, proponemos una lectura más atenta y completa de la novela. Sin ignorar los momentos en los que el autor muestra una tendencia contraria a la convivencia con los demás pueblos, se podrá comprobar que Tob admite, en primer lugar, una relación con la sociedad que acoge a los exiliados, y, en segundo término, se abre a una visión universal en la que las naciones de todo el mundo podrán unirse a la peregrinación escatológica hacia Jerusalén, siempre que se conviertan.

זו גישה ביקורתית כלפי העדוּת המקראית על היבוסים, תושבי ירושלים לפני כיבוש העיר בידי דוד המלך. היות שאין עדויות חוץ-מקראיות המאשרות את קיומם של היבוסים או של עיר בשם "יבוס", עולה ספק לגבי אמינות המקרא כמקור היסטורי בעניין זה. בהתבסס על דמיון צורני בין האותיות רי"ש ובי"ת בכתב העברי הקדום, ועל דמיון פונטי בין העיצורים שׂי"ן וסמ"ך, ייתכן שהשם המקורי היה "ירושׂים", המתייחס לתושבי ירושׂלים, עיר שהייתה בעבר מרכז כוהני דת של אמונת שׂלם. הסופר המקראי שינה את השם ל"יבוסים" כדי להרחיק את הקשר בין מקדש שׂלם לבין המלך שלמה, ובכך לחזק את הנרטיב של המלך שלמה כמייסד המקדש. גישה זו מציעה קריאה ביקורתית של כלל הטקסט המקראי, המדגישה את האפשרות של מניעים פוליטיים ודתיים בעיצוב הנרטיב ההיסטורי. היא מעודדת בחינה מחודשת של מקורות היסטוריים וארכאולוגיים כדי להבין את ההיסטוריה המורכבת של ירושלים ותושביה הקדומים.

Background: During Paul's time, the Roman Empire ruled a large area of land across Asia, Europe, and Africa. The empire was very powerful and controlled many different authorities. Rome also used its army and strict laws to stay in control. Different cities and regions had their own ways of running things, but they still had to follow Roman rules. Paul´s Trip to Rome, 27, Fourth Missionary Journey, the story starts from Chapter 21, where he was caught in chapter 21 after he returned from his third missionary journey. He is accused by Jews of his teachings against Jewish ethnicity, Law and place, 21:28 Paul was caught by a Jewish crowd and beaten badly, but when they saw the army chief and left him, the regiments held his hands with a chain.

This study presents a comprehensive chronological framework for the ancient Near East that achieves unprecedented alignment between biblical, Egyptian, and Babylonian historical records. Through mathematical analysis of the 24 priestly courses (mishmarot) documented in Talmudic sources, combined with biblical Jubilee cycles and Egyptian archaeological evidence, we demonstrate that Nebuchadnezzar II's reign should be dated to 548-505 BC rather than the conventional 605-562 BC. This redating places the First Temple's destruction in 530 BC, creating perfect mathematical harmony with: (1) the priestly course rotation pattern spanning 599 years to the Second Temple's destruction in 70 AD, (2) the precise fulfillment of Daniel's 70-weeks prophecy culminating in 31 AD, (3) the 390-year divided kingdom period prophesied in Ezekiel 4, and (4) the death of Thutmose II in 1479 BC coinciding with the biblical Exodus. The probability of these independent systems aligning by chance is calculated to be less than 10^-20, suggesting this framework represents the actual historical timeline rather than coincidental correlation. (Claude AI Opus 4.1 was used in the production of this work, especially for Statistical Analysis.)

In 2019-2020, a small-scale supplementary excavation was conducted in the northeastern section of Wilson's Arch (see Chapters 1 and 3). 1 The excavation, which focused on the cavea of the theaterlike structure found beneath the arch, measured 30 sq m (Figs. 4.1-4.2). The goals of the excavation were to expose the fill between the theater-like structure and the Western Wall and to unearth its foundation to bedrock. Walls that had already been exposed and registered during the primary excavation that is the focus of this book retained their original locus number (starting from 4000; see Chapter 3, Index of Loci and Walls). Walls and loci exposed during this supplementary excavation were registered using a different loci and baskets bank (starting from 800 for loci and 8000 for baskets). The boundaries of the excavation were Wall 4451 in the north and Wall 4205 (the Western Wall) in the east. In the south, the excavation extended to the large fill at the line of the small theater-like structure. In the west, the excavation bordered the podium of the theater-like structure and Wall 4493 (see excavation borders in Fig. 4.1). The main feature discovered during this excavation was a massive fill adjacent to the Western Wall (Wall 4205). The removal of the fill exposed the rear of the theater-like structure's orchestra and other yet unknown courses of the Western Wall, demonstrating their stratigraphic connections to other elements in the excavation. Although the excavation added new data, it did not change the stratigraphic sequence suggested by the previous excavators (see Chapter 3). The discussion that follows focuses on the description of the large stone fill and the remains exposed by its removal.

In recent years, numerous excavations have been conducted across Israel, revealing sites dated to the Early Islamic period. The extensive data collected from these excavations significantly enriches our understanding of the daily life and behaviors of the inhabitants of the Land of Israel during that period. A prominent finding from the Abbasid and Fatimid periods is a distinct ware group of pottery vessels known as Buff Ware (hereafter referred to as BW). BW pottery primarily comprised of tableware vessels used mainly for storing and pouring liquids. This ware group is distinct, wheel-thrown ceramics, some artistically decorated with plastic designs, stamped patterns, incised motifs, and even incised pseudo-Arabic script. BW vessels have been uncovered at numerous sites dated to the Abbasid period across the Levant, from Turkey Syria, and extending as far as Sinai. In Israel, substantial BW assemblages have been identified in both urban centers and rural sites.
My study will focus on the BW vessels discovered during excavations conducted from 2019 to 2023 in the Western Wall Plaza area of Jerusalem. BW vessels and, more broadly, pottery from the Early Islamic period in Israel have rarely been studied from a cultural and behavioral perspective. Analyzing the assemblage of tableware from these Jerusalem excavations enables the examination of the evolution of drinking habits and their significance during the Abbasid period.
Within the scope of this research, I will demonstrate that the use of BW vessels remained consistent throughout the Abbasid and Fatimid periods. Moreover, I will argue that their use reflects a dual significance: on the one hand, preserving longstanding drinking habits from earlier periods while simultaneously incorporating a new, Eastern-Arabic fashion, signifying a transition from Western-Christian traditions to Arab-Eastern traditions. Concluding my study, I will assess the extent of wine-drinking culture in Jerusalem, as evidenced by the use of BW vessels, despite the grape and wine industry persisting during the Early Islamic period, albeit with a decline in production volume due to Islamic prohibitions on alcohol consumption (haram).

Herodes, o Grande, destacou-se como um arquiteto inovador na antiguidade, promovendo a romanização ao adotar e adaptar técnicas romanas, como o opus sectile. Sua abordagem singular, evidenciada pelo uso do triângulo herodiano e variações em módulos quadráticos, deixou uma marca distintiva na arquitetura da sua época.

The following article will explore the development of domestic life in Jerusalem at the ex-ample of Mount Zion’s southern slope. The DEI’s excavations from 2015-2020 unearthed a residential quarter with architectural remains and finds dating from the Iron Age II to the Medieval period. The quarter’s urban development can be portrayed gapless in the longue durée through the ages which allows unique insights into Jerusalem’s history, focusing on the inhabitants of Mount Zion.