Research on Endosymbionts

The sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), is one of the several species complexes of whitefly that are currently significant agricultural pests. Bemisia tabaci infests more than 600 plant species and thrives under a wide range of temperature conditions. In addition to the direct damage caused by sucking plant sap, it vectors several plant viruses. Heat-shock proteins play a pivotal role in enabling the insect to extend its geographical location, survival, and reproduction under different stress conditions. B. tabaci harbours several endosymbionts under the genera Portiera, Rickettsia, Hamiltonella, Wolbachia, Arsenophonus, Cardinium, and Fritschea that directly or indirectly affect its fitness. By accelerating cuticle biosynthesis and sclerotisation, symbiotic microbes can reduce or enhance tolerance to extreme temperatures and detoxify heavy metals. Thus, symbionts or microbial communities can expand or constrain the abiotic niche space of their host and affect its abi...

The red palm mite, Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae), was recently introduced in the Americas. It spread quickly throughout coconut palm growing areas, expanding considerably its host range. The invasion of this species has caused high economic impact in several countries. In Brazil, extensive areas are expected to be affected. For logistical reasons and other concerns, chemical control does not seem desirable for the control of this pest in most Latin American countries. Biological control of R. indica by introducing exotic natural enemies seems to be an important control measure to be considered. Surveys in many countries have shown that Amblyseius largoensis (Muma) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) is a very common predator on coconut palms. This study compared the biology of a population of A. largoensis found for a long time in association with R. indica in La Reunion Island (Indian Ocean) with a population from Roraima State (northern Brazil), where R. indica was first found about two and a half years ago. No significant differences were observed between populations in relation to the duration of different immature stages or total survivorship. However, the oviposition period, prey consumption and net reproductive rate were significantly higher for the La Reunion population,

h i g h l i g h t s A. largoensis from the Americas and La Réunion Islands are morphometrically distinct. Most differences among A. largoensis studied populations are on the setae lenght. A. largoensis from the Americas and Indian Ocean Islands consist a taxonomic unity. A. largoensis from the Americas and Indian Ocean Islands consist two genetic groups. Genetic and morphological differences among A. largoensis populations can be markers.

A review of all the available information about the natural enemies reported in association with the red palm mite, Raoiella indica is presented. Twenty-eight species of predatory arthropods, including mites and insects, have been reported in association with R. indica in Asia, Africa and the Neotropics. In addition, pathogenic fungi associated with R. indica in the Caribbean have been reported. The available literature indicates that each site has a different natural enemy complex with only one predator species, Amblyseius largoensis (Acari: Phytoseiidae), present in all the geographical areas. The phytoseiids, Amblyseius caudatus Berlese, Amblyseius channabasavanni Gupta and A. largoensis, were regarded as important natural enemies of R. indica, and their predatory efficiency was studied in some detail. Among the predatory insects the coccinellids Stethorus keralicus Kapur and Telsimia ephippiger Chapin were reported as major predators of R. indica. The known distribution, abundance and relative importance of each species reported in association with R. indica are discussed.

Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) is a phytophagous mite that recently invaded the Neotropical region. A predatory mite Amblyseius largoensis (Muma) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) has been found associated with R. indica in several areas recently invaded in the new world. A series of studies evaluated Florida (USA) populations of A. largoensis for potential control of R. indica by determining (1) the development and reproduction of A. largoensis feeding on R. indica and comparing its reproductive parameters to those obtained when feeding on other potential prey and pollen; (2) the prey-stage preferences of A. largoensis to R. indica; (3) the response of four populations of A. largoensis to R. indica and T. gloveri eggs and larvae; (4) the functional and numerical responses of A. largoensis to R. indica eggs, and (5) the effect of A. largoensis on R. indica densities using predator exclusion and predator release techniques. The results of these studies showed that (1) A. largoensis was able to feed, develop and reproduce on a diet consisting solely of R. indica showing improved reproductive parameters than when feeding on other prey and pollen; (2) A. largoensis showed preference for R. indica eggs followed by larvae, nymphs and adults; (3) the four populations of A. largoensis, all with different previous exposure to R. indica, were likely to accept and consume high numbers of R. indica eggs regardless of their previous feeding experience; however, A. largoensis showed plasticity in its response to R. indica larvae; (4) while feeding on R. indica eggs, A. largoensis females displayed a type II functional response with an increase in prey killed as prey density increased until a saturation level of approximately 45 R. indica eggs/day, a level at which oviposition by the predator was maximized (~ 2.36 A. largoensis eggs/day); (5) finally, a predator release rate of 1 A. largoensis female/ 10 R. indica adults reduced R. indica densities up to 50%. Overall, these results suggest that A. largoensis can play an important role in controlling R. indica populations in Florida.

The mechanisms involved in the acceptance and choice of prey by predatory mites are still poorly understood. The present study was designed to determine whether previous feeding experience of Amblyseius largoensis (Muma) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) on Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) eggs could influence the predator’s functional response and related parameters. The consumption of R. indica eggs by experienced and naïve female A. largoensis was evaluated under increasing densities of eggs. Regardless of the predators’ previous experience, a gradual increase in the number of eggs consumed and a tendency to stabilize at higher densities were observed. Proportionally, egg consumption decreased with increasing egg densities, indicating a type II functional response for both experienced and naïve predators. Experienced and naïve predators also had the same attack rate. However, naïve predators had a handling time almost 50% longer than experienced predators and showed lower variati...

Development, evaluation, and efficient delivery of antisense oligonucleotide FANA (2′-deoxy-2′-fluoro-arabinonucleotide) RNA-targeting technology into citrus trees and potato plants for management of bacterial pathogens and arthropod pests. The FANA ASO technology is a single nucleotide strand of 20–24 nt in length that incorporates 2′F- chemically modifications of nucleotides, along with a phosphorothioate backbone and modified flanking nucleotides in their structure called “gapmers,” (AUM LifeTech., Inc). The unique modifications of FANA “triggers” enables gymnotic activity (self-delivers into cells) moving systemically in treated plants and insects, results in significant suppression of their RNA targets. Reported is the FANA suppression of two plant-infecting bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus, CLas (in citrus trees) and CLso (in potato and tomato), as well as in their psyllid vectors.

Research on the development of RNA-suppressing technologies, which include RNAi, and applications of RNA suppression using cell-penetrating
peptide Morpholinos, PPMO, for suppressing pests and bacterial pathogens are presented. Due to the extensive nature of RNAi and antisense oligonucleotide research, readers are directed to this review to obtain a more in-depth understanding of each field of study. Genomic resources and websites for dataset downloads and free access are listed to facilitate a broader community collaboration to develop solutions for this complex Liberibacter pathosystem. Strategies for gene drive and psyllid population modification or replacement, with Wolbachia or CRISPR/Cas9-based alterations, have continued to gain interest and are being developed for insect pests.

The sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), is one of the several species complexes of whitefly that are currently significant agricultural pests. Bemisia tabaci infests more than 600 plant species and thrives under a wide range of temperature conditions. In addition to the direct damage caused by sucking plant sap, it vectors several plant viruses. Heat-shock proteins play a pivotal role in enabling the insect to extend its geographical location, survival, and reproduction under different stress conditions. B. tabaci harbours several endosymbionts under the genera Portiera, Rickettsia, Hamiltonella, Wolbachia, Arsenophonus, Cardinium, and Fritschea that directly or indirectly affect its fitness. By accelerating cuticle biosynthesis and sclerotisation, symbiotic microbes can reduce or enhance tolerance to extreme temperatures and detoxify heavy metals. Thus, symbionts or microbial communities can expand or constrain the abiotic niche space of their host and affect its abi...

The sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), is one of the several species
complexes of whitefly that are currently significant agricultural pests. Bemisia tabaci
infests more than 600 plant species and thrives under a wide range of temperature
conditions. In addition to the direct damage caused by sucking plant sap, it vectors
several plant viruses. Heat-shock proteins play a pivotal role in enabling the insect to
extend its geographical location, survival, and reproduction under different stress
conditions. B. tabaci harbours several endosymbionts under the genera Portiera,
Rickettsia, Hamiltonella, Wolbachia, Arsenophonus, Cardinium, and Fritschea that
directly or indirectly affect its fitness. By accelerating cuticle biosynthesis and
sclerotisation, symbiotic microbes can reduce or enhance tolerance to extreme
temperatures and detoxify heavy metals. Thus, symbionts or microbial communities
can expand or constrain the abiotic niche space of their host and affect its ability to
adapt to changing conditions. The present study delineates the effect of thermal
stress on the expression of heat-shock genes and endosymbionts in B. tabaci.
Studies of the expression level of heat-shock proteins with the help of
quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) showed that heatand
cold-shock treatment fuels the increased expression of heat-shock proteins
(Hsp40 and Hsp70). However, Hsp90 was not induced by a heat- and cold-shock
treatment. A significant decrease in the relative titre of secondary endosymbionts,
such as Rickettsia, Arsenophonus, and Wolbachia, were recorded in B. tabaci upon
heat treatment. However, the titre of the primary symbiont, C. Portiera, was relatively
unaffected by both cold and heat treatments. These results are indicative of the fact
that Hsp genes and endosymbionts in B. tabaci are modulated in response to thermal
stress, and this might be responsible for the adaptation of whitefly under changing
climatic scenario.

Intracellular endosymbiotic bacteria are found in many terrestrial arthropods and have a profound influence on host biology. A basic question about these symbionts is why they infect the hosts that they do, but estimating symbiont incidence (the proportion of potential host species that are actually infected) is complicated by dynamic or low prevalence infections. We develop a maximum-likelihood approach to estimating incidence, and testing hypotheses about its variation. We apply our method to a database of screens for bacterial symbionts, containing more than 3600 distinct arthropod species and more than 150 000 individual arthropods. After accounting for sampling bias, we estimate that 52% (CIs: 48–57) of arthropod species are infected with Wolbachia , 24% (CIs: 20–42) with Rickettsia and 13% (CIs: 13–55) with Cardinium . We then show that these differences stem from the significantly reduced incidence of Rickettsia and Cardinium in most hexapod orders, which might be explained b...

Intracellular endosymbiotic bacteria are found in many terrestrial arthropods and have a profound influence on host biology. A basic question about these symbionts is why they infect the hosts that they do, but estimating symbiont incidence (the proportion of potential host species that are actually infected) is complicated by dynamic or low prevalence infections. We develop a maximum-likelihood approach to estimating incidence, and testing hypotheses about its variation. We apply our method to a database of screens for bacterial symbionts, containing more than 3600 distinct arthropod species and more than 150 000 individual arthropods. After accounting for sampling bias, we estimate that 52% (CIs: 48–57) of arthropod species are infected with Wolbachia , 24% (CIs: 20–42) with Rickettsia and 13% (CIs: 13–55) with Cardinium . We then show that these differences stem from the significantly reduced incidence of Rickettsia and Cardinium in most hexapod orders, which might be explained b...

Intracellular endosymbiotic bacteria are found in many terrestrial arthropods and have a profound influence on host biology. A basic question about these symbionts is why they infect the hosts that they do, but estimating symbiont incidence (the proportion of potential host species that are actually infected) is complicated by dynamic or low prevalence infections. We develop a maximum-likelihood approach to estimating incidence, and testing hypotheses about its variation. We apply our method to a database of screens for bacterial symbionts, containing more than 3600 distinct arthropod species and more than 150 000 individual arthropods. After accounting for sampling bias, we estimate that 52% (CIs: 48–57) of arthropod species are infected with Wolbachia , 24% (CIs: 20–42) with Rickettsia and 13% (CIs: 13–55) with Cardinium . We then show that these differences stem from the significantly reduced incidence of Rickettsia and Cardinium in most hexapod orders, which might be explained b...

Current published records indicate that the red palm mite (RPM), Raoiella indica Hirst, has a much broader host range in the New World than in the Old World. Therefore, a series of studies were carried out in Kerala, India in 2009 and 2010 to elucidate the presence or absence of R. indica colonies on hosts in addition to coconut Cocos nucifera L., and betel-nut palm, Areca catechu L., the only previously reported host plants in India. We evaluated the following: RPM numbers on coconut and Musa spp. grown in Kerala; the presence of RPM on coconut and bananas grown as a mixed crop; and the possible presence of RPM on palms and other selected plant species mostly grown as ornamentals or reported to be hosts of the RPM in the NewWorld. Results showed that RPM was found in extremely low numbers on Musa spp., never clearly colonizing those plants. The pygmy date palm, Phoenix roebelenii O´Brien, was found to be an additional breeding host in Kerala, as multi-generational colonies were fou...

Polyphrix stellata sp. nov., from the Brazilian Amazon Forest, is described and illustrated. The validity of the genus is cladistically tested using implied weighting, in a matrix with 26 species and 75 morphological characters. Concavity constants (K) from 1 to 6 were tested. All analyses recovered all known Polyphrix species as a monophyletic group. The preferred results, with K2–6, suggest (Prosthoporus nigrifemur Gupta + Lagarosoma assitum Gupta) + Messatoporus sp. as the sister group of the genus; with K1, this group also included two species of Gabuniina. The results with K1–5 suggest an Amazonian origin of the genus, with species from northern Brazil appearing basally in the clade, while both Atlantic Forest species appear as sister groups. A redescription of Polyphrix is presented, combining the original definition with recently published additions and original information. An updated key to species is presented, and new morphometric data is provided for P. varians and P. cr...

iD Caroline Rabelo Coelho 1*, iD Andreia Serra Galvão2, iD Maria Clezia dos Santos3, iD Adriano Pimentel Farias3, iD Adenir Vieira Teodoro1,4 1Programa de Pós-Graduação em Agroecologia, Universidade Estadual do Maranhão, 7 Travessa Paulo VI, s/n Cidade Universitária Paulo VI, 65057-630, São Luís, MA, 8 Brasil 2Instituto Federal e Tecnológico do Maranhão, Av. dos Curiós, s/n Vila Esperança, 10 65095-460, São Luís, MA, Brasil 3Programa de Pós-Graduação em Agronomia Proteção de Plantas, Universidade 12 Estadual Paulista Julio de Mesquita, Av. Universitária, 3780, Altos do Paraiso, 18610-13 034, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brasil 4Embrapa Tabuleiros Costeiros, Av. Beira-Mar 3250, Jardins, Caixa Postal 44, Aracaju, 15 SE, Brasil In this work, the efficiency of Amblyseius largoensis (Muma), Typhlodromus (Anthoseius) ornatus Denmark e Muma and Iphiseiodes zuluagai Denmark ( Muma for controlling Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) was assessed by comparing their functional and numerical r...

Colorado potato beetle (CPB, Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is one of the most serious insect pest feeding on wild and cultivated Solanaceae plants. This pest poses a significant threat to potato crops. CPB originated from North America but has become widespread and has adapted in new localizations. Currently, it is reported in many countries worldwide. Endosymbiotic bacteria might have an influence on insect adaptation to new conditions. They are known to play a role in invasiveness of insect hosts and to facilitate colonization of new niches; however, information on endosymbionts of the CPB is very limited. In this study, we screened CPB populations collected from 20 evenly distributed locations in Poland for the presence of Arsenophonus, Cardinium, Wolbachia, and Flavobacterium. We found the presence of Flavobacterium in the studied insects. Little is known about CPB-endosymbionts interactions, thus this study may provide a reference for future studies in this subject.

The simulations were conducted using actual data and virtual data. The actual data were recorded in the period of 1986-2005 at 16 localities representing 16 regions of Poland. The virtual data were obtained after transformation of the recorded data to reflect a temperature changes under RCP2.6, RCP4.5, RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 scenarios according to giss_e2_r climate model. The model used in the study was based on scientific reports describing the influence of temperature on acceleration of the onset of egg laying and on successive stages of Colorado potato beetle as well as publications on the effects of photoperiod on the pest diapause. The study showed a growing threat to potato from Colorado potato beetles as a result of the temperature rise. The fastest development of the pest appeared in simulations under RCP8.5 scenario. Of 16 regions surveyed in the study, the south-western part of Poland was found to be most threatened by Colorado potato beetle as a result of anticipated climate change.

Your article is protected by copyright and all rights are held exclusively by Springer Science +Business Media Dordrecht. This e-offprint is for personal use only and shall not be selfarchived in electronic repositories. If you wish to self-archive your work, please use the accepted author's version for posting to your own website or your institution's repository. You may further deposit the accepted author's version on a funder's repository at a funder's request, provided it is not made publicly available until 12 months after publication.

h i g h l i g h t s " Amblyseius largoensis with different previous exposure to Raoiella indica were tested. " Predators consumed high numbers of R. indica eggs regardless of previous exposure. " Experienced predators consumed more R. indica larvae than naïve predators. " Plasticity in response could be associated to genetic selection, learning, or both. " Implications for biological control of the invasive species R. indica are discussed.

ABSTRACT — A survey to determine population trends and entomopathogenic fungi associated with the red palm mite (RPM), Raoiella indica, was conducted in Trinidad, Antigua, St. Kitts and Nevis and Dominica. RPM population density was evaluated by sampling a total of ten coconut palms per site in Antigua, St. Kitts and Nevis, Dominica, and Trinidad (Manzanilla and Icacos). Mites from the four islands were either surface sterilized or left unsterilized before being cultured on Tap Water Agar (TWA). A total of 318 fungal colonies were retrieved. A further 96 mites from Dominica were kept on sterile moist filter paper in a humidity chamber and a further 85 colonies were isolated. Based on morphological observations of all 403 isolates, a sample consisting of 32 colonies (8 %) was sent for identification at CABI-UK. Of the 27 fungi positively identified, 15 isolates belonged to the genera Cladosporium, three to Simplicillium spp., and one to Penicillium. Other fungi genera with limited or...

Your article is protected by copyright and all rights are held exclusively by Springer Science +Business Media Dordrecht. This e-offprint is for personal use only and shall not be selfarchived in electronic repositories. If you wish to self-archive your work, please use the accepted author's version for posting to your own website or your institution's repository. You may further deposit the accepted author's version on a funder's repository at a funder's request, provided it is not made publicly available until 12 months after publication. Geographic distribution and host plants of Raoiella indica and associated mite species in northern Venezuela

The parasite infections of animals (production and pets) affect the health and quality of animal life, the parasites frequently present a microbiome associated which play several functions, like nutrition, reproduction or defense against the host immune system, and in some cases are opportunistic microorganisms. These bacteria might cause secondary infections to animals, so the parasite can become a vector of pathogenic bacterial, reason why the understanding of the "bacteria-parasite interaction" is important to combating of parasitic infestations. The current resistance to conventional dewormers or ixodicides, are issue in parasitology; attack a vital bacteria of parasites through antibiotics possibly can be a control alternative, at the same way, the use of bacteria capable to control to parasitic diseases by antagonist interaction, like lethal toxins or adhesion at the site invasion of the parasites, are alternatives to explore. Understand the bacteria-parasite interaction will help us to the control of parasitic diseases in an integral form, as well know as the bacterial infections that can develop from the parasitic infestation. The use of antagonist bacterial is a biotechnological option in the control of parasites as therapy on the animal biomedicine, so in this review, we have a general idea of the "bacteria-parasite interaction" and their impact on the animal's health.

Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) is recognized as a major global pest of coconut palm, Cocos nucifera L., and also impacts the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.), other palm species including Elaeis guineensis Jacquin Carrillo et al. 2014, Florida Entomol. 97: 256-261), banana trees (Musa paradisiaca L.), heliconia (Heliconiaceae spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), and others (Carrillo et al. 2014). The mites damage plants by piercing leaf cells and subsequently sucking on the cellular contents, thus causing tissue chlorosis and eventually necrosis. Large populations on stressed or young plants can even cause plant death (Rodríguez et al. 2007, Rev. Protecció n Veg. 22: 142-153).

The deep-sea hydrothermal vent mussel Bathymodiolus azoricus is a symbiont bearing bivalve that is found in great abundance at the Menez Gwen and Lucky Strike hydrothermal vent sites and in close vicinity of the Azores region near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR). The physiological relationships that vent mussels have developed with their physical and chemical environments are likely to influence global gene expression profiles providing thus the means to investigate distinct biological markers predicting the origin of Bathymodiolus sp. irrespectively of their geographical localization. Differences found at gene expression levels, and between fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing results provided experimental evidence for the distinction of both Menez Gwen and Lucky Strike vent mussel individuals based on bacterial and vent mussel gene expression signatures and on the constitutive distribution and relative abundance of endosymbiotic bacteria within gill tissues.
Our results confirmed the presence of methanotroph endosymbionts in Menez Gwen vent mussels whereas Lucky Strike specimens seem to harbor a different bacterial morphotype when a methane monooxygenase gene specific probe was used. No qualitative differences could be visualized between Menez Gwen and Lucky Strike individuals when tested with a sulfur-oxidizing-related probe. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) studies revealed different gene expression profiles in both Menez Gwen and Lucky Strike mussel gill tissues for the immune genes selected. Genes encoding transcription factors presented
noticeably low levels of fold expression whether in Menez Gwen or Lucky Strike animals whereas the genes encoding effector molecules appeared to have higher levels expression in gill tissues from Menez Gwen
animals. The peptidoglycan recognition molecule encoding gene, PGRP, presented the highest level of transcriptional activity among the genes analyzed in Menez Gwen mussel gill tissues, seconded by carcinolectin
and thus denoting the relevance of immune recognition molecules in early stage of the immune responses onset. Genes regarded as encoding molecules involved in signaling pathways were consistently
expressed in both Menez Gwen and Lucky Strike mussel gill tissues. Remarkably, the immunity-related GTPase encoding gene demonstrated, in Lucky Strike samples, the highest level of expression among the
signaling molecule encoding genes tested when expressions levels were compared between Menez Gwen and Lucky Strike animals. A differential expression analysis of bacterial genes between Menez Gwen and
Lucky Strike mussels indicated a clear expression signature in the latter animal gill tissues. The bacterial community structure ensued from the 16S rRNA sequencing analyses pointed at an unpredicted conservation
of endosymbiont bacterial loads between Menez Gwen and Lucky Strike samples.
Taken together, our results support the hypothesis that B. azoricus exhibits different transcriptional statuses while living in distinct hydrothermal vent sites may

Extensive folklore records from pre-modern Estonia give us an excellent opportunity to study a variety of local plant knowledge and plant use among the peasantry in various parts of the country. One important biocultural domain where plant knowledge has been crucial was in the various methods of combating different ectoparasites that cohabited and coexisted with humans and their domestic animals. Some of these methods were widely known (world-wide, Eurasia, Europe, Baltic Rim), while others were more local. Here we discuss ways of reducing clothes moths Tineola bisselliella (Hummel) (Lepidoptera: Tineidae), human fleas Pulex irritans L. (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) and bedbugs Cimex lectularius L. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) with the help of plants. Various taxa used as traditional repellents have been identified. The use of plants as repellents and their toxic principles are also discussed from a comparative perspective.

Colorado potato beetle (CPB) (Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say in Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 3: 298-331, 1824)) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is one of the most serious potato pests. It has been reported worldwide, from North America to Europe and Asia. In this study we analyzed the genetic diversity of a mitochondrial DNA markera second subunit of cytochrome oxidase (mtCOII) in Polish CPB populations to assess the possible changes of this gene sequence over time and over the country, influencing the intra-specific variability of CPB. During a three-year survey in Polish potato fields the beetles were collected from 20 evenly spaced locations of varying climatic and geographic conditions, and the nucleotide sequence of this marker was analyzed. Our research revealed that in spite of three years of sampling the mitochondrial haplotype in all individuals was fixed, and no single nucleotide change was found in any individual, indicating a high stability of this maternally inherited marker in L. decemlineata. This finding about the level of biodiversity is of importance for plant protection strategies.

Main conclusion

Coleoptera, the largest and the most diverse Insecta order, is characterized by multiple adaptations to plant feeding. Insect-associated microorganisms can be important mediators and modulators of interactions between insects and plants.

Interactions between plants and insects are highly complex and involve multiple factors. There are various defense mechanisms initiated by plants upon attack by herbivorous insects, including the development of morphological structures and the synthesis of toxic secondary metabolites and volatiles. In turn, herbivores have adapted to feeding on plants and further sophisticated adaptations to overcome plant responses may continue to evolve. Herbivorous insects may detoxify toxic phytocompounds, sequester poisonous plant factors, and alter their own overall gene expression pattern. Moreover, insects are associated with microbes, which not only considerably affect insects, but can also modify plant defense responses to the benefit of their host. Plants are also frequently associated with endophytes, which may act as bioinsecticides. Therefore, it is very important to consider the factors influencing the interaction between plants and insects. Herbivorous insects cause considerable damage to global crop production. Coleoptera is the largest and the most diverse order in the class Insecta. In this review, various aspects of the interactions among insects, microbes, and plants are described with a focus on coleopteran species, their bacterial symbionts, and their plant hosts to demonstrate that many factors contribute to the success of coleopteran herbivory.

The broad mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) is a cosmopolitan pest of many important crops in tropical and subtropical regions and in greenhouses worldwide. With few exceptions, P. latus is controlled with pesticides but resistance of this species to acaricides has encouraged researchers to develop biological methods to control this mite pest. In the present study, some biological parameters of Amblyseius largoensis (Muma) as a predator of the broad mite were evaluated. The functional and numerical responses of adult females of the generalist predator A. largoensis on active and inactive larvae and males of broad mite were determined in the laboratory. Predation experiments were conducted on potato leaves placed in 5.5 cm Petri dishes at 21 ± 2°C, 70 ± 5% RH and 14L:10D photoperiod for 24 h. Prey densities were: 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, or 110 per leaf. Attack coefficients and handling times were estimated using Holling's disk and Hansell's equations (Type II and Type III response, respectively). The functional response of A. largoensis to prey showed a Holling's type II response. Predator search efficiency was inversely related to prey density. These results indicate that A. largoensis is a promising candidate to be used as a biocontrol agent of P. latus in Cuban agroecosystems.

Colorado potato beetle (CPB, Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is one of the most serious insect pest feeding on wild and cultivated Solanaceae plants. This pest poses a significant threat to potato crops. CPB originated from North America but has become widespread and has adapted in new localizations. Currently, it is reported in many countries worldwide. Endosymbiotic bacteria might have an influence on insect adaptation to new conditions. They are known to play a role in invasiveness of insect hosts and to facilitate colonization of new niches; however, information on endosymbionts of the CPB is very limited. In this study, we screened CPB populations collected from 20 evenly distributed locations in Poland for the presence of Arsenophonus, Cardinium, Wolbachia, and Flavobacterium. We found the presence of Flavobacterium in the studied insects. Little is known about CPB–endosymbionts interactions, thus this study may provide a reference for future studies in this subject.

ABSTRACT — A survey to determine population trends and entomopathogenic fungi associated with the red palm mite (RPM), Raoiella indica, was conducted in Trinidad, Antigua, St. Kitts and Nevis and Dominica. RPM population density was evaluated by sampling a total of ten coconut palms per site in Antigua, St. Kitts and Nevis, Dominica, and Trinidad (Manzanilla and Icacos). Mites from the four islands were either surface sterilized or left unsterilized before being cultured on Tap Water Agar (TWA). A total of 318 fungal colonies were retrieved. A further 96 mites from Dominica were kept on sterile moist filter paper in a humidity chamber and a further 85 colonies were isolated. Based on morphological observations of all 403 isolates, a sample consisting of 32 colonies (8 %) was sent for identification at CABI-UK. Of the 27 fungi positively identified, 15 isolates belonged to the genera Cladosporium, three to Simplicillium spp., and one to Penicillium. Other fungi genera with limited or...

The red palm mite (RPM), Raoiella indica Hirst, is a predominant pest of coconuts, date palms and other palm species, as well as a major pest of bananas (Musa spp.) in different parts of the world. Recently, RPM dispersed throughout the Caribbean islands and has reached both the North and South American continents. The RPM introductions have caused severe damage to palm species, and bananas and plantains in the Caribbean region. The work presented herein is the result of several acaricide trials conducted in Puerto Rico and Florida on palms and bananas in order to provide chemical control alternatives to minimize the impact of this pest. Spiromesifen, dicofol and acequinocyl were effective in reducing the population of R. indica in coconut in Puerto Rico. Spray treatments with etoxanole, abamectin, pyridaben, milbemectin and sulfur showed mite control in Florida. In addition, the acaricides acequinocyl and spiromesifen were able to reduce the population of R. indica in banana trials.

Although coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is the predominant host for Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae), false spider mite infestations do occur on bananas and plantains (Musa spp. Colla). Since its introduction, the banana and plantain industries have been negatively impacted to different degrees by R. indica infestation throughout the Caribbean. Genetic resistance in the host and the proximity of natural sources of mite infestation has been suggested as two of the main factors affecting R. indica densities in Musa spp. plantations. Greenhouse experiments were established to try to determine what effect coconut palm proximities and planting densities had on R. indica populations infesting Musa spp. plants. Trials were carried out using potted Musa spp. and coconut palms plants at two different ratios. In addition, fourteen Musa spp. hybrid accessions were evaluated for their susceptibility/resistance to colonization by R. indica populations. Differences were observed for mite population buildup for both the density and germplasm accession evaluations. These results have potential implications on how this important pest can be managed on essential agricultural commodities such as bananas and plantains.

ABSTRACT: A new genus, Desserobdella, is described to accommodate the leech Clepsine picta Verrill, 1872 which feeds exclusively on amphibians of northern and central North America. This leech belongs to the subfamily Glossiphoniinae and therefore deposits cocoons directly onto the substrate. The genus Desserobdella n.gen. has the following diagnostic characteristics: (i) two pairs of coalesced eyes; (ii) one pair of diffuse salivary glands; and (iii) a single pair of saccular mycetomes containing prokaryotic endosymbionts. Members of the new genus are distinguished from species of the closely related genus Placobdella Blanchard, 1893 on the basis of their salivary gland structure; Placobdella species have two pairs of compact salivary glands versus the single pair of diffuse salivary glands of the genus Desserobdella n.gen. Congenitors of the new genus are Desserobdella cryptobranchii (Johnson and Klemm, 1977) n.comb., Desserobdella michiganensis (Sawyer, 1972) n.comb., and Desserobdella phalera (Graf, 1899) Jones and Woo, 1990. Desserobdella picta n.gen. et comb. exhibited a stereotypical sequence of feeding behaviours on Rana catesbeiana tadpoles which involved picking at the site of proboscis insertion prior to probing, probing, and finally blood-feeding with the posterior sucker released.

The red palm mite (RPM), Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae), is an invasive pest in the New World, where it is currently considered a serious threat to coconut and banana crops. It was first reported from northern Venezuela in 2007. To determine its current distribution in this country, surveys were carried out from October 2008 to April 2010 on coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), banana (Musa spp.), ornamental plants and weeds in northern Venezuela. Higher population levels of RPM were registered on commercial coconut farms in Falcón and Sucre states but also on other plant species naturally growing along the coastal line in Anzoategui, Aragua, Carabobo, Monagas and Nueva Esparta states. Out of 34 botanical species evaluated, all RPM stages were observed only on eight arecaceous, one musaceous and one streliziaceous species, indicating that the pest developed and reproduced only on these plants. Mite specimens found on weeds were considered spurious events, as immature stages of the pest were never found on these. Amblyseius largoensis (Muma) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) was the most frequent predatory mite associated with RPM in all sampling sites. The results indicate that RPM has spread to extensive areas of northern Venezuela since its initial detection in Güiria, Sucre state. Considering the report of this pest mite in northern Brazil in the late 2009, additional samplings in southern Venezuela should be carried out, to evaluate the possible presence of RPM also in that region.

A survey to determine population trends and entomopathogenic fungi associated with the red palm
mite (RPM), Raoiella indica, was conducted in Trinidad, Antigua, St. Kitts and Nevis and Dominica. RPM population
density was evaluated by sampling a total of ten coconut palms per site in Antigua, St. Kitts and Nevis, Dominica,
and Trinidad (Manzanilla and Icacos). Mites from the four islands were either surface sterilized or left unsterilized
before being cultured on Tap Water Agar (TWA). A total of 318 fungal colonies were retrieved. A further 96 mites from
Dominica were kept on sterile moist filter paper in a humidity chamber and a further 85 colonies were isolated. Based
on morphological observations of all 403 isolates, a sample consisting of 32 colonies (8 %) was sent for identification at
CABI-UK. Of the 27 fungi positively identified, 15 isolates belonged to the genera Cladosporium, three to Simplicillium
spp., and one to Penicillium. Other fungi genera with limited or no entomopathogenic potential included: Aspergillus,
Cochliobolus, Fusarium, Pestalotiopsis and Pithomyces. The results show a potential use of entomopathogenic fungi for
population management of the red palm mite in the Caribbean region.

The broad mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) is a cosmopolitan pest of many important crops in tropical and subtropical regions and in greenhouses worldwide. With few exceptions, P. latus is controlled with pesticides but resistance of this species to acaricides has encouraged researchers to develop biological methods to control this mite pest. In the present study, some biological parameters of Amblyseius largoensis (Muma) as a predator of the broad mite were evaluated. The functional and numerical responses of adult females of the generalist predator A. largoensis on active and inactive larvae and males of broad mite were determined in the laboratory. Predation experiments were conducted on potato leaves placed in 5.5 cm Petri dishes at 21 ± 2°C, 70 ± 5% RH and 14L:10D photoperiod for 24 h. Prey densities were: 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, or 110 per leaf. Attack coefficients and handling times were estimated using Holling's disk and Hansell's equations (Type II and Type III response, respectively). The functional response of A. largoensis to prey showed a Holling's type II response. Predator search efficiency was inversely related to prey density. These results indicate that A. largoensis is a promising candidate to be used as a biocontrol agent of P. latus in Cuban agroecosystems.