Population Development

No one can predict the future of a country in turmoil. However, we have faced times of turbulence before, and despite these, our overall population and economy have maintained momentum throughout the 80-year post-war period. This period has also seen steady declines in fertility rate, mortality rates (from infants through the elderly), and the carbon intensity of GDP. Although there is no guarantee that these past trends will continue, we can use them as a starting point for informed modeling and policy conversation. Agencies such as the Census, the World Bank, and the Energy Information Administration have recorded these trends and made projections based on highly detailed algebraic models with modifiable future assumptions. But these models are unavailable to the general public and sit unconnected to each other. Here I present a “do-it-yourself” simulator of the US that fits official data from 1950 onward, is conceptually straightforward, projects to 2100, and allows experimentation with six key future assumptions.

This  study  explores  the  factors  influencing  the  Human Development  Index  (HDI)  in  Asian  nations,  focusing  on  Gross National  Income  (GNI)  and  the  Gender  Development  Index (GDI)  as  key  determinants.  Using  path  analysis,  the  research analyzes  secondary  data  from  the  United  Nations  Development Programme  (UNDP)  Human  Development  Report  for  2021-2022. The findings indicate that GNI (economic growth) and GDI (gender  equality)  have  significant  positive  impacts  on  HDI, emphasizing  the  importance  of  economic  prosperity  and  gender parity in fostering human development across Asia. Grounded in Amartya  Sen’s  capability  approach,  which  prioritizes  individual freedoms and choices, the study suggests region-specific policies. These  include  promoting  economic  diversification  strategies tailored  to  emerging  economies,  enhancing technology  and service  sectors  in  middle-income  countries,  and  expanding vocational  training  programs  in  lower-income  nations  to  address skills  gaps.  For  countries  with  significant  gender  disparities, robust  policies  that  ensure  equal  access  to  education  and employment    for    women    are    recommended.    Additionally, prioritizing    maternal    and    child    healthcare    improvements, particularly  in  less  developed  regions,  can  elevate  overall  well-being.  By  adopting these targeted strategies, Asian countries  can achieve sustainable human development, creating societies where all individuals can lead fulfilling lives.

This research delves into the transformative realm of Black Aesthetics as a profound and resilient cultural resistance strategy employed by African-Americans. In a historical context marked by the degradation of the genuine image of African-Americans through Western perspectives, Black Aesthetics emerges as a dynamic force challenging stereotypes and reclaiming agency over cultural narratives. The study explores the foundational influences of key socio-political movements, namely the Harlem Renaissance, the Black Power Movement, and the Civil Rights Movement, in shaping and catalyzing the development of Black Aesthetics. During the 1920s, the Harlem Renaissance served as a crucible for cultural revitalization amid the multifaceted struggles faced by African-Americans. Fueled by a desire to break free from racial stereotypes, this movement laid the groundwork for the emergence of Black Aesthetics as a tool for empowerment and self-expression. The subsequent impact of the Black Power Movement and the Civil Rights Movement on Black Aesthetics is examined, revealing how these movements contested prevailing Western perspectives and sought to redefine the narrative surrounding African-Americans. The Black Power Movement, emphasizing self-determination and autonomy, stood in stark contrast to the assimilationist goals of the Civil Rights Movement, collectively contributing to the nuanced evolution of Black Aesthetics. Through an interdisciplinary lens, this research navigates the intersection of art, ideas, and socio-political dynamics, elucidating how Black Aesthetics serves as a cultural resistance mechanism. It explores the multifaceted dimensions of this resistance, including the creation of alternative narratives, the celebration of cultural identity, and the reclamation of dignity. Ultimately, this research contributes to a comprehensive understanding of Black Aesthetics as a transformative force in cultural resistance, shedding light on its historical roots, its evolution through significant movements, and its enduring impact on reshaping the narrative of African-American identity.

Gegenstand ist die Untersuchung der Auswirkungen der privaten, staatlich geförderten Altersvorsorge (Riester-Rente) auf die Alterseinkommen und die Konsummöglichkeiten im Alter nach Wohnkosten. Zu diesem Zweck wurde ein Simulationsmodell entwickelt, dass die Steuer- und Abgabenbelastung von Beispielhaushalten über ihren gesamten Lebenszyklus umfassend abbildet. Berücksichtigt werden sowohl alle bereits heute gesetzlich verankerten Maßnahmen zum Übergang zur nachgelagerten Besteuerung der gesetzlichen Renten als auch alle gesetzlich verankerten Maßnahmen zur Dämpfung des Beitragssatzanstiegs in der Rentenversicherung. Besondere Berücksichtigung finden die aktuellen Überlegungen zur Integration der Wohneigentumsförderung in die staatliche Förderung der privaten Altersvorsorge. --

Interim Reports on work of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis receive only limited review. Views or opinions expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of the Institute, its National Member Organizations, or other organizations supporting the work. Abstract South Africa faces tremendous demographic challenges, mostly related to HIV/AIDS. Any projection is made even more difficult through significant disagreements over current population size, age structure, fertility and mortality levels. This paper expands methods of expert-based probabilistic population projections to include uncertainty distributions about the current demographic conditions. The result is a probabilistic distribution of future population trends in South Africa combining uncertainty about present starting conditions and future rates. For 2030 the total population of South Africa is projected at 54 million (median) with the 95% uncertainty interval ranging from 36 to 74 million.

As urbanization continues unabated in Kenya, the wellbeing of the urban poor ‐ whose majority live in slum settlements ‐ will increasingly drive national development indicators including Vision 2030, SDGs and FP2020 goals. It is therefore central to understand and identify ways to address the poor reproductive health outcomes among poor urban slum populations in the country. Taking advantage of APHRC's NCSS surveys conducted in 2000 and 2012 among a representative sample of slum households across Nairobi, we show that there has been a considerable increase in use of modern contraception among women in Nairobi slums, from 34% in 2000 to 53% in 2012, and a reduction in inequity in access through much higher increases among previously disadvantaged groups. Using decomposition analysis techniques, we show that much of the observed increase is due to behavioral changes in the effect of fertility preferences on contraceptive use; and to compositional changes in woman's education, ...

This document is made available under Deposit Licence (No Redistribution -no modifications). We grant a non-exclusive, nontransferable, individual and limited right to using this document. This document is solely intended for your personal, noncommercial use. All of the copies of this documents must retain all copyright information and other information regarding legal protection. You are not allowed to alter this document in any way, to copy it for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the document in public, to perform, distribute or otherwise use the document in public. By using this particular document, you accept the above-stated conditions of use. Wandel der Altersstrukturen -Widersprüche und Zukunftsszenarien www.sws-rundschau.at SWS-Rundschau (. Jg.) Heft /: - In den letzten 20 Jahren ist über den Alterungsprozess der Bevölkerungen in den Industriestaaten so intensiv wie nie zuvor diskutiert worden. Ein nicht unerheblicher Teil dieser Diskussion legt den Schluss nahe, dass eine ständig wachsende Gruppe von Menschen -die Älteren -als eine Belastung oder gar als ein Risiko für die Zukunft angesehen wird. Hier sind differenzierte Analysen nötig. In der Debatte über den Alterungsprozess dominieren Perspektiven, die auf steigende Belastungen für die Gesellschaft durch eine alternde Bevölkerung ausgerichtet sind und die den Beitrag älterer Menschen für die gesellschaftliche Entwicklung problematisieren. Diesen Sichtweisen wird mit Argumenten begegnet, die auf Basis von Forschungsbefunden eine Relativierung der heute gängigen Altersbilder ermöglichen. In diesem Zusammenhang werden Überlegungen zur »Produktivität« des Alters und Szenarien für die Zukunft des Alters formuliert.

While the notion that any pregnancy must be stoically accepted dominated in Europe until the eighteenth century, birth control spread during the nineteenth century and gradually became a common practice despite opposition from the Church and political authorities. It was actually seen as a means of upward mobility and from the 1960s increasingly as an instrument of freedom. Policies, which had for a long time condemned this evolution, ultimately adapted and contributed to it through the liberalization of contraception. Governments nevertheless remain divided in Europe, particularly with regard to the question of abortion.

Fecha: 12 de agosto de 2025 Palabras clave: Emisión monetaria, ganancia comercial, banco central, portabilidad de valor, costo de oportunidad, billetes, política monetaria. Resumen La teoría económica dominante asume que la emisión monetaria es un acto exclusivo de los bancos centrales, donde la creación de billetes o dinero digital equivale a generar dinero nuevo. Este artículo cuestiona ese paradigma y propone una reinterpretación: la verdadera emisión monetaria ocurre en el momento de la ganancia comercial. El banco central, lejos de ser el creador primario de valor, cumple la función de operador logístico, proveyendo portabilidad física o digital para el dinero ya creado en la economía. Este enfoque redefine el papel de la emisión, introduce el concepto de emisión salvaje y analiza el billete impreso como un servicio de transporte cuyo valor depende del costo de oportunidad de su emisión.

Our paper adds to the growing literature on the measurement of employment instability and on that on its consequences on fertility dynamics. We argue that many of these studies disregard a crucial dimension of employment instability: its persistence (duration). It is the persistence in an unstable condition, more than the status itself, that may have the most severe consequences on subsequent family choices. In this paper, we propose an index of persistence in employment instability that synthesizes all the information inside the individual sequence of employment statuses in a single number accounting simultaneously for the duration, sequencing, intensity, and labour market circumstances. Then, we test its impact on short-term childbearing intentions, and we do this separately for women and for men as well as for different parities. The application focuses on the Italian case.

Introduction The monitoring and improvement of the health of labour migrants (LMs) require sufficient health data to be recorded and managed. In this context, this study was conducted to explore the management of health information of Nepalese labour migrants (NLMs). Methods This is an explorative qualitative study. Stakeholders involved directly or indirectly in maintaining the health profile of NLMs were first mapped, physically visited, and any documents or information were collected. Then, sixteen key informant interviews were conducted among these stakeholders related to labour migrants’ health information management and challenges. A checklist extracted information from the interviews, and a thematic analysis was carried out to summarize the challenges. Results Government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and government approved private medical centers are involved in generating and maintaining the health data of NLMs. The Foreign Employment Board (FEB) records deaths ...

Detailed studying of dynamics of demographic indicators forms a basis for decision-making in the questions touching current problems of social development. Results of the analysis of change of the demographic processes which are formed under the influence of various factors of development of territories are of interest to public and administrative structures. The methodical basis for probabilistic forecasting is balance methods of demographic forecasts (balance of transitions across age cohorts, balance of births and deaths in different age cohorts, balance of migration). Demographic balance indicators also act as base for calculation of the standardized coefficients designed to commensurate demographic characteristics.

This article argues that looking solely for the immediate causes of reproductive change may distort our understanding of policy options by failing to take into account the historical and cultural factors that affect not only the impact of policies and programs but the very existence and nature of these policies and programs. The article examines the historical origins and spread of "modern" ideas in Bangladesh and the state of West Bengal in India. It concludes that a colonial history in which education and modernization processes took hold very early among the elites in the larger Bengal region was paradoxically accompanied by a strong allegiance to the Bengali language. This strong sense of language identity has promoted secularism because language has competed with religious and other sectarian identities. It has also facilitated and reinforced the diffusion of modern ideas both within and between the two Bengali-speaking regions. Thus, to understand the fertility decline in Bangladesh, for example, one needs to look also at cultural boundaries. In this case, the cultural commonality through language facilitates the spread of new ideas across the two Bengals; and the political and religious separation between them increases the heterogeneity and newness of the ideas thus spread. In turn, the strong sense of language identity has facilitated mass mobilization more easily and intensely within the two Bengals. Through both these processes, Bangladesh and West Bengal today are more "modern" and more amenable to social change than many other parts of South Asia and the Middle East.

This article argues that looking solely for the immediate causes of reproductive change may distort our understanding of policy options by failing to take into account the historical and cultural factors that affect not only the impact of policies and programs but their very nature and existence. The article examines the historical origins and spread of “modern” ideas in Bangladesh and the state of West Bengal in India. It concludes that a colonial history in which education and modernization processes took hold very early among the elites in the larger Bengal region was paradoxically accompanied by a strong allegiance to the Bengali language. This strong sense of language identity has facilitated and reinforced the diffusion of modern ideas both within and between the two Bengali‐speaking regions. Thus, to understand the fertility decline in Bangladesh, for example, one needs to look also at cultural boundaries. In this case, the cultural commonality through language facilitates th...

Background: Bali experienced an earlier demographic bonus and a longer duration than the national one. The demographic bonus provides both hope and challenges from a reproductive health perspective, especially in the current Covid-19 pandemic. Methods: Extracted from various sources, analyzed and presented in the form of a description. Result: In the period 1960-2000, the population growth rate in Bali continued to decline, but from 2000 to 2010, it increased again to 2.14. The age group below 50 years reaches 80%, the distribution is 30% under the age of 18 years, then 24% at the age 19-35 years, and 24% for the age group 35-50 years. In 2020 Bali entered the demographic bonus with the lowest dependency ratio between 42.2% -43.3%. Bali's life expectancy rate reached 70.61 years in 2010 and is predicted to be 71.68 years in 2018. Based on the Regency/City of Bali Province's projected population in 2010-2020, the number of seniors in Bali in 2020 is 11.51%. The challenges faced include: 1. Knowledge of adolescents about reproductive health, 2. High number of the population in productive age accompanied by an understanding of reproductive health is still low. 3. Disease awareness of various pathological conditions in pregnancy is still low, coverage of contraceptive use is still low, causing pregnancy without planning, unwanted and high risk, 4. Low quality of antenatal care, 5. There are still many pregnant people, and giving birth without financing pattern, 6. Population mobility, many pregnant women who come to Bali, are not equipped with population data/identities, including family cards, 7. The increasing number of people over 60 years of age are unproductive, unhealthy, and not independent. These challenges will burden the family and or the government, especially if they do not have a good financing pattern. The demographic bonus in Bali occurs earlier than in some other regions in Indonesia due to success in managing population programs. This bonus does not guarantee the success of development in the overall sense of the Covid-19 pandemic era. Bali still has to strive hard to realize its development hopes and solve existing and real challenges.

Das Produktions-und Sozialmodell in Deutschland wird durch eine Vielzahl von Entwicklungslinien (Megatrends) beeinflusst, die in ihrer Richtung und Stärke unterschiedlich verlaufen und sich gegenseitig überlagern, hemmen, ausgleichen oder verstärken. Sie reichen von Demografie, (Re )Urbanisierung, Globalisierung, Geopolitik, Wirtschafts-und Finanzkrisen, Politik, technologischem Wandel bis zu Digitalisierung. Insgesamt haben sich die sozioökonomischen Bedingungen, unter denen sich individuelle Teilhabe realisieren kann, seit Mitte der 2000er-Jahre in mehrfacher Hinsicht verbessert. Dies geht jedoch mit wachsenden Risiken einher und unter Bedingungen zunehmender Ungleichheit kann von positiven gesamtwirtschaftlichen Entwicklungen von Indikatoren nicht auf mehr individuelle Teilhabe für alle geschlossen werden.

This paper investigates the distribution of well being among world citizens during the last two centuries. The estimates show that inequality of world distribution of income worsened from the beginning of the 19th century to World War II and after that seems to have stabilized or to have grown more slowly. In the early 19th century most inequality was due to differences within countries; later, it was due to differences between countries. Inequality in longevity, also increased during the 19th century, but then was reversed in the second half of the 20th century, perhaps mitigating the failure of income inequality to improve in the last decades.

We present a method for generating confidence intervals around estimates of intercensal net migration, made using the life table survival method, that incorporate estimates of census measurement errors. The life table survival method applies a life table to a census count to project survivors at some past or future time points. Net migration is then estimated as the difference between the projected number of survivors and the enumerated population at that time. We present confidence intervals ba,sed on mean square error, the sum of the variance and squared bias. We assume that random variation in the number of net migrants in an age-sex group is due to random variation in mortality rates and to measurement errors in census counts. We illustrate the technique using data from a small area in Alaska.

Public transfer programs in industrial nations have massive long term fiscal imbalances, and apparently permit the elderly to benefit through pension and health care programs at the cost of the young and future generations. However, the intergenerational picture is turned upside down when public education is included in generational accounts along with pensions and health care. We calculate the net present value (NPV) of benefits received minus taxes paid for US generations born 1850 to 2090, and find that all generations born from 1950 to 2050 are net gainers, while many of today's old people are net losers. Windfall gains for early generations when Social Security and Medicare started up partially offset windfall losses when public education was started, roughtly consistent with the Becker-Murphy theory.

Background: Breast cancer is a major public health problem, with a high incidence among females worldwide, increasing with age and environmental conditions. Hormonal biomarkers have gained attention for their potential utility in the early detection of breast cancer. The study aimed to investigate the effect of biomarkers of different hormone levels, including prolactin, Testosterone, Cortisol, and Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) in the diagnosis and early detection of breast cancer risk. Methodology: Blood and saliva samples were collected from volunteer females, including 50 healthy females (NB), 111 benign breasts (BB), and 20 malignant breasts (MB) samples to determine hormone level biomarkers using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results: The results showed that hormonal biomarkers, particularly prolactin, testosterone, and HCG, can serve as indicators for the early detection of breast cancer in both serum and saliva. In contrast, cortisol hormonal biomarkers did not have an effective association with early breast cancer detection. Conclusion: The results of this study showed that the present association between hormonal biomarkers, including prolactin, testosterone, and HCG, could serve as biomarkers for the early detection of breast cancer. In contrast, cortisol did not have an effective association with early breast cancer detection.

Preference theory is a new approach to explaining current and future patterns of employment and fertility among women in modern societies. Although economists usually claim that preferences cannot be measured, methods for identifying women's and men's lifestyle preferences were developed and applied in British (and Spanish) national surveys, confirming the results of previous British and American studies showing three distinct lifestyle preference groups. The results confirm the heterogeneity of women's preferences and suggest that preferences are the primary determinant of fertility and employment decisions. The implications for policies to raise fertility are discussed.

This study examines migration patterns across Nepal-India border, focusing on labor, vulnerable circumstances, migrants, migration policy, and cross-broader issues using secondary data from historical documents, government reports, statistics, archives, and treaties. Despite being a significant part of the Indian workforce, migrants are underrepresented in national policies and perceptions. Nepalese families face financial constraints to travel to highly compensated countries, putting them at risk of infectious diseases. Seasonal migration is driven by vulnerable factors like poverty and climate change-sensitive livelihoods. Migrants from Far West Nepal, despite low socioeconomic status, often work as unskilled, informal workers. Migrants face low-paying jobs in India's destination cities, and are at risk of infectious diseases like malaria, TB, and HIV. The COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated these issues, with migrant wives experiencing increased social scrutiny and vulnerability. Nepal's Foreign Policy-2020 recommends border security and problem-solving policies, but poor and marginalized communities face human dignity assaults due to unequal power relations, lack of social safety provisions, discriminatory laws, and bureaucratic indifference. The study highlights the need for improved migration policies, human rights and awareness. Policymakers and public consciousness need to take migrants seriously.

Immigration will be the key factor determining whether populations in the developed world increase or decrease over the coming century. New policy-based population projections illustrate this for the United States. Expansive immigration policies could increase the US population by hundreds of millions by 2100, while more restrictive policies could lead to population stabilisation or significant reductions. For the US, there is no plausible high-immigration path to a sustainable population. Because larger populations increase human environmental impacts, sustainability advocates in the US and other countries with high net immigration levels have strong prima facie reasons to support immigration reductions. Such reductions could achieve smaller populations in receiver countries and encourage smaller populations in sender countries, contributing to global ecological sustainability.

Given the complex configuration of current family dynamics, its transformations and the impact these changes have on the social life becomes relevant. For the analysis and understanding of these processes, the first step is to discuss how the family is conceptualized from the social sciences perspective. This is the purpose of the document; to argue about how changes in the family have been or have not been reflected as well as the way that this analytical dimension is defined. In order to achieve that, family analytical perspectives from anthropology, sociology, demography and history are raised.

In recent decades, the formation of marital couples has witnessed a substantial transformation. Age at entering a union has been delayed, the percentage of people who do not marry has shown an upward trend, and the marriage institution has lost value in face of other forms of union. In this context the Nuptiality Panel has adopted as one of its central activities the study of ways of entering into first conjugal unions and how they vary in timing and quantum, and according to geographical location (country, regions, rural/urban), socio-economic characteristics (education, occupation, gender, etc.) and cultural and ideational aspects. The call for papers for the Seminar on First Union Patterns around the World looked forward to addressing these issues by inviting papers concerned with four major topics: Tempo and quantum of the entering into first union; Changes in conjugal union types; Assortative mating and matching; Early marriage (union) and lifetime singlehood.

Pakistan@2050: Demographic Change, Future projections, and Development opportunities is a wide ranging and rigorously data driven study. The contributions of a number of national and internationally reputed demographers, economists, data analysts and international consultants lends credibility to the authenticity of data and projections.  The research draws on the latest census data and extensive demographic analyses to project future population trends and assess their implications for social and economic development

Documenting patient "race" descriptors in clinical medicine, epidemiology, and public health data and analysis has been routine in the US. However, patient race has historically been and is still most often subjectively-assigned rather than selfidentified. Even when self-identification is allowed, persons must often self-deny parts of their ancestry by adhering to restrictive race categories. In contrast, most other countries ignore so-called race and may use other ancestral background information including family and geographical histories, language(s) and/or ethnic group(s) membership. We performed two studies involving 160 patients to investigate subjectively-assigned versus selfreported race using a verbal questionnaire in a New Orleans medical clinic. Results revealed that the subjectively-assigned race recorded by the hospital administration/physician was incomplete and therefore inaccurate. Clinicians and researchers must make more accurate and respectful ancestral inquiries in order to derive useful information about individual and population health risks and disease conditions, while also being mindful of potentially erroneous race data previously gathered and conclusions inferred in healthcare literature.

The aim of this study is to investigate whether diffusion contributed to the geography and the speed of the fertility transition. To this end, we assembled a new and unique dataset from historical sources in Belgium containing yearly information on fertility at the municipality level and a range of structural and cultural indicators over 47 years (1887–1934). We use this dataset in diffusion models based on multilevel event‐history analysis. We find that diffusion between neighboring places influenced the geography of the fertility transition only in its early stages; and diffusion accelerated the speed at which municipalities initiated fertility decline at the onset of the transition. We argue that, in the early stages of the transition, the bulk of people's interactions was confined to their own communities and neighboring places and, as such, new ideas, attitudes, and information about fertility would spread among adjacent areas. Later on, since the turn of the twentieth cent...

Economic inequality has been rising in many sub‐Saharan African countries alongside rapid changes to union and family formation. In high‐income countries marked by rising inequality, union and family formation practices have diverged across socioeconomic statuses, with intergenerational social and health consequences for the disadvantaged. In this study, we address whether there is also evidence of demographic divergence in low‐income settings. Specifically, we model the age at first marriage and first birth by socioeconomic status groups for women born between 1960 and 1989 using Demographic and Health Survey data from 12 sub‐Saharan African countries where economic inequality levels are relatively high or rising. We argue that economic and sociocultural factors may both serve to increasingly delay marriage and childbearing for the elite as compared to others in the context of rising inequality. We find emerging social stratification in marriage and childbearing, and demonstrate th...

Human development paradigm is one of the emerging development models which is widely accepted all over the world. This paper tries to shed light on the methodology applied by Nepal for calculating GDI and GEM and it also focuses on the trend and pattern of GDI and GEM in Nepal. The primary objective of this study is to examine the change in pattern of GDI and GEM of Nepal over the last 10 years from 1996 to 2006. This study is based on the secondary source of information collected from the Nepal Human Development Reports (NHDR) 1998 to 2009A.D. The study indicates that desegregation of GDI and GEM at sub national levels has enormous differences in terms of human development especially from gender perspective. The level of both, GDI and GEM has increased over the time (the value of GDI has improved from 0.267 in 1996 to 0.499 in 2006. Likewise, the value of GEM has also increased form 0.191 in 1996 to 0.496 in 2006) but still it has not reached in satisfactory level, particularly while comparing the status of these two indicators in development regions , there is wide gap. This study can be effective for policy intervention and further planning for women empowerment.

Every year on March 8th, Nepal joins the global community in commemorating International Women's Day-a day dedicated to celebrating women's achievements, raising awareness about gender equality, and mobilizing for women's rights. In Nepal, this occasion carries particular significance as the country navigates its complex journey toward gender equality amidst deeply rooted traditional practices and emerging progressive values. Historical Context of Women's Rights Movement in Nepal Nepal's women's rights movement has evolved significantly over the decades. From the establishment of the first women's organization in 1947 to the sweeping constitutional changes in recent years, Nepali women have persistently fought for their rights and recognition. The 2015 Constitution marked a watershed moment, guaranteeing equal rights to women and prohibiting gender-based discrimination. This progressive document mandates 33% representation of women in parliament and enshrines property rights, reproductive rights, and protection against violence. These provisions represent hard-won victories achieved through decades of advocacy and activism by women's groups across the country. Celebrating Recent Achievements Recent years have witnessed remarkable progress in several areas: Political Representation Nepal has made significant strides in women's political participation. The country has seen women in key leadership positions, including as President (Bidya Devi Bhandari served as Nepal's first female president from 2015 to 2023). The mandatory 33% female representation in parliament has ensured women's voices are increasingly present in decision-making processes. At the local level, thousands of women now serve as elected representatives following local elections. Education and Literacy Female literacy rates have improved dramatically, rising from just 25% in 1991 to over 67% today. The gender gap in school enrollment has narrowed significantly, particularly at primary education levels, though disparities persist in higher education and in rural areas. Economic Empowerment Women's economic participation has grown through microfinance initiatives, entrepreneurship programs, and cooperatives. Women-led businesses are becoming more visible across various sectors, from agriculture and handicrafts to technology and tourism. Organizations like the Federation of Woman Entrepreneurs' Associations of Nepal (FWEAN) have played crucial roles in supporting these entrepreneurs. Legal Reforms Nepal has strengthened legal protections for women, including laws against domestic violence, sexual harassment, and trafficking. The country has also reformed discriminatory inheritance laws and established gender-responsive budgeting in government programs.

In this paper the Czech, Hungarian and Slovak fertility trends are compared between 1970 and 2011, using four different fertility rates. Three of them are calculated period fertility indicators (traditional total fertility rate, Bongaarts-Feeney tempo-and parityadjusted total fertility rate, Kohler-Ortega tempo-and parity-adjusted total fertility rate), while the fourth measure is the observed completed cohort fertility rate. It is demonstrated that between 1990 and 2011 the adjusted fertility numbers were higher than the total fertility rate in all three countries, but they didn't reach the replacement fertility level. By comparing the period and completed cohort fertility rates, the most accurate fertility indicator is selected. The authors state that until 1977 (while the mean age of women at the birth of their first child decreased in the Czech Republic and Hungary (but not in Slovakia)), the Kohler-Ortega adjusted fertility rates performed best for the first parity, but for the second and third birth orders and from the mid-1970s for of all birth orders the Bongaarts-Feeney adjusted fertility rates gave closer approximation of the completed cohort fertility in each of the countries. * The authors would like to thank Tomas Sobotka for his useful comments. brought to you by CORE View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk provided by Corvinus Research Archive 88 ÉVA BERDE -PETRA NÉMETH HUNGARIAN STATISTICAL REVIEW, SPECIAL NUMBER 19 The systematic analysis of fertility trends has become part of the scientific research since the second third of the 20 th century. Contrary to the theory of overpopulation by Malthus [1798], nowadays the main problems are the low number of live births and the decreasing population in developed countries ). In certain casesfor example when calculating primary school placesit is enough to define the number of new-borns. However, during longer periods and in complex economic analysesin studying, for example, the sustainability of the pension system or the human factors of the economic growthwe must pay attention to the indicators of fertility rates as well. Up to now the most widely used traditional indicator for measuring period fertility has been the so-called TFR 1 that might provide misleading estimate of a woman's average number of children (Rallu-

Using data from the 2000 and 2010 Chinese Population Censuses and applying a consistent definition of migration, this paper examines changing patterns of China's floating population during 2000-2010. We find that during the first decade of the 21 st century, there have been significant changes in China's floating population, as reflected in continuing rise of interprovincial floating population and the rise of the floating population in China's western and interior regions, geographic diversification of destinations for the floating population, a major increase in interprovincial return migration, and significant improvement in education and occupational profiles among the floating population. We argue that these patterns are driven by a combination of complex domestic and international factors, including the newly released Labor Law, removal of agricultural tax, the western China development program, increased investment in education by the Chinese government, and the global financial crisis. We also discuss several challenges facing the floating population in the coming years, which include equality of educational opportunity for migrant children and adequate housing and social welfare protection for the floating population. Finally, we reflect on the future of migration research in China. China is once again on the move in the first decade of the 21st century. The dramatic increase in China's migrant population in recent decades is an extremely significant demographic process for China and the whole world. The migrant population has also been capturing recent mass media headlines. From the heart-breaking reports of serial suicides in Foxconn factories to unpaid wages for migrant workers, from the shortage of migrant labor to the massive return migration during the global financial crisis and the Chinese New Year, migration stories are everywhere (

Using data from the 2000 and 2010 Chinese population censuses and applying a consistent definition of migration, we examine changing patterns of China's floating population during 2000–2010. During the first decade of the twenty‐first century, there have been significant changes in China's floating population, as reflected in a continuing growth of interprovincial floating population and the growth of the floating population in China's western and interior regions, geographic diversification of destinations for the floating population, a major increase in interprovincial return migration, and significant improvement in education and occupational profiles among the floating population. We argue that these patterns are driven by domestic and international factors, including the newly released Labor Law, removal of agricultural tax, the western China development program, increased investment in education by the Chinese government, and the global financial crisis. We also di...