Piping Engineering

Valves are vital in any piping system, controlling the flow of water, gas, steam, and other fluids. Among different materials, cast iron remains one of the most widely used due to its durability, strength, and cost-effectiveness. In this article, we will look at three popular types of cast iron valves: the Cast Iron Ball Valve, the Cast Iron Check Valve, and the Cast Iron Gate Valve. Cast Iron Ball Valve A Cast Iron Ball Valve is designed for quick shut-off applications. It uses a spherical ball with a hole in the middle to allow or block flow. When the handle is turned 90 degrees, the valve closes completely, making it simple and efficient to operate.

Dubai's rapid urban growth has increased the demand for advanced building materials that guarantee strength, safety, and long-term performance. Among these, UPVC pipes and fitting in Dubai have gained strong popularity for their reliability and efficiency in plumbing, irrigation, and drainage systems. Why UPVC Pipes Are a Better Choice Unlike traditional metal pipes that may rust or corrode over time, UPVC (Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride) pipes are designed to remain durable even in extreme weather conditions. This makes them a smart choice for Dubai's hot climate and diverse construction needs.

This work presents the conceptual design of a gas distribution pipeline network for estates in Nigeria using the University of Abuja Staff Quarters as a case study. The problem statement was the aggressive consumption of cooking gas, referred to as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), without gas pipeline networks infrastructures to homes and estates across Nigeria but relies on cylinders with its attendant danger. The methodology includes the determination of the gas demand from the average monthly gas consumption in each of the households, the elevation head, diameter of the pipelines, gas velocity, gas mass flow rate, head losses and the pressure drop analysis of series (option 1), parallel (option 2) and grid (option 3) options. The results obtained indicate that the best gas distribution design option for the trunk, reticulation and service pipelines was the grid connections to minimize investment costs with equitable pressures at service outlets. In the selected design option, the t...

The technical report represent the details of my work experience at C-Loreto Properties, a project management and consultancy company. I worked under the MEP department, supervised, and inspected the plumbing works for the Maiyegun Beach Estate, Lekki project. The project entails construction of 78 Units Semi-Detached duplexes, and 25 Units Stand Alone Villas.

Project Details: 78 Units Semi-Detached Duplexes, 25 Units Stand Alone Villas

Client: Access Bank PLC
Developer: Sterling Realities
Contractor: United Integrated Construction Limited                                                                                     
Consultant: C-Loreto Properties

Penggunaan listrik merupakan kebutuhan utama. Di Indonesia, pembangkit listrik umumnya menggunakan tenaga uap. Pembangkit listrik tenaga uap (PLTU) merupakan suatu pembangkit listrik dimana energi listrik dihasilkan oleh generator yang diputar oleh turbin uap yang memanfaatkan tekanan uap hasil penguapan air yang dipanaskan oleh  bahan bakar di dalam ruang bakar (boiler). Salah satu komponen penting dalam PLTU  adalah turbin uap. Turbin digunakan untuk memutar generator dengan cara mengubah energi termal yang terkandung dalam uap menjadi energi mekanik.

The Piping Engineering Course in Mumbai meets these criteria, offering stable job prospects and competitive salaries. With industries continuously expanding and modernizing, there is a steady increase in the demand for skilled piping engineers. This makes it an appealing career choice for engineering graduates.

The optimum sizes of the pipeline can be determined using different steel grades and different geometrical and loading conditions. The paper shows an initial parametric study on these conditions to find the lowest self mass. The number of tubes, diameter and thickness are variables. Spanlength, steel grade and loading are considered to be given parameters. Another constraint is transfer capacity. The mass per unit length difference between the smaller and larger diameters and thicknesses is significant, which emphasizes the necessity of optimization.

Tank fires are rare but carry significant potential risk to life and property. For this reason fire protection of tanks is critical. Fixed Low expansion foam and water spray cooling systems are one of the most effective and economical ways to reduce damages to a tank from fire. Such systems are currently installed in many companies but are not effective enough and require involvement of firefighters which in turn threaten their lives. This paper studies in a systematic way the problems of foam and cooling systems currently installed in a few domestic companies which operate storage tanks with focus on floating and fixed roof atmospheric tanks containing hydrocarbons and offers possible solutions for more efficient installation, design and operation of such systems.

The next edition of this Standard is scheduled for publication in 2015. ASME issues written replies to inquiries concerning interpretations of technical aspects of this Standard. Interpretations are published on the ASME Web site under the Committee Pages at http://cstools.asme.org/ as they are issued. Errata to codes and standards may be posted on the ASME Web site under the Committee Pages to provide corrections to incorrectly published items, or to correct typographical errors in codes and standards. Such errata shall be used on the date posted. The Committee Pages can be found at http://cstools.asme.org/. There is an option available to automatically receive an e-mail notification when errata are posted to a particular code or standard. This option can be found on the appropriate Committee Page after selecting "Errata" in the "Publication Information" section. ASME is the registered trademark of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. This code or standard was developed under procedures accredited as meeting the criteria for American National Standards. The Standards Committee that approved the code or standard was balanced to assure that individuals from competent and concerned interests have had an opportunity to participate. The proposed code or standard was made available for public review and comment that provides an opportunity for additional public input from industry, academia, regulatory agencies, and the public at large. ASME does not "approve," "rate," or "endorse" any item, construction, proprietary device, or activity. ASME does not take any position with respect to the validity of any patent rights asserted in connection with any items mentioned in this document, and does not undertake to insure anyone utilizing a standard against liability for infringement of any applicable letters patent, nor assumes any such liability. Users of a code or standard are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any such patent rights, and the risk of infringement of such rights, is entirely their own responsibility. Participation by federal agency representative(s) or person(s) affiliated with industry is not to be interpreted as government or industry endorsement of this code or standard. ASME accepts responsibility for only those interpretations of this document issued in accordance with the established ASME procedures and policies, which precludes the issuance of interpretations by individuals. No part of this document may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Manhole is used in pressure vessels, tanks etc for the frequent interaction between personnel inside the pressure vessel. In most industries maintenance work of the pressure vessels, tanks & piping elements is carried during the shut-off conditions of the plant; since during the service periods it is being not possible to do inspection, cleaning & regular maintenance operations. Standard size Manhole is used (24”NB /500NB), and Flange carries almost 20 numbers of holes & Stud-bolt & nuts assemblies. Safety Spray Shields are used to prevent injury to personnel or damage to equipment in the event of a leak or spray-out of acids, caustics, chlorine, and other dangerous liquids at piping connections; These Safety Shields are commonly referred to as flange guards. In this report the focus is to design a Metallic Flangeguard which will not only protect the personal but also will help us in recovery of the leaked fluid without any contamination.

Detail pipe soil testing and back analysis investigations of operational pipelines sited on different soil types and seabed terrains has identified time and cyclic displacement varying axial and lateral soil restraint mechanisms. These cyclic Pipe Soil Interaction (PSI) mechanisms have been shown to have significant impact on the through-life displacement response of operational pipelines. The inclusion of cyclically varying PSI input parameters into 3D global buckling and pipe walking models via appropriate Finite Element (FE) sub-routines, have been qualitatively verified on Wood Group projects and enable realistic assessments of pipeline integrity and through-life operational risk. This paper describes the impact of pipe soil modelling issues on operational pipeline responses and the detail axial, lateral and 3D pipe soil sub-routines developed in-house to capture their global behavior within cyclic FE simulations.

Subsea Tie-in Spool-pieces, comprising pipe straights and bends, and connection systems are commonly used to absorb the pressure/temperature induced flowline end expansions. Though there is wide experience and established spool design and analysis procedures for moderate water depths, deep-water applications introduce increasing complexity due to the high external pressure. Currently, guidance available for the design of such bends is based on attributing the moment capacity of the straight pipe to a bend with the same crosssection geometry and exposed to the same environmental and functional loading conditions. This paper provides detailed descriptions of finite element (FE) modelling that addresses the interaction of the collapse pressure and bending moment by employing advanced non-linear FE analysis. The model takes into considerations of the mechanical loadings, thermal loadings, external pressure effects and flowline functions using nonlinear material properties. The model has...

Wood Group Kenny has developed an advanced pipe-soil interaction subroutine to accompany the analysis of pipeline lateral buckling and axial walking in Abaqus. The pipesoil interaction subroutine takes into consideration both variations in axial friction and the lateral soil berm formation mechanism in the analysis of lateral buckling and axial walking of pipelines subject to cyclic loading. The lateral soil berm formation scheme accounts for differential berm growth on the soil berm front and rear faces, berm resistance accumulation, mobilization distance and the residual ‘sweep’ friction variation in production operation cycles. The subroutine monitors nodal displacement history around a buckle periphery, and has been shown to simulate realistic, cyclic stress ranges, soil berm breakout mechanism during rare high temperature /pressure loading events and the influence of lateral soil restraint in global pipeline walking studies. Due to the complexity of the berm formation mechanism...

This paper presents an experimental/numerical study of low temperature pipe reeling, full-scale tests and small scale tests simulating the deformations and loads seen during reeling. The emphasis is on the polymer thermal insulation coating and the interfaces between the coating and steel pipe and between different polymer layers and field joint material. A newly developed constitutive model for polymers is used. This material model takes into account strain rate and hydrostatic stress on plastic yielding, large strain hardening and ductile damage growth.

Design of pipes in the offshore industry require use of design equations to predict the resistance against structural failures or limit states such as burst and gross (excessive) plastic deformation. In this paper analytical based limit state equations for pipe burst and yielding resistances for load-controlled conditions are derived and compared. Plastic (ultimate) and limit load based candidate equations for high strength ductile and tough materials are proposed for potential use in design codes.

As is well known stress concentration will appear in any application where some form of geometric discontinuity is present. To deal with such situations the so called Stress Concentration Factors (SCF) concept was developed and is widely used in both analysis and design of loaded components especially when subjected to fatigue, usually the working condition of vessels. However, recent observations suggest that the influence of member length on the magnitude of the stated SCF's was not considered. In this work, this observation was studied in the context of cylindrical vessels and it was found that in this case, as well, length could be a critical factor when computing stresses developed as a result of externally applied loads. The values of the Finite Element (FE) calculated Theoretical Stress Concentration Factors (TSCF's) are computed, for the case of short circular cylinders with circular holes subjected to axial tension, and presented in a fashion similar to existing p...

This two-part series, written for piping engineers and designers, fills a gap left by the out-of-print Rip Weaver books from the '90s. Despite technological advances like CAD, the fundamentals of piping rules remain relevant. “The Fundamentals of Piping Design” introduces the design of piping systems, processes, and equipment layout, serving as a reference for new hires, engineering students, and veteran engineers.

A flexible riser is a flexible pipe that transports materials between seafloor and topside structures. As oil and gas production heads to water depths greater than 3000 meters, huge hydrostatic pressure may cause the collapse failure of flexible risers. Generally, the collapse strength of a flexible riser is designed by considering the effects of initial imperfections, e.g., ovality of the carcass, and radial gap between the carcass/liner and pressure armor. These two imperfections may cause a significant reduction in the collapse strength of flexible risers under the flooded annulus condition. However, there are few analytical models available in the public literature that could take those factors into account. In this paper, an analytical approach is presented to predict the critical collapse pressure of the flexible risers with initial imperfections. The analytical results were compared with the numerical simulation, which showed reasonably good agreement.

The main purpose of this paper is to explore how to reduce the errors in final scantlings of the whole ship’s hull which could be achieved by controlling and minimizing the errors in dimensions in each single plate used and each production process which the materials are submitted to like cutting, forming and welding which are affected by a lot of errors due to many factors. Those errors and their remedies are to be investigated using computer aided simulations.

Upheaval buckling (UHB) of a buried offshore pipeline occurs when the pipeline is subject to high axial compression from thermal expansion. Predicting possible upheaval buckling is key to proper design of a buried pipeline and can be complicated because of uncertainties in the soil properties and pipeline vertical profile as well as because of various project requirements. Upheaval buckling, if not predicted and mitigated, results in significant damage to the pipeline, which leads to expensive remediation and intervention work.

The objective of this work is to contribute with a simple and reliable numerical tool for the stress analysis of cylindrical vessels subjected to generalized forces using a mixed formulation. Variational techniques coupled with functional analysis are used to obtain an optimized solution for the shell displacement and further stress field evaluation using a combination of unknown analytic functions with Fourier expansions. A large cylindrical shell subjected to pinching loads is considered. These elements are intended to provide accurate modelling of the initially circular pipes response. Because of this behaviour, the bend's cross-section abandons its original roundness, turning into an oval or noncircular configuration. In addition, the initially plane cross-section, tends to deform out of its own plane. These two deformation patterns are termed ovalization and warping, respectively. In this work the results for the radial displacement and section ovalization are analysed where the solution has six terms for an acceptable accuracy. The transverse displacement presents important dependence on the shell thickness vs radius, where in the case of thin shells the ovalization is restricted to a local area and this is the case analysed. The proposed method leads to accurate results with low complex input data. The conclusions of this work are that the definition of the load system and boundary conditions are easily processed as the method has pre-defined possibilities for each load case or edge boundary conditions. An analytic solution is obtained and a low number of terms in the Fourier series show good accuracy as can be seen by a comparison with finite element methods.

Pembangkit listrik merupakan salah satu unit penting dalam system utilitas suatu pabrik. Pembangkit listrik pada pabrik IIIA PT Petrokimia dijalankan menggunakan tenaga uap (steam). Salah satu komponen yang terdapat pada unit pembangkit tenaga listrik yaitu turbin & generator. Evaluasi dilakukan pada pembangkit listrik pada pabrik IIIA PT Petrokimia yaitu kinerja terhadap peralatan yang dipakai sehari-hari yaitu turbin dan generator. Oleh karena itu penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengevaluasi kinerja turbin dan generator untuk mentukan apakah bagian pembangkit listrik ini masih sesuai standar dan memiliki efisiensi tinggi. Hasil efisiensi turbin-generator yaitu 88,34% dan 84,62%.

Specifications applicable to anchor bolt usage. The most desirable materials for anchor bolt applications are selected on the basis of availability and cost. The ASTM Specifications are cross-referenced with AISI Grade Designations and a brief description of the use of AISI Grade Designations is presented. Subsequent reports will present the results of tests of high-strength anchor bolts and the implications of the tests on design procedure.

The ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping: The original ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping was tentatively introduced in 1935 as a single all inclusive document for piping design. Beginning in 1955, various sections were "split-off" to address the designs of specific piping systems.

Risers are very important component of deep sea-bed mining. Unfortunately, risers have high risks of damage because they are exposed to harsh environmental conditions such as a current, pressure, high tension and vortex induced vibration. Therefore, it is very significant to retain riser’s performance and to detect damage before the riser failure is occurred. A main objective of this paper is to propose a structural health monitoring technique to detect damage of a toptensioned riser. In this paper, the top-tensioned finite element (FE) model is considered as an analytical model of the riser, and a vibrationbased damage detection method with responses from damaged model is proposed. The present method consists of a FE model updating and damage index method. In order to accomplish the goal of this study, first, a sensitivity-based FE model updating method using the natural frequencies and the zero frequencies is introduced. Second, modal parameters of the top-tensioned riser are esti...

Crude oil contains mixed of hydrocarbons, the most commonly found molecules are alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals. In the process of taking crude oil in subsea pipeline system with depth 1200 meters , the contents of crude oil like sulfur, paraffin, asphalt could deposit in the wall of the pipe because of the different temperature between crude oil and wall of the pipe. The deposition can make blockage to the pipe and cause crude oil flow be slow or stop. In this bachelor thesis, will be design double walled pipe for Subsea pipeline system with depth 1200 meters and simulation double walled pipe to knowing the impact of double walled pipe to crude oil flow in Subsea with depth 1200 meters. Hope it can keep stabilize the temperature between crude oil and wall of the pipe when taking crude oil process, with the result that no deposition occurs and cause no blockage in the pipe and the crude oil flow will steady.

This study aims to analyze and compare the influence of the diameter selection on the optimal gathering system position. Taking into account different well positions scenarios. Utilizing both manifold and trunk line layouts, this study will rank the results considering the oil production and costs of the subsea arrangement. The optimal position will be calculated through the usage of multiphase flow simulations and a genetic algorithm. The results will show that the relation between the flowline and trunk line diameter is critical for maximizing efficiency, and that the manifold’s optimal position is greatly affected by certain changes in flowline diameter.

This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Offshore Technology Conference, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of OTC copyright.

Basically extraction turbine is the process of utilization of residual steam from the turbine or steam thermal energy transfer that had crashed into the turbine blade to produce rotation. Before the water is pumped into the boiler feedwater must be preheated until it reaches a certain temperature. The heating takes place by conduction by using hot steam removed (extracted) from the turbine.Retrieval of data taken at the turbine extraction system in the plant Barru. The data is in the form of temperature, pressure, flow rate, and volume as well as an image extraction turbine system. Then to develop a model in the form of a mathematical model extraction component. Further making and testing programs in the form of block Simulink simulation using MATLAB software. Perform data processing and discussion. From the simulation results will be obtained data and charts thermal efficiency of the turbine and the variation of the use of extraction will be conducted discussion. The conclusion of this study is variable extraction systems have been conducted using a manual counting of steam calculator software and a conventional formula. Variable values that have been obtained in the form = 14

In this paper the dynamic behaviour of a pipe in a resonant bending fatigue test rig is investigated. This kind of test rig is used for full scale testing of pipeline joints such as girth welds and threaded connections. In order to optimize the test conditions in such a test rig, accurate knowledge of its dynamic behaviour is necessary. This dynamic behaviour is first evaluated theoretically using a semi-analytical model to study the effects of pipe dimensions and test rig properties. Afterwards, the validity of this model is illustrated by experimental test results. To measure the bending deflection of the pipe during a test, a dynamic 3D optical measurement system is used. Using the measurements it is shown that the dynamic behaviour of a pipe in the resonant bending test rig can be accurately predicted by the theoretical model. For a given pipe diameter and wall thickness size, the model prescribes the required pipe length, the necessity to fill the pipe with water, the necessary mass of the endweights, the systems natural frequency and the position of the test rig supports.

This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the Offshore Technology Conference or its officers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented.

This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the Offshore Technology Conference or its officers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited.

High voltage submarine cables are increasingly being installed in existing and new offshore oil and gas fields for power supply and control purposes. These power cables are both large and with a high submerged weight, which poses a challenge when designing a safe, maintenance free (economical), and fit-for-purpose crossing over a pipeline. Damage to subsea pipeline crossings caused by deterioration of a crossing support, field joint materials and cover components is well known in the industry, particularly with old pipelines. Crossing cables over an existing pipeline should be avoided whenever economical and practical. However, it is inevitable in some situations to use the existing pipeline (unburied) as the crossing support to a new cable/umbilical. In these situations, crossing the cable/umbilical over the existing pipeline may be a cost-effective and worthy consideration. However, there are no explicit guidelines or criteria in the industry concerning the acceptable practice of design and construction of crossings. The only clear recommendation is relating to pipeline separation distances. This paper documents a recent case study of damage of a field joint coating at a crossing of an existing pipeline by a 132 kV subsea cable of 191 mm outside diameter. Investigation of the damage on site revealed that it was caused by lateral movement of the cable under the influence of hydrodynamic forces. Further to investigation and assessment of the damage of the case study presented here, the paper proposes some guidelines for the safe design and construction of cable crossing. Another objective of this paper is to invite further evaluation of the proposed guidelines so that appropriate crossing design requirements can be further developed and standardised.

This paper presents corrosion failure analysis of an underground natural gas pipeline. The pipeline material grade is API 5L X65 with 10-in ID. The pipeline transfers multiphase fluid (gas, condensate, and water) from a gas well to a gas gathering plant, located 4200 m away from the well site. A portion of the line failed due to pitting corrosion under unknown circumstances. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) are employed to characterize the scales and/or corrosion products near the failed portion. Based on visual and microscopic analyses and reviewing the background information, the following pitting corrosion sequences were identified: the oversized pipeline changed the dominant flow regime to "stratified". In the stratified flow regime, the accompanying water phase accumulated in the pipelines' low points. Considerable concentration of calcium ions along with high pH in CO 2 media favored precipitation of calcium carbonate. The relatively thick scales adhered to the pipe surface were partially loosened and removed by the regional turbulent flow. This exposed the fresh steel surface to the corrosive media. The uncovered areas acted as the preferential anodic sites coupled with nearby large cathodic sites which were covered by scales and/or corrosion products. Under such conditions, pits emerged on the steel surface until one of them grew faster and failed the gas pipeline.

Tomorrow's energy needs are driving the industry to pursue the concept of "no oil left behind." But this goal comes at a cost as the pressures in remote deepwater reservoir pockets are depleted and the water cuts increase. Existing technology is evolving to meet the challenges to automate water separation and purification in deepwater for environmentally safe discharge at the seabed. To solve these problems, the objectives must be defined; the best available solutions must be selected, and the technology gaps must be identified and closed. Environmental protection is a priority, and the translation of the existing statutory regulations regarding discharged water quality is the starting point. Safety and reliability will follow along with the flexibility to tailor the system to match the reservoir's changing needs and to incorporate the best, newest, and fastest-developing technology. Equipment relocation may also prove commercially attractive. Major challenges will include remote process train control and monitoring, and the ability to perform routine maintenance while the wells still flow. Some of this technology could have immediate benefits to surface processes that would in turn provide ideal proving grounds before the technology ventures into deepwater.

This work has investigated preparation of silver nano-particles using spinning disc reactor. The effects of technological factors and experimental conditions such as: concentrations of AgNO3, glucose, PVP K30 (polyvinylpyrrolidone), spinning speed... on quality of nano-silver particles have been studied. With experimental conditions: rotation speed of 2000 rpm, weight rate of mPVP:mAgNO3 = 1, AgNO3 concentration of 0.01 M, glucose concentration of 0.02 M, silver particles of about 12 nm were obtained and the nano-silver solution were stable for more than 42 days.

This study evaluated the effect of Mono-Ethylene Glycol (MEG) on hydrate formation conditions in subsea pipelines for a typical gas deepwater field in Nigeria, using a flow assurance simulator 'PIPESIM'. At the turndown, normal and maximum conditions, the production rates were 1640, 2460, and 3280 sm 3 /day, respectively. The wellhead temperature varies between 50-55 o C, and the inlet pressure at the wellhead is 25 bara. The outlet pressure at the topside facility must be 11 bara and above to achieve flow. From available flowline internal diameters of 0.24, 0.29, and 0.34m, a simulation was run to determine a suitable internal diameter which will not lead to erosion due to the velocity. In deciding the hydrate formation temperature, the wellhead pressure of 25 bara was utilized to run the estimation. Also, in determining the minimum MEG volume required to achieve flow above a hydrate appearance temperature of 30 °C, a simulation was run at MEG volumes of 0, 10, 20 and 30 wt%. From the simulations, hydrates were observed to form at a temperature of 11.4 °C, at the minimum MEG volume of 30wt%. The 30wt% MEG suppressed the hydrates to a temperature of 8.9 °C. A slug volume of 8.5m3 was observed to be adequate to ensure fluid transport to the topside. This work's outcomes and findings also suggest a flowline inner diameter of 0.29m, an overall heat transfer coefficient of 0.81W/m 2o C, and an optimum flow rate of 3280 sm 3 /day to avoid temperature drop to be optimum for flow assurance.

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INTRODUCTION History of Piping and Vessel Codes The realization of the need for codes did not become apparent until the invention of the steam engine. The first commercially successful steam engine was patented by Thomas Savery of England in 1698. The Savery engine, and the numerous improved engines which followed, marked the beginning of the industrial revolution. This new economical source of power was used to drive machines in factories and even enabled new and faster forms of transportation to be developed. The boilers of these early steam engines were little more than tea kettles where direct heating of the boiler wall was the method used to generate the steam. These crude boilers were the beginning of pressure containment systems. Boiler designers and constructors had to rely only on their acquired knowledge in producing boilers because there were no design and construction codes to guide them in their efforts to manufacture a safe operating steam boiler. Their knowledge was inadequate as evidenced by the numerous boiler explosions that occurred. A few of the more spectacular explosions will be mentioned. On April 27, 1865, at the conclusion of the Civil War, 2,021 Union prisoners of war were released from Confederate prison camps at Vicksburg, Mississippi. Their transportation home was aboard the Mississippi River steamboat Sultana (Figure 1.1). Seven miles north of Memphis, the boilers of the Sultana exploded. The boat was totally destroyed; 1,547 of the passengers were killed. This event killed more than twice as many people as did the great San Francisco earthquake and fire of 1906. In 1894, another spectacular explosion occurred in which 27 boilers out of a battery of 36 burst in rapid succession at a coal mine near Shamokin, Pennsylvania, totally destroying the entire facility and killing 6 people. Boiler explosions continued to occur. In the ten-year period from 1895 to 1905, 3,612 boiler explosions were recorded, an average of one per day. The loss of life ran twice this rate-over 7,600 people were killed. In Brockton, Massachusetts on March 20, 1905, the R. B. Grover Shoe Company plant (Figure 1.2a before, Figure 1.2b after) was destroyed, killing 58 and injuring 117. A year later in Lynn, Massachusetts, a $500,000 loss from a night-time factory boiler explosion occurred injuring 3 people.