Islamic Sciences

Two-volume Set

Editor-in-chief: Ibrahim Kalin, Editorial board member: Salim Ayduz, and Caner Dagli

Oxford Encyclopedias of Islamic Studies

More than 250 A-Z entries, by more than 130 international scholars, make this the authoritative resource on the subject.
Includes complete coverage of Islamic philosophy, sciences, and technologies from the classical through contemporary periods.
Provides scholarly overviews of the thinkers, movements, instruments, theories, institutions, processes, events, and historical developments related to Islamic classical history and the contemporary quest for knowledge

The history of Islamic medicine started from 2 nd century of Hijra Era, when Abdul Malik bin Habib Undlusi compiled his first book, "Tibb-i Nabavi". After this, encyclopedia works were produced by scholars like Muhammad bin Abu Bakr Ulsani, Abu Naeem Isphani, Ali ibn Musa Raza, Imam Kazim bin Jaffar on the medicinal theory and utilization of Plant products. The works written were al-Nabav fi Mannafal Makalat by Abdul Razzaq and the best work still available is Kanzulamal Fi Sunan Wa Akwal and Canon fi Tibb by Avicenna achieved landmark fame in the present world too. These books provide rich information about the medicines their properties, their use and the directions by Prophet Muhammad for Cure through these plant extractions 1 The works written by Muslim Scholars on medicinal use of plants served as major source of drug extraction for the treatment of many ailments. The climax of Islamic Medicines started from Abu bin Zakaria al Razi when he wrote Hadd-i Kabeer and other scholar Ali bin Abbas wrote Kamali Sunnat which makes available good information about the medicinal plants 2 .The plant kingdom mentioned in the Quran is arranged in a alphabetical order and were given proper botanical names and their medicinal values have been highlighted in order to make people aware about their significance and area of cultivation at present. The plant life in the

It has been generally accepted that the beginnings of tin-based opacification of ceramic glazes is associated with the white glazed wares excavated in Iraq and western Iran and dated to the ninth century AD (so-called 'Samarra-type' pottery). This paper focuses on an earlier stage in the technological development of tin-opacified glazes, that is, the yellow and white glazed wares produced from the eighth century AD in Egypt and the Levant. In addition, the compositional data was extended for the subsequent spread of tin-opacified glazes into Mesopotamia in the ninth century and Northern Iran and Central Asia in the tenth century. Using SEM-EDS and SR-Micro-XRD, the chemical composition and microstructure of eighty-five samples of opaque yellow and white glazed wares from Egypt (Fustat), the Levant (Madaba, Aqaba, Al-Mina and Raqqa), Mesopotamia (Samarra, Kish, Basra and Susa), Northern Iran (Takht-i Suleiman), and Central Asia (Nishapur, Merv and Samarqand) were investigated. These data confirmed that the yellow and white glazes were opacified by lead-tin-oxide (PbSnO 3) and tin oxide (SnO 2) particles respectively. Replication experiments were then conducted to imitate typical compositions of the analysed opaque yellow and opaque white glazes. Overall, the results posited the beginning of tin-based opacification of glazes in the eighth century in Egypt and the Levant, and provided explanations as to how the production of opaque yellow and white glazes in the Levant and Mesopotamia might have been technologically linked.

The scientific method has become a universal research methodology. However, this method is still based upon Western epistemology and worldview. In fact, Western scholars are of the opinion that if any field of knowledge intends to achieve universality and acceptance by the global community, the scientific approach is expected to be used. The question is whether this Western scientific approach is relevant for studies on Islam and the Muslims while their epistemology and worldview differ? Therefore, there arises a need to redefine this scientific concept for the purpose of developing Islamic research methodology. In implementing this redefinition, a prominent Islamic scholar, Ibn al-Haytham has been identified as the main scholar who spearheaded the scientific method. Based on these issues, this study is conducted with three specific objectives. First, identify the scientific concept based on the scientific thinking worldview of Ibn al-Haytham. Second, analyze the scientific concept founded by Ibn al-Haytham from the Islamic epistemology and worldview perspective. Third, propose a scientific concept based on the scientific thinking worldview of Ibn al-Haytham that can be applied in Islamic research methodology. In achieving these three objectives, this exploratory research design was carried out on the worldview thoughts of Ibn al-Haytham. Data is obtained through the collection of secondary data sources and thereafter analyzed using content analysis. As a result, this study found that the scientific thinking worldview of Ibn al-Haytham was developed through several stages of the research he conducted. His thoughts are based on divine revelation as a source of guidance in a scientific research as well as the philosophy of ancient and contemporary scholars as sources for the scientific ideas, definitions and inspiration. Next, the scientific elements based on the worldview of his thinking are divided into two which are instrumental elements (wasilat) that includes the senses and intellect, and natural elements (fitrat) that contain intuition and sunnat Allah (the law of Allah) in nature. These elements clarified the functions of his scientific research which is to strengthen tawhid (monotheism), to carry out Islamic laws and worship, to acquire true information and to practice Islamic akhlaq (manners). The goal of all of these research functions is to obtain mardat Allah (Allah’s pleasures). In fact, Ibn al-Haytham’s scientific studies are based on principles such as the singularity and objectivity of truth, anti-authoritarianism and mathematics as the tools of proof for his research. Finally, the scientific thinking worldview of Ibn al-Haytham is suitable to be used as a scientific concept in Islamic research methodology. This is because of its strength from the epistemology, worldview, tools of analysis, ontology and goals oriented point of view. Thus, this scientific concept of Ibn al-Haytham provides some implications new dimension in terms of understanding of the positivism paradigm that is usually used today.

In the modern age, the conflict between science and religion manifests itself in the debate between evolution and creation. If we adopt a creationist's reading of the Qur'an, we discover an interesting anomaly. Reading the Qur'an literally does not necessarily provide the foundation of creationism. Creationists usually have in mind the concept of creatio ex nihilo, or 'creation out of nothing'. However, in the Qur'an, one of the words used for creation, khalaqna, has the root khlq, which means 'to split' or 'to divide'. This root word may even apply to the biological process of cell division. Therefore, from a scientific perspective, using the word khlq to describe this physical process is not problematic. In addition, with close textual analysis of the Qur'an, we realize that the word for creation 'be' (kun) does not truly describe the moment of creation, but rather that of 'being'. The Qur'an separates the notion of creation from being, which poses the question as to what the text constitutes as the ontological nature of the human being and the universe. Therefore, even if we do adopt a literal reading of the Qur'an, we find that it does not necessarily support a worldview that endorses creatio ex nihilo.

Review article discussing Ahmad S. Dallal 2018  Islam without Europe: Traditions of Reform in Eighteenth-Century Islamic Thought; Wael Hallaq 2018 Restating Orientalism: A Critique of Modern Knowledge; and Elias Muhanna 2018 The World in a Book: al-Nuwayri and the Islamic Encyclopedic tradition.

With economic relations and conquests, Muslims have spread to a very wide geographical area. Consequently, they have encountered many different cultures. Muslims have had great interest and curiosity towards new cultures especially those of Byzantine (Helen / Greek), Iran and partly of the Indian cul tures. Especially, the conquest of cities such as Alexandria, Harran and Jundīshāpūr and the scientific tradition in these cities had great influence on Muslims. After these conquests, Muslims not only studied Islamic sciences but also began the activities of translation into Arabic to get familiar with ancient tradition of thought and culture. These first translation activities, which are extremely important in terms of Islamic civilization and the history of science, have been studied extensively to date. However, it is observed that during the studies performed, the only information mentioned were usually the names of the translated works, the domains of study they were written for and the names of interpreters. This study aims to shed light on the first translation activities in the History of Islamic Science, as well as the fields in which these translations were done, the knowledge and the accumulation of Muslims in these fields before translation activities and the contribution of translation activities in develop- ment or change in these fields by providing examples from Muslim scientists in different centuries, whose works are also known in the West. The golden era of Muslims in science and technology between the 8th and 11th centuries and some important scientific activities carried out within this period are analyzed in three periods; “acquisition of the information”, “systematization of the information” and “production of original information”.

Islam and Buddhism are two major religions in the world with many followers. This study relies on the available historical data analyzing and comparing the similarities and differences between the two religions on the concept of God. The findings reveal that the conceptual similarities established on the fact that in Islam, the Oneness of Allah in Al-Samad, who is Self-Sufficient and is sought by all else. Likewise, in Buddhist, Dharma is alone full all other Dharmas are empty. Additionally, both the religions believe in the Ultimate Truth (Al-Haqq) who is also Absolutely One, and who is the Absolute Reality, and the Source of Grace and Guidance to human beings. Nevertheless, the two religions differed, this is because Buddhists introduced the concept of God in the later doctrines, while Muslims believe in a God known as Allah, and Buddhists believe that the actions of a person are dependent on his salvations, while Islam does not believe in salvation. This study, therefore, hoped to establish a good mutual understanding between the followers of two religions.

After performing a symbolic interpretation through sacred geometry of the Zillij of al-Attārin and using the Euclidean plane symmetry as a formal and symbolic tool for the study of the Alhambra, the question arises of the transfer of scholarly to traditional knowledge. The mathematical advances and the obvious geometric knowledge reflected in ornaments’ designs point to a  knowledge beyond the merely artisanal on the part of the artists. Considering this, our working hypothesis is based on the possibility that an interaction and transfer of knowledge would have existed between mathematics and scholarly and artisan geometry. In this way, certain metaphors and symbolic codes could
have been represented in the geometric ornament of the Merinid  madaris in Fez. This would have been possible thanks to the space of the madaris shared between artists, artisans and mathematical philosophers teachers, as a center of exchange and interaction.
I will try to demonstrate if there really was a flow of knowledge from erudite mathematics: geometry, arithmetic, numerology, astronomy, etc. towards the traditional craft and ornamental geometry and the possible existence of a metaphorical language in the geometrical art.

The foundation of Tibb al Nabavi or Tibb al Islami has placed great emphasis on preventative measures relating to lifestyle incorporating the spiritual, emotional, and physical aspects of a human being. All classical references of Tibb al Nabavi attribute the onset of illnesses to the disturbance in one's lifestyle. This paper aims to shed light on ancient texts of Tibb al Nabavi and its practical application for sound health and disease prevention. Fig is a seasonal fruit widely grown primarily in Turkey, and Tunisia. Its medicinal uses have been documented during the Nabawi era in treating various forms of ailments and illnesses. Figs are very effective in treating asthma, constipation, bronchitis, piles, Diabetes, lowering cholesterol, anemia, heart disease, and high blood pressure. The presence of vitamins and essential minerals such as vitamins A, B, C, potassium, magnesium, calcium and dietary fiber helps in the building of a stable bone structure, insulin sensitivity, defense against respiratory disorders and healthy blood circulation.

ÖZET
Kaynaklarda Beni Şeddâd, Âl-i Şeddâd, Şeddâdiyân (Şeddâdîler) ve Şatatikk olarak anılan Şeddâdîler, X. yüzyılın ortalarından XII. yüzyılın sonuna kadar Arrân ile Ermenistan coğrafyasında hüküm süren Kürt kökenli bir devlettir. 951 yılında Muhammed b. Şeddâd’ın Dvin’e yerleşmesiyle tarih sahnesine çıkan Şeddâdîler, Müslüman dünyası ile Gürcü ve Ermenî krallıklarıyla Kur Nehri’nin kuzeyindeki Gayri Müslim halklar arasında tampon bölge oluşturarak bir suğur devleti vazifesi görmüşlerdir. Üç ayrı merkezden siyasî kariyerlerini sürdüren hanedanın Gence kolu, yayılmacı bir politika yürütürken, onların aksine Dvin (Debîl, Duvîn) ve Ani kolları ise daha çok egemen oldukları toprakları korumak için mücadele etmişlerdir. Buna rağmen uzun süren siyasî hâkimiyetlerine bağlı olarak Şeddâdîler, Gence, Dvin ve Ani şehirleri başta olmak üzere Arrân ve Doğu Ermenistan’ın sosyal ve kültürel hayatında yeni bir canlanma döneminin başlamasına vesile olmuşlardır. Özellikle gerçekleştirdikleri imar faaliyetleriyle söz konusu coğrafyanın maddî medeniyetinin zenginleşmesini temin ettikleri gibi ilmî müesseseler ve kütüphanelerin kurulmasıyla da ilim hayatının canlanmasında önemli rol oynamışlardır. Şeddâdî emîrlerinin şair ve ediplerle ilişkileri ve alîmlerin Şeddâdî ülkesini ziyaretleri bunun bir göstergesidir. Bu anlamda makalemizde mimarî ve kültürel etkinlikleriyle iyi bir şöhret bırakan Şeddâdîler Devri’nde ilim ve kültür hayatına tesir eden şair ve âlimler üzerinde durulacaktır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Şeddâdîler, İlim, Kültür, Şair, Âlim.
ABSTRACT
THE POETS AND SCHOLARS THAT AFFECTED THE SCHOLARLY AND CULTURAL LIFE IN THE REIGN OF SHADDĀDIDS
The Shaddādids - referred in sources as Bani Shaddād, Āl-i Shaddād, Shaddādiyān (Shaddādids) and Şatatikk - were of Kurdish origin and prevailed in the regions of Arrān and Armenia from the middle of the tenth century until the end of the twelfth century. Shaddādids emerged in the stage of history with Muhammed b. Shaddād in Dvin and acted as a sugur by creating a buffer area between the Islamic World and Georgian and Armenian Kingdoms and non-Muslim peoples on the north bank of Kur River. Ganja branch of the dynasty that maintained its political career from three separate centers pursued an expansionist policy; on the contrary of Dvin and Ani branches who struggled to protect their territories. Nevertheless, Shaddādids, because of their political dominance for a long period, significantly contributed to the social and cultural revival of the Arrān and Eastern Armenia, particularly in Ganja, Dvin (Dabīl, Duvīn) and Ani. Particularly, as they ensured to enrich the material civilization of the mentioned region with the reconstruction activities they carried out, they played an important role in the revival of the scholarly life thanks to the establishment of scientific institutions and libraries. Shaddadid emirs’ relations with the poets and the literary men and the visits of the scholars to the Shaddadid soil are indications of this fact. In this sense, our article focuses on poets and scholars that affected the scholarly and cultural life in the reign of Shaddādids. They left a high reputation through their architectural and cultural activities.
Key Words: Shaddādids, Science, Culture, Poets, Scholars.

Dalam tradisi Islam, ada sejarah singkat terjadinya polarisasi pengertian tradisional ʿilm, 'pengetahuan', bergeser menjadi ʿilm yang merujuk sains dan dīn, 'agama'. Munculnya konflik antara 'ilm dan dīn dapat ditelusuri kembali pada awal-awal dekade dalam abad ke-19; namun begitu, intensitas perdebatan terkait polarisasinya dimulai di kemudian waktu, di abad yang sama. Secara umum, lahirnya konflik dalam mengartikan 'ilm muncul setelah masuknya pengaruh ide-ide abad Pencerahan Eropa dan lahirnya karya "tesis konflik", JW Draper dan AD White, pada khususnya. Para akademisi Arab dan Ottoman menyambut gembira lahirnya karya Draper yang menyatakan bahwa Islam memelihara dan mengembangkan sains, berbeda dengan Kristen. Tesis Driper selalu dirujuk sebagai bukti keunggulan Islam atas Kristen, mereka mengacu tesis konflik itu sejauh untuk memperbandingkannya dengan Kristen dan menilai hal itu sebagai hasil dari praktik represif Gereja. Pada pertengahan abad ke-20, muncul adaptasi baru tesis konflik, dengan diketemukannya polarisasi sains secara tradisional menurut Islam dengan membedakannya ke dalam rasional (ʿaqlī) dan yang ditransmisikan (naqlī). Bab ini membahas terjadinya polarisasi ʿilm menjadi sains dan agama dalam dunia Islam yang terjadi pada abad ke-19, dengan maksud untuk menunjukkan, pertama, memang ada pergeseran pemaknaan dalam sumber-sumber klasik Islam, yaitu sebelum abad ke-19 yang mengklasifikasikan sains menjadi (i) yang berdasar akal dan (ii) yang ditransmisikan, dan, kedua, menelaahnya dalam cara yang berbeda, dengan mengambil titik anjak cara pandang Arab-Islam. Dapat dikatakan bahwa pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang diajukan terkait munculnya polarisasi dalam Islam, utamanya bukan behubungan dengan perkembangan kesejarahannya dan bukan dimaksudkan untuk menghilangkan panduan moral dari lembaga-lembaga "saintifik"-nya, melainkan disebabkan pendekatan Islam terhadap sains yang skizofrenik ketika dihadapkan pada modernitas dan pondasi humanistiknya.

There has been a compelling case made recently by Muslim scholars, as well as scholars of Islam within the academy, that a re-invigorated study of philosophy and metaphysics has a significant role to play in establishing a more ethical society based on a reasoned faith. For these scholars, ethics is ultimately impoverished when metaphysics is ignored. The picture these scholars paint of the Islamic intellectual heritage, particularly in its Sunni variety, is often bleak and re-articulates the trope that the Islamic scholarly heritage took a decidedly anti-rational turn following Ghazali’s critique of philosophy. In this view, with few exceptions, following the alleged decline of philosophy in the Muslim world, Muslim scholars have not methodically approached ethical concerns. Part of the issue here revolves around a persistent ambiguity in the use of terminology. Ethics as a philosophical category of its own cannot be found in a single corresponding category in the Islamic intellectual heritage. For questions that pertain to philosophical notions of ethics, one is driven towards the literature produced by the vast Sufi tradition. Thus, while it may be applicable to analyze modern Muslim output in terms of ethics as being wanting, it is inaccurate to say that ethical considerations were neglected by the Sunni intellectual tradition.  At the same time, there is a danger of over reading the extent to which Sufism, as a distinct science among the Islamic sciences, can provide an all-encompassing and independent ethical framework within Islamic thought. This paper will examine the place of Sufism, or the science of tsawwuf, in light of a persistent ambiguity regarding the place of ‘ethics’ in Islam and how Sufism fits into an overarching ethical framework within the Sunni Islamic intellectual tradition.

This paper reviews manifestations of racism in European and American histories of Arab and Persian astronomy from the eighteenth century to the present day. Its first section discusses representation of Islamic astronomy from Adam Smith to late Victorian writers, particularly tracing ideas of Arab unoriginality and scientific incapacity. The second section first relates the appearance of scientific racism in the early twentieth-century historiography of astronomy, then how the rise of scientifically and linguistically competent scholarship in the latter twentieth century provided much-improved information on Islamic achievements in astronomy. The paper's conclusion underlines the importance of avoiding ethnic supremacism and integrating research on Islamic astronomy into teaching and publishing on the history of astronomy.

Reprinted at https://muslimheritage.com/white-supremacism-and-islamic-astronomy/ 

Discussion at https://filling-space.com/2019/03/01/racialization-obscures-islamic-astronomical-tradition/

Realism and constructivism in philosophy of science are incompatible rivals at least in their radical versions. While the former puts the entire emphasis in knowledge on discovery, the latter considers construction as the main characteristic of human knowledge. However, who advocate constructive realism (e.g. Wallner 1994 put forward a combination of realism and constructivism. Even though each one of these attempts has its own particularity, a common core can be considered for the strategy of constructive realism in general. This common core consists of providing a room for scientists' speculations in terms of their cultural backgrounds in developing hypotheses which are, in their turn, put across the experience. While constructive realism keeps the relationship with reality by means of appealing to experience and experiment, he refrains from reducing scientific endeavor to mere observations. According to this standpoint, science puts one of its feet on reality and observation and the other on culture and speculation.

Perbincangan ini cuba memahamkan kita tentang erti Falsafah Islam yang dilihat sebagai punca tercetusnya  pemikiran dan ilmu pengetahuan umat Islam. Hubungkait antara Ilmu pengetahuan, Teknologi dan perlaksanaannya di dalam kehidupan yang sangat rapat perlu kepada akhlak, secara falsafahnya disebut Etika Islam. Lalu memahami sains dan teknologi dari sudut pandang alam Islam – Islamic Worldview atau Arb., ru’yatu al-Islam fi al-wujud adalah suatu yang sangat penting dan menjadi dasar di dalam Islam. Kesan etika Islam ini dapat diungkapkan melalui bukti-bukti sumbangan Islam di dalam Sains dan Teknologi yang pernah direkodkan oleh sejarah keagungan Islam. Gabungan dasar wahyu dan akal umat Islam, menyumbangkan suatu bentuk rangka dasar sains Islam (the framework of Islamic science) yang kemudiannya dimajukan oleh Tamadun Barat dengan meninggalkan aspek nilai kudus Metaphysics dan sudut pandang alam Islam serta nilai-nilai jatidiri ilmu pengetahuan, mengakibatkan berlaku sekularisasi di dalam sains moden. Dengan meneliti secara kritis dan analitik akan sumbangan sains Islam ini, menimbulkan suatu keinsafan bahawa sains moden harus dikembalikan semula kepada sifat dan jatidiri ilmu pengetahuan yang asal di dalam Islam – Islamization of Contemporary Knowledge.

“Arabic Encyclopaedias and Encyclopaedism in the Ottoman Period: Forms, Functions and Intersections between Adab and Modernity”, in: Adab and Modernity. A « Civilising Process » ? (Sixteenth_Twenty-First Century), ed. by C. Mayeur-Jaouen, Leiden: Brill, 2019, pp. 123-167.

FUAT SEZGİN’S THOUGHTS ON GERMAN INTELLECTUAL LİFE
Fuat Sezgin is a scholar who has spent the most productive part of his life in Germany. His first intellectual experience in Germany is in 1943, the year he enrolled in under graduation program in Istanbul University. It is fact that Jewish scholars, who have migrated to Turkey from Nazi Germany of World War II, brought a new breath to Turkish intellectual life. Helmut Ritter was a Turkey resident long before (in 1926) that migration wave. Fuat Sezgin’s encounter with him marks a turning point in Sezgin’s intellectual life. He was impressed by a lecture given by Ritter on the Muslim origin of sciences. This enlightenment provided him a motivation for further education. Thus he spent 60-70 years of his life on learning, searching, teaching and writing. His works are more than tens of scholars can produce all together. Another landmark of his life is his brother’s removal from İstanbul University on political grounds. Germany was soon recovered from the injuries of World War II. Especially we witness a revival in all fields in post 1960 Germany. Fuat Sezgin moved to Frankfurt around the same time and kept up with times. He made great contributions to the field of Islamic sciences. It is a well-known fact that intellectual advancement requires a strong tradition. This tradition must be accompanied by a state of economic welfare. Thus teamwork could be possible. We find all these factors on the background of intellectual life of Sezgin. He, on the other hand was able to use the opportunities to create an eminent intellectual career.
Keywrods: Germany, University, Helmut Ritter, Frankfurt, Islamic Sciences.

Hicri ikinci yüzyılın başında (yaklaşık 102/724) yılında dünyaya gelmiş olan Ebu Muhammed Abdullah İbnü‟l-Mukaffa ed-Dadeveyh İran asıllı mütercim, edebiyatçı ve kâtip biri olarak tanınmaktadır. Bedevi kabilelerden fasih Arapça öğrenmiş olan İbnü‟l-Mukaffa, döneminin Arap, Fars, Hint, Yunan kültürleri hakkında derin malumat sahibidir. İbnü‟l-Mukaffa başta Basra olmak üzere çeşitli merkezlerde kâtiplik yapmış 142/759 tarihinde öldürülmesine yakın yıllarda Müslüman olmuştur.
İbnü‟l-Mukaffa Emevilerden Abbasilere geçiş döneminde yazdığı telif ve tercüme eserlerinde Arap, Fars, Yunan ve Hint kültürlerini bir araya getirmiş, döneminin siyasi ve kültürel kazanımlarını Abbasilerin hizmetine sunmuştur. Kelile ve Dimne, Siyeru’l-müluk, Kitabu’l-âyin gibi İslam edebiyatını etkileyen çevirilerinin yanı sıra el-Edebü’l-kebir, el-Edebü’s-sağir, Risaletü’s-sahabe gibi telif eserleri bulunmaktadır.
İbnü-l-Mukaffa‟ın eserleri, İslami ilimlerin oluşum aşamasında yazılmış olmasından dolayı, ilgili dönemi aydınlatmak açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır. Özellikle Risaletü’s-sahabe, dönemin ilim anlayışı, problemleri ve çözüm arayışları konularında önemli ipuçları vermektedir.

In the modern age, the conflict between science and religion manifests itself in the debate between evolution and creation. In this essay, it is argued that if we adopt a creationist reading of the Qur’ān, we discover an interesting anomaly: reading the Qur’ān literally does not necessarily provide the foundation of creationism. Creationists usually have in mind the concept of creatio ex nihilo, or ‘creation out of nothing’. However, in the Qur’ān, one of the words used for creation, the verb khalaqa (usually rendered ‘He created’, with God as subject), has the consonant root khlq, which means ‘to split’ or ‘to divide’. This root word can even be seen as applying to the biological process of cell division. Therefore, it is argued here that using the verb khalaqa to describe this physical process is not problematic from a scientific perspective. In addition, with close textual analysis of the Qur’ān, it appears that the second verb for creation, the imperative ‘be’ (kun), does not truly describe the moment of creation, but rather that of ‘being’. The Qur’ān separates the notion of creation from being, which poses the question as to what the text constitutes as the ontological nature of the human being and the universe. Therefore, it is concluded here that even if we do adopt a literal reading of the Qur’ān, it does not necessarily support a worldview that endorses creatio ex nihilo.

Cette publication a été éditée avec le soutien de l'Advanced ERC grant PhilAnd, « The origin and early development of philosophy in tenth-century al-Andalus : the impact of ill-defined materials and channels of transmission », dirigée par Godefroid de Callataÿ à l'UCLouvain (2017-2023 ; ERC Grant Agreement 740618 under the European Union's H2020 ERC MGA Programme). Cover illustration : The beginning of human genealogy with Adam and Eve, and Seth in the central branch, The Imperial Scroll (Tomar-ı Hümāyūn), Topkapı Palace Museum Manuscript Library, A. 3599 Tous droits de traduction, de reproduction et d'adaptation réservés pour tous pays

Tulisan ini membahas pemikiran Syamsul Anwar dalam bidang ilmu falak, terutama dalam bidang hisab-rukyat. Di tengah minimnya ahli falak di Indonesia, terlebih di lingkungan Muhammadiyah, nama Syamsul Anwar terasa masih sangat asing di telinga kebanyakan orang. Akan tetapi jika kita melihat lebih saksama sesungguhnya dari tangan Syamsul Anwar-lah banyak pemikiran-pemikiran cemerlang tentang hisab-rukyat lahir dan sangat terasa kontribusinya bagi Muhammadiyah khususnya dan masyarakat Indonesia pada umumnya. Tulisan ini memokuskan pada beberapa pemikiran Syamsul Anwar dalam bidang hisab-rukyat, yaitu mengenai kontekstualisasi pemahaman hadis-hadis tentang rukyat, hisab hakiki sebagai metode penentuan awal bulan dan interkoneksi studi hadis dan astronomi.

Th is research aims at fi nding out the remedies for the disease of arrogance/pride that has been rampant among the people in contemporary Muslim world, particularly Nigerian Muslim society. Th e analysis is not on words and terms, but rather on meaning and ideas with analysis and explanations given by the " Mufassirun " and other scholars. 'Uthman bin Foduye emerged in nineteenth-century with the mission to revive the Sunnah, and to eradicate innovations in Hausaland (West Africa) caused by the deviant teachings. Th is is the reason why he wrote on spiritual diseases in his book related to healing of the soul. 'Uthman bin Foduye was infl uenced by al-Ghazali and particularly his book on " Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din " (Revival of the Religious Sciences). He wrote this treaty in order to make it easier for the people to know the destructive evils of the heart, so as to do what Allah loves and accepts, since pride is one of the attributes of Allah alone. Th e appearance of the British destroyed the Sokoto Caliphate in Northern-Nigeria and burnt many of Uthman bin Foduye's books, including the " Shifa 'al-Nufus " (Healing of the Soul), for fear that his works will inspire his followers people to rise against the oppressors. KEY WORD: Diseases and remedies, arrogance and pride, Uthman bin Foduye, healing of the soul, al-Ghazali, revive the Islam, West Africa, British, and rise against the oppressors. ABSTRAKSI: " Penyakit dan Pengubatan Al-Kibr (Kesombongan/Kebanggaan Diri) dalam Cahaya Shifa 'al-Nufus (Penyembuhan Jiwa)-nya Uthman bin Foduye ". Kajian ini mau mencari tahu ubat bagi penyakit sombong/bangga diri yang telah berleluasa di kalangan rakyat di dunia Islam masa kini, terutamanya masyarakat Islam Nigeria. Analisis ini tidak disenaraikan dalam kata-kata dan istilah, tetapi pada makna dan idea dengan analisis dan penjelasan yang diberikan oleh Mufassirun dan ulama yang lain. 'Uthman bin Foduye muncul pada abad ke-19 dengan misi untuk menghidupkan semula Sunnah, dan untuk membasmi amalan bid'ah di Hausaland (Afrika Barat) yang disebabkan oleh ajaran sesat. Ini adalah sebab mengapa dia menulis mengenai penyakit rohani dalam bukunya bersabit penyembuhan jiwa. 'Uthman bin Foduye dipengaruhi oleh al-Ghazali dan terutamanya buku " Ihya 'Ulum al-Din " (Kebangkitan Ilmu-ilmu Agama). Beliau menulis risalah ini untuk membuat ianya lebih mudah bagi rakyat supaya tahu keburukan yang merosakan hati, untuk melakukan apa yang Allah suka dan menerima, kerana kebanggaan diri setakat milik Allah semata-mata. Kemunculan British telah menghancurkan Khilafah Sokoto di wilayah Utara-Nigeria dan British pula telah membakar banyak buku karangan Uthman bin Foduye, termasuk " Shifa 'al-Nufus " , kerana British takut bahawa karya-karya Uthman bin Foduye ini akan memberi inspirasi kepada para pengikut dan kaumnya untuk bangkit melawan para penindas. KATA KUNCI: Penyakit dan pengubatan, sombong/bangga diri, Uthman bin Foduye, penyembuhan jiwa, al-Ghazali, menghidupkan semula Islam, Afrika Barat, British, dan bangkit melawan penindas.

Here we mention some opinions of Orientalists in Arab-Islamic sciences and philosophy, such as: Amil Filex Qotii, Rudyard, Renan and others, who said that the so-called Arab culture, which highlights the phenomenon of the genius Arab civilization does not has its existence at all. It is -in their opinion- created by other nations - such as Persians and Sabians, had their cultures before Islam. Arab race did not contribute to its establishment, but only poorly, which almost can not be mentioned. In fact, the Arab Science is a product of a society emerged after Islamic conquests, had the house of Islam (Dār al-Islām) its common homeland, its language was Arabic and blended the different cultures, that melted into the wisdom of Persia, India, the science of Greece and teachings of Islam, so a mediator nation grew up, which combined between the consideration, action, the scientific theory and its practice. Then the science became a collective project in that Muslim city, every effort was done to make the knowledge delivered and accessible to all people, ignoring their differences in their social classes, even their religions. It was a spacious human look and behaviour intended to disseminate the knowledge among human beings.

Tasavvuf tarihiyle ilgili çalışmalar içinde, tasavvufun oluşum dönemine dair olan-lar gerek nicelik ve gerekse nitelik olarak son derece sınırlıdır. Ülkemizde Tasav-vuf anabilim dalında bugüne kadar yapılmış olan altı yüz altmış yüksek lisans ve doktora tezinden sadece yirmi beş kadarı tasavvufun oluşum dönemi olan Hicri ilk üç yüzyıla eğilmiştir. 1 Bunların önemli bir kısmı da, o dönemin teşekkül şartla-rını ve dinamiklerini ele almaktan ziyade, belli başlı bazı sufileri incelemiştir. Üs-telik bu durum, sadece ülkemize özgü de değildir. Bunun başlıca sebebi, teşekkül dönemini etraflıca inceleyebilmek ve tatmin edici çözümlemelere ulaşabilmek için gereken kaynakların hâlihazırdaki yetersizliğidir. Diğer ilim dallarına nispetle geç bir dönemde yazılmaya başlanan ilk tasavvufi eserler, tasavvufun oluşum sürecini tarihsel ve çevre şartlarıyla birlikte, sosyo-politik bağlamları da hesaba katarak de-rinlemesine ele almaya yardımcı olacak evsafta görünmemektedir. Tek tek sufile-rin görüşlerine odaklanmak, onların eserleri üzerine çalışmalar yürütmek, " zühd " , " marifet " , " melamet " vb belli terimlerin izini sürmek nispeten kolaysa da, sufiler arası bağlantıları göstermek, coğrafi farklılıkları tespit etmek, kurumların ortaya çıkışını takip edebilmek kolay görünmemektedir. Ahmet Karamustafa'nın dilimize Tasavvufun Oluşumu 2 adıyla çevrilmiş olan kitabı, araştırmacılar için zorlu olan bu döneme odaklanmış olması bakımından önem arz eder.

Müslüman bilim adamlarının hepsi filozof olmasa da İslam bilim tarihini felsefe ve düşünce tarihinden ayırmak mümkün değildir. Çünkü bir bilim olarak felsefe kadim dönmelerde birçok bilimsel disiplini de kapsayan cins isim olarak kullanılıyordu. Felsefe diğer yandan özel bir bilgi edinme tarzı olarak algılanıyordu. Gazali'nin filozoflara yönelik eleştirilerinin İslam dünyasında felsefe ve bilim ve eleştirel düşüncenin gerilemesine yol açtığı yolundaki yaygın bir anlayış vardır. Buna rağmen Gazali sonrasına dair bilimsel ve felsefi düşüncenin gerilmesine dair getirilen deliller çok güçlü ve yeterli görünmemektedir. Bilimsel felsefi çalışmaların Gazali sonrası dönemde kesintiye uğradığına dair elimizde yeterli veri bulunmamakta aksine, artarak devam ettiğine, çeşitlendiğine dair önemli bulguların olduğunu söylemek mümkündür. Bu yazıda Gazali dönemi sonrasında bilim ve felsefi çalışmaların durumu ve bu alanlarda ortaya çıkan yeni yönelimler ele alınıp irdelenecektir. Yazıda cevap aranacak temel sorular şunlar olacaktır: Gazali'nin felsefe karşıtı söylemlerinin etkisini ölçmek için kullanılması gereken yöntemler nelerdir? Gazali'den sonra dini ve aklî ilimlerde ortaya çıkan yeni yönelimler nedir? Gazali'nin eleştirilerine karşı oluşan karşıeleştiriler neden yeteri kadar etkili olamamıştır? Anahtar Kelimeler: Gazali, bilim ve felsefe, kelam, temellük Abstract Despite fact that all the Muslim scientists are not the philosopher, it is impossible to distinguish the history of İslamic science, from the history of the İslamic thought and philosophy, in that since the ancient times the name of philosophy has been used as genus to include a lot of branch of the science. Philosophy has been understood as the specific way of the acquisition of knowledge as well. There as a common understanding that after the Ghazali's critique of the philosophers the İslamic world has experienced the downfall in the critical thinking , science and philsophy. But evidences related it have not been seemed strong and persuasive enough. There is no data that shows the interruption of the scientific and philosphical works after Ghazali, on the contrary we have the imporatant findings that indicate continuity and variation in that fields. This paper will discuss the the state of science and philosophy and the new orientaions and apropriation after Ghazali. This paper will try to answer these main questions: What is the methodology that evaluate the effects of the antiphilosophical discourse of Ghazali? What is the new oriantation that have arise in religious and rational sciences

Wan Fariza alyati Wan zakaria ABSTRAK Revolusi Industri Keempat merupakan satu perubahan yang berlaku secara drastik kepada peradaban manusia di mana dunia menyaksikan penggunaan Internet of Things (IoT) dan perkembangan teknologi tanpa batas sempadan. Penggerak utama kepada Revolusi Industri Keempat ini iaitu sains dan penciptaan teknologi berasaskan IoT serta Artificial Intelligence (AI) merubah makna menjadi manusia (post-humanism). Sains dalam tamadun Islam muncul sebagai hasil daripada pandangan alamnya yang syumul, justeru sains era Revolusi Industri Keempat kini tidaklah boleh diterima kebenarannya secara membuta tuli kerana asas epistemologi dan metodologinya yang asing daripada asas epistemologi dan metodologi Islam. Berdasarkan premis di atas, umat Islam memerlukan sains yang tersendiri, hasil daripada pandangan hidup dan nilainya yang sejati. Karya ini meneliti premis epistemologi dan metodologi sains Islam berdasarkan kaedah analisis dokumen yang terkandung dalam penulisan beberapa orang pemikir Islam seperti Ziauddin Sardar, Alparslan Acikgenc dan Osman Bakar secara umum. Ia pada akhirnya merumuskan bahawa sains dan teknologi Islam mempunyai kerangkanya yang tersendiri dan menjadi alternatif kepada sains dan teknologi Barat. ABSTRACT The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a great transformation that radically changes human civilisation through the application of Internet of Things (IoT) and advancement of technology without borders. The main driver for the Fourth Industrial Revolution is science and technology based on IoT and artificial intelligence (AI) that transform the meaning of being human to post-humanism. Science in the Islamic civilisation emerged as the result of its comprehensive worldview; therefore the science of the Fourth Industrial Revolution should not be accepted based upon its claim of truth purely because of its alien foundation in epistemology and methodology from the worldview of Islam. Based upon the abovementioned premise, the Muslim ummah needs itw own science that originated from the worldview of Islam and its own sets of values. This article studies the Islamic science premises in epistemology and methodology based upon document analysis method founded in the writings of some contemporary Muslim scholars namely Ziauddin Sardar, Alparslan Acikgenc and Osman Bakar. Finally, it synthesizes Islamic science and technology within its own framework and set to be an alternative to Western science and technology.

Abstract:
Geometry is the main element used in creating Islamic urban design with aesthetic value. However, the use of free form as a fundamental for structuring urban elements has given less emphasis on the function and aesthetic value of geometrical design. This results in an irregular layout of urban design elements, a non-optimal space usage function for users and less aesthetic value. This paper discusses the concept of geometry as the principle of Islamic city design and how it can be applied in the context of urban design. The aim of this study is to create an urban space design that has a high quality of function and aesthetic value as the basic principle of Islamic built environment in Malaysia. The objective of this study is to investigate the the roles and functions of geometry in the Islamic urban design though the history of mathematic geometry and Islamic geometrical patterns. This study uses exploratory methods of literature reviews related to the history of Islamic civilization history that involves concepts, roles and geometric functions supported by observation and experience. The literature review covers aspects of geometric history, Islamic geometrical pattern history and its function in urban design. The findings expressed the importance of geometric design in the production of functional cities with aesthetic value. This study contributes to the understanding of the meaning, concept and aim of geometric design applications that should be applied in building the image and identity of a more attractive Islamic city design in Malaysia.

(Abstrak:
Geometri merupakan elemen utama yang digunakan bagi membina imej reka bentuk bandar Islamik bernilai estetik. Namun begitu, aplikasi bentuk bebas sebagai dasar dalam menyusun atur elemen perbandaran kurang mengutamakan fungsi dan nilai estetik reka bentuk geometri. Kesannya, susun atur elemen reka bentuk bandar yang tidak teratur, fungsi penggunaan ruang yang tidak optimum kepada pengguna dan kurang nilai estetik. Artikel ini membincangkan konsep geometri sebagai prinsip reka bentuk bandar Islamik dan penerapannya dalam konteks reka bentuk perbandaran. Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mewujudkan reka bentuk ruang bandar yang mempunyai kualiti fungsi dan nilai estetik yang tinggi sebagai prinsip asas alam bina Islamik di Malaysia. Objektif kajian adalah mengenal pasti peranan dan fungsi geometri dalam reka bentuk bandar Islamik melalui kajian sejarah penciptaan matematik geometri dan corak geometri Islamik. Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah penerokaan (exploratory) ulasan literatur berkaitan sejarah tamadun alam bina Islam yang melibatkan konsep, peranan dan fungsi geometri disokong oleh pemerhatian dan pengalaman. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan kepentingan reka bentuk geometri dalam penghasilan reka bentuk bandar yang berfungsi dan bernilai estetik. Kajian ini menyumbang kepada pemahaman maksud, konsep dan tujuan aplikasi reka bentuk geometri yang perlu diterapkan di dalam membentuk imej dan identiti reka bandar berciri Islamik yang lebih menarik di Malaysia).

The authors translate and comment a digression from the Kitāb al-Āṯār al-Bāqiya on several hydraulic and hydrological subjects. The passage reveals al-Bīrūnī’s understanding of fluvial regimes, water physical behaviour, and of a handful of peculiar natural phenomena. Al-Bīrūnī departs from a discussion of weather forecast and seasonal fluvial regimes of the Tigris, Euphrates, Oxus, and Nile. The main concern of al-Bīrūnī is to defend the principle that water moves only downwards in absence of external forces. In doing so, the Khwarazmian scientist touches on the origin of salinity of the seas, the functioning of syphons related hydraulic machines, and relates a report of an artificial phenomenon, that he dismisses as result of faulty observations, that could be recognized as a hydraulic jump. In addition, the passage contains much relevant information on al-Bīrūnī’s understanding of the inhabitability of subequatorial regions, the possibility of the void, and the water cycle.

ÖZ
Ortaçağ İslâm dünyasında talebü’l-ilm (ilim öğrenmek veya ilim aramak)
için seyahat olgusunun mimarları Hz. Peygamber’in hadislerine ulaşma
arayışında olan muhaddisler olmuştur. Ancak bu gelenek, zamanla dönemin şartları ve bilginin dağınık oluşu nedeniyle hem dinî hem de aklî ilimler için geçerli bir kaide haline gelmiştir. Dolayısıyla ilim meraklıları (ilim peşinde koşanlar), bulundukları yerden başlamak üzere uzak diyarlara doğru bilgi taşıyıcıları (âlimlerle) görüşmek ve bilgiyi doğrudan onlardan öğrenmek gayesiyle yollara düşmek zorundaydılar. Bu aynı zamanda öğrendikleri bilgiyi aktarabilmek için onlardan bizzat icazet almak için de gerekliydi. Bunun için de ailelerini, dostlarını, vatanlarını terk etmeyi, yorgunluğa, açlığa, susuzluğa, türlü tehlikelere maruz kalmayı, hatta mallarını ve servetlerini feda etmeyi göze almaktaydılar. Bu çalışmamızın gayesi de Ortaçağ İslâm dünyasına has bir gelenek olan ilmî seyahatleri, seyahatin gerekliliği, seyahate teşvik, seyahatin zorlukları, seyahatin yaşı, bilgi toplama aracı olarak seyahatler ve bilginin dolaşımına vesile olarak seyahatler başlıkları altında ele alıp değerlendirmektir.
Anahtar sözcükler: Seyahat, İlim, Âlim, Talebe, İlmî Seyahatler
ABSTRACT
In the medieval Islamic world, the leading actors of the phenomenon of
traveling in search for knowledge, were muhaddiths (traditionists) who
sought to reach the hadiths of the Prophet. However, this tradition became a valid basis for both religious and rational sciences due to the conditions of the period and the scattered knowledge. Therefore, science enthusiasts (seekers) of knowledge had to go to distant lands in order to meet with information carriers (scholars) to learn information directly from them. It was also necessary to obtain a license from them in order to pass on the knowledge they had learned. For this, they were willing to leave their families, friends, their homeland, to be exposed to fatigue, hunger, thirst, various dangers, and even to sacrifice their property and wealth. This article will focus on the travels in search for knowledge, which is a tradition peculiar to the Medieval Islamic
World, in the context of necessity of travel, promoting travel, difficulties of travel, age of travel, travels as a means of collecting information and travels as a means of circulating information.
Keywords: Travel, Knowledge, Scholar, Student, Travel for Knowledge

While the philosophers have thought about the classification of sciences since the 9th century in Islam, the scholars who elaborate the classification of books depend on other categorisation. The comparison between al-Fārābī, Ibn Ḫaldūn on the one hand and Ibn al-Nadīm and Ibn al-Akfānī on the other hand shows the prominence given to the Islamic thouight and the Arab classical literature on the Hellenistic legacy. The unique catalogue of the madrasa preserved reflects the same choice. The practical thematic classifications deviate from the rational epistemology in favour of a subjective or cultural ranking.

Pre-publication of Part Eight and Chapter XXII of my forthcoming book “Turkey is Iran and Iran is Turkey – 2500 Years of indivisible Turanian – Iranian Civilization distorted and estranged by Anglo-French Orientalists”; Part Eight (The Distorted Term ‘Persianate’) consists exclusively of Chapter XXII. The book is made of 12 parts and 33 chapters.
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First published on 7th November 2021 here:
https://megalommatis.wordpress.com/the-fake-persianization-of-the-abbasid-caliphate-2/

“The Islamic Musical Sciences and the Andalusian Connection: Juan Andrés’ «Letter on Arabic Music» (1785)”, Journal of Usuluddin, 2021, vol. 49, num. 1, pp. 151-182. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.22452/usuluddin.vol49no1.6]

Abstract:

Music was an essential part of the philosophical knowledge in the classical antiquity and then in the medieval era. Music provided tools to foster a global speculative knowledge, and the classical Islamic thought developed different musical sciences. This paper tries to describe the different approaches to the musical phenomenon from an Islamic perspective, and the feasible transmission of this knowledge to Western music via al-Andalus. In doing so, the paper places attention in the Italian «Letter on Arabic Music» written by the Spanish Jesuit Juan Andrés in 1785, one of the first documents attesting this connection.

This article argues that the superiority of any civilisation over another depends on its scholars’ contribution to the different areas of common human heritage. Western civilisation superiority seems to be due to its scholars’ contribution not only to their history of science, culture and art but also of other civilisations as well. In this context, this article focuses on Western scholars’ contribution to the knowledge of the East in general, and Islamic civilization in particular. The article examines the figure of the Turkish scholar Fuat Sezgin’s Science and Technology in Islam and argues that Sezgin did not challenge Orientalism, in fact he worked within its frame of reference and methodology. In fact, Sezgin, at the same time, used Orientalist scholars’ methodology, heavily benefited from their previous studies and appreciated their contributions to Islamic civilisation. The article concludes that the panorama presented by Sezgin in this work in the field of science and technique in Islam, can be also introduced in a similar way in relation to other fields and the result will not be different.

Al-Athar 'l-baqiya'an 'l-quriun 'l-khaliya 1v2 3 Al-Qaniin al-mas'udi fi'l-hay'awa'l-nujum 18 4 Kitabtahqiqmali'l-Hind 23 5 Al-Biruni, Hindu Cosmology,and Atomism 32 2 Hindu Metaphysics According to the Hind 34 1 Mediaeval Arabic Texts on Hinduism and Their Sources 34 2 Al-Birini's Sanskrit Sources: Kit@b Sank and Kitab Batanjal 37 3 The Differentiation of Kitab Sank and Kitab Batanjal 4 4 Theology from Kitab Ba tanjal to the Hind 43 5 Passage 1: The Theological Interface between Kit@b Batanjal and the Yoga-Sutra of Patarjali 45 6 Passage z: The Theological Interface between Kitab Batanjal and the Citations from the Book Referred to as git@ 55 7 Passage3: Kitab Sank and the Discussion of Human and Divine Action in the Hind 65 8 Kitab Sank as Conclusion to the Comparative Triptych 71 5 Conclusion 120 ww =ww =g g L CONTENTS 5 Section 1v of Kit@b Batanjal: Liberation and Unification, a Reading 125 1 Introduction 125 2 Section iv and the Yoga-Sitra of Pataiijali: Liberation, the Soul and the Intellect 126 3 The Soul, Matter and Unification 132 4 Liberation: The Intellect, lntellected and Intellector 139 5 Ibn Sina's Treatment of the Soul and Intellect in A/wal al-Na fs and His De Anima 146 6 Conclusion: Kit@b Batanjal, Knowledge and Language 149 6 Al-Nafs: the Soul in the Hind 15 1 Introduction 151 The Body/Soul Relationship in the Hind 153 Chapter Seven of the Hind: On the Manner of Liberation from the World and the Description of the Path That Leads to It 154 The Part of Worship 155 Islamic Characteristics Attributed to the Hindu "God" 157 Liberation, Divine Unification, and Knowledge 159 7 The Nature of Liberation According to Kit@ab Batanjal and Kitab Sank 167 8 Conclusion:Liberation, Metempsychosis and al-Biruni's Islamic Reading of Hinduism 184 Conclusion 189 Translation of Section 1v of Kit@b Batanjal 195 erms 206 209