Human Spaceflight

This paper presents a comprehensive thermodynamic analysis of the claimed Apollo lunar missions, examining the fundamental physical impossibilities of maintaining human life in the vacuum of space using 1960s materials and technology. Through rigorous examination of vacuum physics, materials science, thermodynamics, and pressure dynamics, we demonstrate that the specifications provided by NASA for the Apollo spacecraft violate multiple laws of physics by factors approaching infinity. The analysis reveals that achieving and maintaining the claimed vacuum differentials with the specified materials would require violation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, energy conservation principles, and known materials science limitations that remain insurmountable even with current 2025 technology.

The article discusses the organization of cosmonaut training on centrifuges in the 1960s and the issue of purchasing their own centrifuges for the Cosmonaut Training Center. The main attention is paid to solving the issue of building a large centrifuge CF-18, which still has no analogues in the world. The main sources in the study were the documents of the Russian State Archive of Scientifi c and Technical Documentation (RGANTD) and published normative legal acts. Prior to the appearance in the Cosmonaut Training Center of the fi rst own small centrifuge CF-7, cosmonauts' training took place on the basis of other enterprises that had such simulators. The inconsistency of plans for the use of centrifuges, the very fact of separation from the production of doctors of the Cosmonaut Training Center and the violation of the schedule of astronauts caused additional diffi culties, but in the 1960s there were no other training options on these units. The construction of a large centrifuge to maintain prestige was planned by the USSR, but by 1967 they decided to order its construction in Sweden, which cost 10 times cheaper. The problem of centrifuges in the Cosmonaut Training Center is directly related to the diffi culties of Soviet space during the fi rst fl ights.

В статье изучен вопрос привлечения в космонавтику гражданских специалистов в 1960-е гг. На фоне этой проблемы автор проследил эволюцию изменений в «Положении о космонавтах» -документе, регулировавшем правовое положение космонавтов. Основными источниками информации стали документы Российского государственного архива научно-технической документации (РГАНТД) и опубликованные нормативно-правовые акты. Было установлено, что необходимость привлечения в космонавтику специалистов из науки и промышленности привела к обострению конфликтов между Центром подготовки космонавтов (ЦПК) и конструкторскими бюро, протежированию последних со стороны Министерства общей промышленности и углублению внутренних проблем ЦПК, в первую очередь, связанных с недостаточно укомплектованной тренажерной базой. Именно в середине 1960-х гг. разобщенность, характерная для руководства советской космической программой, проникает и в пилотируемую космонавтику -ЦПК на десятилетия теряет единоличное право полной подготовки космических экипажей.

Because biological sensors work in the human blood circulatory system to coordinate the blood pressure with the heart`s pulse pressure via organizing the diameter of blood arteries that exist in each organ to organize the pressure in each organ (with the heart pulse pressure), the functions of these biological sensors distort during a microgravity environment that may create imbalances in the blood pressure in the human blood circulatory system, but during a long space journey, these distortions will last a long time, as long as the duration of the long space journey. Therefore, the health deteriorations of the astronauts after the long space journey are due to permanent distortions of the blood circulatory system that happened during the long space journey; therefore, it could result in permanent physical distortions of the blood circulatory system that make the astronauts suffer from high liquid pressure in some specific organs and even have some effects on eye health and causes health deteriorations generally. Therefore astronaut's room in the spacecraft should be a spinning room to generate the centrifugal force as an artificial gravity force to prevent astronauts from any sort of health deterioration due to the lack or absence of gravity force during the space journey. In the meantime, it should be in a temperature range of 25 °C, depending on the central heating of the spacecraft. Therefore, we should consider several concerns when designing a spacecraft that can generate a centrifugal force as an artificial gravity force, docking spacecraft safely, and learning from our previous mistakes to avoid spacecraft accidents. Where the operation temperature was the main technical reason behind the failures of SpaceX spacecraft. Therefore, all spacecraft should be able to guarantee the required heat for all equipment and engines within the limits of their operating temperature during space journeys, using multi-layer tissue composed of high-density metals and ultra-high-strength alloys for the external body of the spacecraft to prevent any failure due to reducing the temperature as much as the spacecraft's travel away from the sun`s heating rays.

Because biological sensors work in the human blood circulatory system to coordinate the blood pressure with the heart`s pulse pressure via organizing the diameter of blood arteries that exist in each organ to organize the pressure in each organ (with the heart pulse pressure), the functions of these biological sensors distort during a microgravity environment that may create imbalances in the blood pressure in the human blood circulatory system, but during a long space journey, these distortions will last a long time, as long as the duration of the long space journey. Therefore, the health deteriorations of the astronauts after the long space journey are due to permanent distortions of the blood circulatory system that happened during the long space journey; therefore, it could result in permanent physical distortions of the blood circulatory system that make the astronauts suffer from high liquid pressure in some specific organs and even have some effects on eye health and causes health deteriorations generally. Therefore astronaut's room in the spacecraft should be a spinning room to generate the centrifugal force as an artificial gravity force to prevent astronauts from any sort of health deterioration due to the lack or absence of gravity force during the space journey. In the meantime, it should be in a temperature range of 25 °C, depending on the central heating of the spacecraft. Therefore, we should consider several concerns when designing a spacecraft that can generate a centrifugal force as an artificial gravity force, docking spacecraft safely, and learning from our previous mistakes to avoid spacecraft accidents. Where the operation temperature was the main technical reason behind the failures of SpaceX spacecraft. Therefore, all spacecraft should be able to guarantee the required heat for all equipment and engines within the limits of their operating temperature during space journeys, using multi-layer tissue composed of high-density metals and ultra-high-strength alloys for the external body of the spacecraft to prevent any failure due to reducing the temperature as much as the spacecraft's travel away from the sun`s heating rays.

The scientific return and commercial value of proposed deep space missions are significantly curtailed without the ability to survive extreme cold conditions in these environments. One solution to this problem is the use of radioisotope power systems (RPS) to generate heat and electricity; while effective, previous high costs and lack of commercial applications in deep space limited their fabrication and usage to exclusively governmental actors. The United States, the USSR, China, India, and Russia have launched RPS systems, with target destinations ranging from Earth's Moon to interstellar space. Growing commercial and international interest in lunar exploration, amongst other deep space ambitions, is leading to increasing demand for accessible and affordable RPS. There are multiple companies emerging to developing commercial RPS technologies with such new systems leveraging advancements across multiple domains to deliver first-of-a-kind commercial RPS. New commercial RPS systems could augment existing government furnished RPS to enable new and more numerous science missions, especially those that do not receive "flagship" status or do not have a national capability. More accessible RPS technologies will provide multiple benefits to deep space missions, and in many cases, prove enabling. Commercial RPS systems are particularly promising for commercial lunar exploration missions, as the constant power outputs could enable spacecraft to survive the frigid and dark lunar night. The paper discusses the drivers of demand for commercial RPS technologies, the emergence of private providers of such systems, and provides a roadmap for public and private missions wishing to use commercial RPS.

Missions to planets and other bodies in the solar system are extremely valuable scientific opportunities, despite all of the challenges these missions present to designers. One challenge that planetary science missions must face is that of Planetary Protection, the prevention of contamination between the Earth and the planetary body a craft is studying, undertaken to ensure an uncompromised scientific environment. Biological contamination has been a significant area of focus in Planetary Protection, but it is not the only type of compromising factor that a spacecraft from Earth might bring with it on its mission. Many exploration spacecraft have been or currently are powered by radioisotope power systems (RPS), which provide constant energy and thermal output throughout the solar system. Multiple governments and commercial companies are developing RPS technology for the first time, including the use of novel radioisotopes. Thermal and ionizing radiation from RPS aboard exploration spacecraft could impact future planetary protection considerations, which could pose a potential constraint on system design or mission plans. This paper analyzes existing planetary protection regimes for guidance or requirements relevant to the potential impact of radiation exposure from RPS operating on celestial bodies. The regimes studied include actual space agency regimes as well as relevant academic literature. This paper provides an initial analysis to understand the interaction between planetary protection policies and use of space RPS for deep space exploration.

Introduction: A 264-day isolation simulation, SFINCSS-99, was conducted in Moscow to replicate typical scenarios on an orbital space station. One long-term group of four Russian crewmembers occupied the isolation complex for most of the duration (240 days), while two international groups of four each spent 110 days successively at the complex. Additionally, there were several short visits by medical personnel. The main objective of this paper is to investigate group and individual behavioural dynamics, particularly the intercultural challenges faced during long-duration isolation, using insights from crewmembers’ diaries.
Methods: A variety of instruments and training activities, employed before, during, and after the mission, formed this multifaceted experiment. One key component, crewmembers’ diaries, is the primary data source for this analysis.
Results: While unstructured instruments can be challenging to analyse, these diaries proved especially useful for studying group dynamics and identifying behavioural and intercultural issues. The crewmembers found our unstructured formats, such as these journals and post-mission interviews, to be a more effective means of expressing themselves compared to structured instruments.
Discussion: Personal journals, open-ended questions, and the freedom from constraints typically imposed by feedback instruments used for quantitative analysis are invaluable for observing and expressing crewmembers psychological status, as well as inter-Crew and intercultural dynamics. Personal journals can also provide a basis for constructive intervention by ground personnel, researchers, or psychologists. Insights from this study can be applied to current challenges, such as the adoption of self-isolation as prevention against spread of Covid 19.

INTRODUCTION: the rapidly expanding commercial spaceflight (cSF) market has fueled increasing interest in spaceflight experiences among individuals without professional astronaut qualifications. Such individuals may present with a range of medical conditions that add uncertainties to medical preparation and risk assessment for spaceflight. As the ear, nose, and throat (eNt) working group of the Aerospace Medical Association Ad Hoc committee on commercial Spaceflight, we conducted a scoping review to assess the available biomedical literature for eNt and neuro-vestibular conditions and physiology pertinent to spaceflight for nonprofessional space travelers. METHODS: the scoping review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses. the initial database search produced 3232 articles. this set was reduced to 142 relevant publications through a rigorous two-reviewer filtering process using strict inclusion and exclusion criteria. DISCUSSION: Motion sickness and spatial disorientation were the most common topics of the final set of articles. in contrast, there was limited material on other relevant eNt topics such as hearing loss, sino-nasal dysfunction, and conditions of the pharynx. it becomes clear from this scoping review that the path forward in providing guidance for optimal medical management of cSF passengers will involve the integration of modern biomedical research findings with the accumulated clinical expertise in the civil and military aeromedical communities. we recommend building an industry-wide cSF medical database to address care gaps and improve specialized aerospace medical knowledge.

Задача состоит не в устранении ударной волны, а в разбиении большого звукового удара на серию мелких ударов, которые в создадут более тихий удар. Большая часть этого достигается за счет конструкции самолета с острым носом, который лучше распределяет ударную волну во время полета. Необходимо отметить, что проектирование форм «Конкорд» было таким, чтобы обеспечить минимальное лобовое сопротивление, а не минимальное волновое возмущение. В качестве разгонного двигателя предлагается использовать два малогабаритных одновальных двухконтурных ТРД. Примером может служить проект НПО «Сатурн». Преимуществом ТРД данного типа является возможность преодоления сверхзвукового барьера без использования форсажной камеры, что позволяет снизить расходы топлива. Необходимо отметить, что проектирование форм «Конкорд» было таким, чтобы обеспечить минимальное лобовое сопротивление, а не минимальное волновое возмущение. Из результатов сравнения критериев эффективности можно определить, что СПС, рассчитанный в данной работе, обладает большей экономической эффективностью по сравнению с Конкордом. Учитывая, что узкофюзеляжные магистральные самолеты пока остаются более эффективным решением для современных авиакомпаний. Задача состоит не в устранении ударной волны, а в разбиении большого звукового удара на серию мелких ударов, которые в создадут более тихий удар. Большая часть этого достигается за счет конструкции самолета с острым носом, который лучше распределяет ударную волну во время полета.

During the first two decades of the 21st century, the interest in the Moon missions' realization has been updated from the side of states and commercial operators. Many governmental, commercial and academic Moon's missions are under development now. The development of the information system for researching the Moon's surface and supporting the Lunar human and unmanned missions is actual. The Conceptual approach in the development of the Selena-Information System is presented. The Selena-Information system is intended to provide the Earth's and Moon's consumers with multi-layer information about the Moon's surface and distribution of the soils including minerals and water. The Selena-Information System combines three parts: the Moon segment, the Earth segment, and the Telecommunication segment. The raw Moon remote sensing information could be obtained by the constellation of small satellites for remote sensing of the Moon in the low Moon Orbit. Taking into account the low power capacity of the small satellite the huge information volume can be transmitted in a short distance. It is proposed to put the two Lunar Landing Modules in the Moon's polar regions. These Modules provide control of the small satellite in the Low Moon Orbit, receiving raw data, processing, and storage of it. The Earth segment includes the system control mission center, Data Centers of the Selena-Information System Information consumers, control mission centers of consumer's systems. The telecommunication segment provides the connection between the Moon and Earth segments and uses Big Antennas and ground communication systems.

Fong, T.; Deans, M.; Smith, T.; Lee, P.; Heldmann, J.; Pacis, E.; Schreckenghost, D.; Landis, R.; Osborn, J.; Kring, D.; Heggy, E.; Mishkin, A.; Snook, K.; Stoker, C. ... NLSI Lunar Science Conference, held July 20-23, 2008 at NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, LPI Contribution No. 1415, abstract no. 2141. ... To understand the utility of a science backroom for the current lunar architecture, we are developing a new ground control structure for human and robot surface activity. In June 2008, we began examining this structure ...

Controlling cabin acoustic noise levels in the Crew Module (CM) of the Orion spacecraft is critical for adequate speech intelligibility, to avoid fatigue and to prevent any possibility of temporary and permanent hearing loss. A vibroacoustic model of the Orion CM cabin has been developed using Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA) to assess compliance with acoustic Constellation Human Systems Integration Requirements (HSIR) for the on-orbit mission phase. Cabin noise in the Orion CM needs to be analyzed at the vehicle-level to assess the cumulative acoustic effect of various Orion systems at the crewmember's ear. The SEA model includes all major structural and acoustic subsystems inside the CM including the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS), which is the primary noise contributor in the cabin during the on-orbit phase. The ECLSS noise sources used to excite the vehicle acoustic model were derived using a combination of established empirical predictions and fan development acoustic testing. Baseline noise predictions were compared against acoustic HSIR requirements. Key noise offenders and paths were identified and ranked using noise transfer path analysis. Parametric studies were conducted with various acoustic treatment packages in the cabin to reduce the noise levels and define vehicle-level mass impacts. An acoustic test mockup of the CM cabin has also been developed and noise treatment optimization tests were conducted to validate the results of the analyses.

Aspergillus and Penicillium were the predominant fungal genera detected aboard the Russian Space Station (Mir) as well as the International Space Station (ISS), and fungal growth has been shown to promote biodegradation of spacecraft materials which might compromise life-support systems [1-2]. Moreover, as spore formers, filamentous fungiareathreattoastronauts’health,andtheirresistantsporesmayposeathreattoplanetaryprotection.This, together with their ability to form biofilms, makes monitoring and controlling fungal populations a challenge when it comes to meeting the medical and operation requirements for the current and future space missions [3-5]. The doctoral study work here presented focuses on i) understanding fungal growth and biofilm formation in the space environment, ii) searching for spaceflight-relevant antimicrobial surfaces; iii) assessing fungal radiation resistance, and iv) identifying the potential of these fungi in space biotechnology.

Terraforming Mars, an idea originating in planetary engineering, is built on the incorporation of simulation-based analysis and robotic autonomy. This literature review has revealed examples of established advancements in multi-robotic systems, in-situ resource utilization (ISRU), and datadriven habitat-inhabiting as potential pillars for rendering Mars a habitable ecosystem. Three case studies of significance were presented: a collaboration between autonomous multirobot systems, the Design-to-Robotic-Production and Operation (D2RP&O) process of producing subsurface habitats using local regolith, and applications of legged robots in navigating granular and steep Martian surfaces. Within these realms of technology, the contribution of robotic autonomy could lead to enhanced operational efficiency, increased structural integrity, and improved environmental adaptability in the harsh conditions of the Martian landscape. It is important to note that even more complex processes now utilizing simulated models are allowing us to optimize energy utilization, project material handling, and environmental shielding with both architectural and mobility systems. The possibilities with robotics and modeling can expand our understanding and lay the groundwork for the diminishing logistical and physiological demands for human settlers on Mars, while potentially increasing the rate of large-scale colonization efforts. This review has demonstrated that integrated robotic systems and environmental modeling can represent the essential basis of long-term terraforming efforts.

In preceding papers, Project Lyra has covered many possible trajectory options available to a spacecraft bound for 1I/'Oumuamua, including Solar Oberth manoeuvres, Passive Jupiter encounters, Jupiter Oberths, Double Jupiter Gravitational Assists, etc. Because feasibility was the key driver for this analysis, the important question of which launcher to exploit was largely skirted in favour of adopting the most powerful options as being sufficient, though these launchers are clearly not necessary, there being alternative less capable candidates which could be utilised instead. In this paper the various launch options available to Project Lyra are addressed to allow a general overview of their capabilities. It is found that the SpaceX Super-Heavy Starship would be a game-changer for Project Lyra, especially in the context of refuelling in LEO, and furthermore a SpaceX Falcon Heavy Expendable could also be utilised. Other launchers are considered, including Ariane 6 and the future Chinese Long March 9. The importance of the V ∞ Leveraging Manoeuvre (VILM) in permitting less capable launchers to nevertheless deliver a payload to 'Oumuamua is elaborated.

Alpha-XR Mission conducted by XR Lab PJAIT focused on research related to individual and crew well-being and participatory team collaboration in ICE (isolated, confined and extreme) conditions. In this two-week mission within an analog space habitat, collaboration, objective execution and leisure was facilitated and studied by virtual reality (VR) tools. The mission commander and first officer, both experienced with virtual reality, took part in daily briefings with mission control. In the first week the briefings were voice-only conducted via a channel on Discord. During the following week last briefings were conducted in VR, using Horizon Workrooms. This qualitative pilot study employing participatory observation revealed that VR facilitates communication, especially on complex problems and experiences, providing the sense of emotional connection and shared understanding, that may be lacking in audio calls. The study points to the need to further explore VR-facilitated communication in high-stake environments as it may improve relationships, well-being, and communication outcomes.

For nearly 70 years, sending humans to Mars has been the long term goal of many national space programs. Today, the consensus for sending humans to Mars appears stronger than ever before. With the amazing knowledge gained during the space shuttle and International Space Station programs, and with the Orion spacecraft and Space Launch System (SLS) launch vehicle completing development, NASA and its international and commercial partners are in a great position to lay out a plan for human Mars exploration and execute that plan. In May 2016, Lockheed Martin debuted the Mars Base Camp concept; a bold plan to transport scientist/astronauts from Earth to Mars within about a decade to answer fundamental science questions and prepare for a human landing. The key to achieving this vision is to capitalize on the major architecture elements already being developed by NASA, Orion and SLS, in an innovative architecture that focuses on crew safety and world-class science and exploration. Of course, Lockheed Martin is not the first to advocate for an orbital mission, but we believe that there are enormous advantages in an initial orbital mission, followed by landed missions in the subsequent opportunities.

Pressurized garments for space exploration training require design for ease-of-maintenance and repair, and toolkits, manuals and procedures for such. Consideration for these is required in pressurized garment design and hardware integration.

Humanity stands on the threshold of a new era through space exploration. The Moon's surface is considered the first and most suitable platform for permanent space settlements. NASA's Artemis program, ESA's lunar missions, and China's Chang'e series have significantly increased interest in lunar exploration. However, one of the most essential requirements for long-term human presence on the Moon is the provision of continuous and reliable energy. Although solar energy is sustainable in many Earth applic... Advantages of Nuclear Energy Nuclear energy offers several advantages on the Moon, just as it does on Earth. Firstly, energy production is continuous and not dependent on the day-night cycle, unlike solar energy. This is especially important in dark regions and long-duration missions. Secondly, nuclear energy has high energy density, meaning large amounts of energy can be generated from smaller volumes. This is crucial for space missions as it reduces payload mass. Thirdly, compact and portable systems provide logistical advantag...

This MA thesis explores the evolution of the modern mythology surrounding unidentified
flying objects (UFOs) and their cultural, political, and social implications, particularly in the context
of the Cold War era in the United States. Beginning with the late 1940s, it traces the origins of
modern UFO fascination to the post-World War II period, marked by heightened political tensions,
the Red Scare, and anti-communist paranoia. The author examines the role of key figures such as
Richard Sharpe Shaver, whose supposedly true tales of underground alien civilizations influenced
the notion of malevolent hidden extraterrestial enemy in fiction, and Kenneth Arnold, whose 1947
sighting popularized the term "flying saucer," in the early days of UFO culture in the US. The paper
also delves into the emergence of "contactees," individuals who claimed direct communication with
extraterrestrial beings, and their impact on UFO culture. Figures like George Adamski and Howard
Menger are discussed, alongside their messages of peace and warnings about nuclear warfare,
which resonated with Cold War anxieties. The thesis further explores the intersection of UFO
narratives with government distrust, conspiracy theories, and the rise of the "men in black" trope,
reflecting broader societal fears of surveillance and control. By analyzing the cultural and historical
context of UFO sightings and the individuals who propagated these stories, the study argues that the
UFO phenomenon is not merely a fringe belief but a reflection of deeper societal anxieties and the
human desire for unity in the face of existential threats and doubt of government’s true intentions.
The thesis concludes that UFO tales serve as a modern folk tales and myths, blending science
fiction, spirituality, and political commentary, and continue to captivate public imagination.

In the overall design and performance prediction of spacecraft intended to accomplish delicate landing on the moon, touchdown dynamics analysis during the landing phase is one of the most important task. Missions in the past have experienced toppling of the lander due to the surface on the lunar body being covered with dead volcanoes and impact craters that restrict the smooth landing of the lander. Similar problem may arise in the future too. The main aim of work is to ensure that six feet touch the oblique terrain at the same time so that the capsule remains horizontally parallel to the ground and intact during landing. When the lander hits the ground, the force will propagate from the ground to the skid pads, then to the lower leg part and finally to the damper. Then, the damper absorbs the impact caused by the landing. The honeycomb structure consumes the applied force by getting crushed vertically. At a particular point, this force won't be sufficient to further crush the structure and the crumpling stops and the lander achieves its stability. The simulations of damper design and landing gear designs are carried out to attain lunar landing stability.

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Technologies that reduce logistical needs are a key to long term space miSSions. Currently, trash and waste generated during a mission is carried during the entire roundtrip mission or stored inside a logistic module which is de-orbited into Earth's atmosphere for destruction. The goal of the Trash to Supply Gas (TtSG) project is to develop space technology alternatives for converting trash and other waste materials from human spaceflight into high-value products that might include propellants or power system fuels in addition to life support oxygen and water. In addition to producing a useful product from waste, TtSG will decrease the volume needed to store waste on long term space missions. This paper presents an overview of the TtSG technologies and future plans for the project.

This chapter addresses the subject of risk management in a broad sense. Section 2.1 defines the concept of risk. There are several definitions, but all have as a common theme the fact that risk is a combination of the undesirable consequences of accident scenarios and the probability of these scenarios. In Section 2.2 we will discuss the concepts of Risk-Informed Decision Making (RIDM) and Continuous Risk Management (CRM), which together provide a disciplined environment for proactive decision making with regard to risk. Payload Capability Reliability Cost & Schedule Performance Measures* * These are arbitrary, notional choices Performance commitments are set at performance measure values that correspond to given risk tolerances Risk tolerances given by the shaded areas under the pdfs, on the "bad" side of the performance commitments

This paper will present a model for collaborative space exploration through effective and efficient cooperation of humans and robotsan extension to the Cooperation of Humans and Robots Model (CHARM) developed by the Human-Robotic Cooperation (HRC) team at the International Space University's 2011 Space Studies Program held in Graz, Austria. The HRC team integrated international, intercultural, and interdisciplinary perspectives to develop a decision-making model -CHARMcapable of selecting a mission scenario which best utilizes humans and robotics in order to accomplish a given objective. Human and robotic capabilities differ, with each offering their own benefits and drawbacks. Robots are reliable and accurate, and can operate in hostile environmentsall attributes well-suited for space exploration. However, when faced with new scenarios and unexpected events, robots pale in comparison with the intuition and creativity of humans. Future space exploration will have to intelligently balance the flexibility and ingenuity of humans with robust and sophisticated robotic systems.

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

The criteria often put forward for the classification of manned missions to Mars architectures are the planetary configuration known as conjunction or opposition at the time of departure, the duration of the stay on the surface or the type of propulsion for the interplanetary maneuvers, which can be chemical, nuclear thermal, nuclear electric, solar electric or a combination of them. However, another criterion also deserves special attention: the ability of the manned interplanetary spacecraft to also be a lander. This criterion, which has been highlighted by Zubrin in the Mars Direct concept (direct to indicate precisely that the main spacecraft is sent directly from Earth to the Martian surface), seems to have been totally forgotten in the numerous NASA studies, as well as in the ESA study of 2004. An analysis has been carried out to determine the reasons of this omission: Weakness of the state of the art, lack of willingness to explore all-chemical options, as well as the habit of robotic missions, which introduces a methodological bias due to the separation of the payload and space systems teams. Many authors of mission architectures, e.g. Zubrin, Musk, Salotti, have however chosen the direct landing option, at least for the outward leg of the journey, because it has decisive advantages over other options. The advantages are in particular the simplicity of the concept (no complex assembly in low Earth orbit), the ability to implement aerocapture (as the spacecraft is a lander, a heat shield is already included and it is designed to enter the atmosphere), and a significant reduction of the total mass to be sent to low earth orbit (thanks to aerocapture and optimization capabilities). The choice of the direct access to the surface is thus structuring for the whole mission and should be considered at the highest level of the decision tree.

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

In this new era of space exploration, a host of launch vehicles are b e i i examined for possible use in transporting cargo and crew to low Earth orbit and beyond. Launch vehicles derived from the Space Shuttle Program (SSP), known as Shuttle Derived Vehicles (SDVs), are prime candidates for heavy-lift duty because of their potential to minimize nonrecunring costs and because the Shuttle can leverage off proven high-performance flight systems with established ground and flight support. To determine the merits of SDVs, a detailed evaluation was performed. This evaluation included a trade study and risk assessment of options based on performance, safetyheliability, cost, operations, and evolution. The purpose of this paper i s to explain the approach, processes, and tools used to evaluate launch vehicles for heavy lift cargo transportation. The process included defining the trade space, characterizing the concepts, analyzing the systems, and scoring the options,

As space agencies aim to reach and build installations on Mars, the crews will face longer exposure to extreme environments that may compromise their health and performance. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a painless non-invasive brain stimulation technique that could support space exploration in multiple ways. However, changes in brain morphology previously observed after long-term space missions may impact the efficacy of this intervention. We investigated how to optimize TMS for spaceflightassociated brain changes. Magnetic resonance imaging T1-weighted scans were collected from 15 Roscosmos cosmonauts and 14 non-flyer participants before, after 6 months on the International Space Station, and at a 7-month follow-up. Using biophysical modeling, we show that TMS generates different modeled responses in specific brain regions after spaceflight in cosmonauts compared to the control group. Differences are related to spaceflight-induced structural brain changes, such as those impacting cerebrospinal fluid volume and distribution. We suggest solutions to individualize TMS to enhance its efficacy and precision for potential applications in long-duration space missions.

This essay examines how the Soviet space program transformed the cosmonaut's body into a site where medical science, political ideology, and technological innovation converged. Moving beyond a simple narrative of human achievement, it argues that Soviet space medicine weaponized medical knowledge to create not just space travelers, but symbols of socialist superiority.

This paper discusses the key technological and nontechnological issues involved in disposing of high-level nuclear waste by launching it into space. Space disposal has two major benefits. First, it will permanently remove the burden and responsibility of high-level ...

Background • In September 2024, the first civilian spacewalk marked a turning point in private space tourism, with companies like SpaceX, Virgin Galactic, and Blue Origin accelerating the development of commercial spaceflight programs [16][17][18]. • Spacecraft windows play a vital role in shaping the tourist experience, serving as the primary interface with outer space and influencing perceptions of safety, immersion, and overall satisfaction [4][9][15]. • While real spaceflight remains limited, VR technologies offer immersive alternatives. These virtual experiences can affect how prospective tourists evaluate ideal window designs for future missions [5][13].

Background Space tourism is an emerging field within commercial spaceflight, drawing growing attention from multiple Existing studies have explored consumer motivations (Kim et al., Rees, 2023) and the physical and psychological risks associated with travel (Cohen, 2022; Spector, 2020). However, studies addressing physical and psychological risks in environments have primarily focused on astronauts, providing limited insights into the risks faced by general space tourists. These often differ in and mental preparedness and may face unique risks during short-duration commercial flights (Spector, 2020). Despite calls for an integrated approach to ensure health and safety (Ashford, 1990; Reddy al., 2012), practical responses remain insufficient. A understanding of how these risks affect space tourists is critical for the sustainable development of the space tourism industry (Langston, 2017).

As humans spend more time in space, there is an interest in harnessing the unique advantages of microgravity environment for the advancement of medicine. While astronauts initially face physiological challenges due to shifts in pressure and fluid dynamics, they quickly adapt to weightlessness. This free-floating environment offers unique opportunities to overcome limitations in biomedical research and drug development that exist on Earth. By optimizing biomanufacturing processes and advancing therapeutics, microgravity has the potential to revolutionize medicine for both astronauts and patients on Earth.

В лекционном курсе рассматриваются проблемы вдохновения, как особого состояния талантливых людей, позволяющего достичь ими успехов в различных сферах человеческой деятельности: учебе, творчестве (науке, литературе, театре, музыке, живописи, скульптуре и пр.,) различных видах спорта, в здоровье и т.д. Значение вдохновения невозможно переоценить. Оно наполняет наше творчество светом, позволяет выйти за границы обыденного, создает новые миры и новые реальности. Интересно, что для каждого человека источник вдохновения может быть своим. Для одного это наука, для другого-музыка, для третьего-природа, для четвертого-любовь, искусство или религия. Важно лишь одно: уметь увидеть этот миг, осознать его и позволить ему взять над собой верх. Как и все творческие люди, ученые знают, что такое вдохновение, как трудно его порой бывает найти и сохранить. Зато если находят, то потом с удовольствием делятся своей мудростью со всеми желающими-и это по-настоящему радует. Основная задача лекций-показать возникновение особого только присущего изменению интеллектуальной мозговой деятельности талантливых и гениальных людей-вдохновения-и на конкретных примерах, реализации на практике этого явления в различных сферах деятельности человека. Данные лекции предназначены для студентов ВУЗов и широкой читающей публики (особенно-для юных читателей и их молодых родителей).