History of Railroads

Between 1910 and 1919, a costly project was carried out in the central region of Minas Gerais. It aimed to abandon the old railway trunk of the main Brazilian railway, the Estrada de Ferro Central do Brasil, and implement it along the Paraopeba River. The decision for the new route, which expanded the route between the old General Carneiro and Queluz (Conselheiro Lafaiete) stations and entailed the need for new expropriations, was not properly studied in historiography until now. This dissertation aims, on the one hand, to explain the controversies and interplay of interests that supported and made this initiative viable. On the other, to demonstrate the transformations that its execution caused in the territory of Vale do Paraopeba. The research is based on urban history, on games of temporal and geographic scale (REVEL, 1998). It considers the contributions of authors interested in long-term structures – as Muratori's type-morphology (1967) – as well as those who were linked to the current of post-structuralism – Latour’s actor-network theory (2015). The dissertation is structured into three chapters. The first one is dedicated to the analysis of the disputes of interests that involved the decision to build the line along the Paraopeba. In this context, the differences between the lines carried out by the public authorities – based on political interests and territorial integration – and those run by the private sector – the railways called cata-café – stand out; as well as the controversies surrounding the appropriate gauge for railway expansion and land speculation in the territories crossed by the railway. The second chapter is specifically dedicated to the construction of the Paraopeba Branch, explaining the controversies and resistance in its execution. The third chapter demonstrates how a previously marginal territory was transformed in geopolitical, population and land terms after the implementation of the railway. By implementing the new route in the floodplains of the Paraopeba River, the reversal of long-lasting structures that allowed for almost three centuries this territory to establish itself as a place of resistance. This is on the margins of direct control by the central administrations.

O vale do Tua, no norte de Portugal, esta neste momento a passar por uma intensa transformacao com a conclusao da construcao da barragem de Foz-Tua. Como consequencia, parte do vale e da centenaria linha do Tua serao submergidos. Contudo, as ramificacoes completas deste empreendimento ainda nao sao conhecidas. Neste artigo nao iremos fazer julgamentos sobre a barragem ou o encerramento da linha. Pretendemos sim apresentar as transformacoes tecnologicas do vale do Tua e interpretar esta regiao como paisagem simbolica e tecnologica, contribuindo para o debate sobre a compreensao da paisagem e sobre a problematizacao das fronteiras entre tecnologia e paisagem, muitas vezes consideradas realidades inconciliaveis.

LOCATION

MRDS (2011) Location
11N 14E Sec. 09 SBM latitude: 35.05057 longitude: -115.49305

S1/2NE1/4 sec. 4, T. 11 N., R. 14 E. S.B.M., 0.2 mi outside of the study area and east of the Columbia Mine (Moyle and others, 1988:65).

Francis Copper Mine, comprising 8 claims, is located in the Kelso District, on the southwest slope of the Providence Mountains, 4 miles southeast of Ames, a station on the Union Pacific Railroad. Elevation 4350 feet (Tucker and Sampson, 1930:210).

There is another Francis mine in NW1/4, Section 9, T.11N, R.14E SBM. The relationship between these two deposits is unknown.

HISTORY

The deposit was discovered about 1900 and reopened in 1917 by the Francis Copper Mining Co. (Tucker, 1918a; 1921, p. 341). San Bernardino County records show the Cuyamaca and Woods Lodes located in 1911, the Western Star Lode located in 1916, the Fanny Nos. 1-3, the Amos No. l, the Ramona Lode, and the Monte Video Lode located in 1930. A claim map (Tucker, 1918a) shows the Francis and Confidence Copper properties as a continuous series of claims. The mines may have been developed together since Edward Bluett, superintendent of the Francis mine, was also the owner of the Confidence Copper mine. Considerable development work and some production occurred in 1918. Francis Copper Mining Co. located a millsite near the mine in 1925. C. Nichols and H. Martin optioned the property in 1943 and received a preliminary development loan from the Reconstruction Finance Corp. to dewater and retimber the mine (Tucker and Sampson, 1943, p. 434). Francis Copper Mining Co. held the mine for many years and filed assessment work with the BLM as recently as 1977 to 1979, but abandoned the property in 1982 (C. L. La Rue, personal communication, 1982) (Moyle and others, 1988:58).

GEOLOGY

Tucker and Sampson (1930, p. 310-312, 1931, p. 271-272) describe the [Francis mine] property as having three subparallel veins over an area 1,200-ft wide by 4,500-ft long. The main vein is referred to as the Cuyamaca vein or the Woods Dike No. 3. The conspicuously outcropping vein is 5 to 10 ft thick, strikes N. 600 to 700 E., and dips 650 to85° NW. in bleached, sheared, Precambrian granite gneiss. A Mesozoic granitic intrusion underlies the gneiss at shallow depth. The white to translucent gray, iron-oxide stained quartz contains pyrite, limonite pseudomorphs after pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, fluorite, and possibly scheelite and/or wolframite. (Moyle and others, 1986:65).

DEVELOPMENT

Workings include six shafts from 40 to 140 ft deep, three adits from approximately 30 to 120 ft long, and three pits. Production was at least 200 tons (USBM statistical files) containing 2,377 oz silver (average 11.9 oz/ton) and 10,626 lb copper (average 2.7 pct). Tucker (1918b) reported 500 tons produced. (Goldfarb and others, 1988, Table 5, Deposit 22, p. D39).

1878–1904թթ., հատկապես, 1895թ. ի վեր անզիջում պայքար էր ընթանում Մեծ տերությունների կողմից Օսմանյան կայսրության լծի տակ հեծող Արևմտյան Հայաստանում բարեփոխումներ իրականացնելու և այդ գործընթացները խաթարելուն հետամուտ Բ․Դռան միջև։ Մեծ Բրիտանիան, Ֆրանսիան և Ռուսաստանը, չնայած հակասություններին և մրցակցությանը, համատեղ ծրագրեր էին մշակում Օսմանյան կայսրությունում կապիտալիստական հիմքեր ստեղծելու համար։ 1895թ․ մայիսի 11-ին Կ․Պոլսում ստորագրված հայտնի հուշագրում այդ երկըրների դեսպաններ Ֆ. Կարրին, Պ. Կամբոնը և Ա․ Նելիդովն Արևմտյան Հայաստանը դիտարկում էին որպես վարչական մեկ միասնական միավոր, որը պետական քաղաքականությամբ ենթարկվում էր ազգային, տնտեսական և ադմինիստրատիվ ճնշումների։ Բ․Դուռը, չցանկանալով անգամ տարրական օրենքներով սահմանափակել հայերի անսանձ շահագործումը, իրեն պարտադրվող նորամուծությունները փոխարինեց Արևմտյան Հայաստանը հայաթափելու ու տեղաբնիկներին հողից զրկելու քաղաքականությամբ․ այն դարձավ քրդական ցեղերի, ոստիկանության ու կանոնավոր բանակի ամենավայրագ բռնությունների թիրախ։ Հայերի կյանքի, ունեցվածքի և տեղաշարժի համար նույնիսկ նվազագույն անվտանգություն չկար։ 1894-1896թթ․ համիդյան զանգվածային ջարդերից հետո՝ 1904թ․ հունվարի 23-ից մայիսի 14-ը, այնուհետև՝ մինչև հուլիսի 18-ը, այս քաղաքականության զոհը նորից դարձավ Սասունը, որտեղ հայկական փոքրաթիվ ինքնապաշտպանական ջոկատները փորձում էին պետական տեռորից պաշտպանել 30 հազար հայերի։
Ձգտելով օգնել իր ժողովրդին՝ Մկրտիչ Խրիմյանը 1876թ․ ներգրավված էր բարեփոխումների պետական ծրագրերի մշակման գործում։ 1878թ․ հունիսի 13-ից հուլիսի 13-ը նա, որպես պատվիրակության ղեկավար, փաստաթղթեր է ներկայացրել Բեռլինի վեհաժողովի մասնակիցներին։ Սասունի վրա օսմանյան բանակի հարձակման ընթացքում՝ 1904թ. մայիսի 30-ին, կաթողիկոսը նամակներ է գրել և պատվիրակություն ուղարկել Ֆրանսիայի նախագահ Էմիլ Լուբեի, Մեծ Բրիտանիայի թագավոր Էդվարդ VII-ի և ԱՄՆ նախագահ Թեոդոր Ռուզվելտի մոտ։ Հունիսի 1-ին Խրիմյանը նամակ է գրել նաև Ռուսաստանի կայսր Նիկոլայ II-ին։ Հիմնվելով 1895թ․ մայիսյան հուշագրի վրա՝ Մկրտիչ  Ա-ն ձևակերպեց բարեփոխումների նվազագույն պահանջները և խնդրեց, որ Մեծ տերությունները վերահսկեն իրագործվելիք բարենորոգումների կատարումը։ 1904թ․ հուլիսի 18-ին Սասունում տեղի ունեցող իրադարձություններին հետևող եվրոպացի երեք հյուպատոսներին նման պահանջագիր ներկայացրեցին ինքնապաշտպանական ուժերի հրամանատարներ Անդրանիկ Օզանյանը, Գևորգ Չաուշը և Գեղամ Տեր-Կարապետյանը։
Նույն թվականի հուլիսի 16-ին, օգոստոսի 10-ին և սեպտեմբերի 28-ին Մկրտիչ Խրիմյանի կազմած պատվիրակության անդամները՝ արքեպիսկոպոսներ Հովսեփ Սարաճյանն ու Սահակ Այվատյանը, Փարիզում, Լոնդոնում և Վաշինգտոնում կաթողիկոսի խնդրագիր-նամակները հանձնեցին այդ երկրների ղեկավարներին։ Դրանք վկայում էին ինչպես իրավիճակն Արևմտյան Հայաստանում փոխելու անհրաժեշտության, այնպես էլ այն մասին, որ հայ ժողովուրդը գտնվում էր անպաշտպան և ծայրահեղ վտանգավոր վիճակում։ Սակայն Հայրիկի նամակները ցանկալի արդյունք չտվեցին․ տերությունների ղեկավարները և, մասնավորապես, ԱՄՆ նախագահ Թ․ Ռուզվելտը գիտակցում էին, որ Օսմանյան կայսրությունը բարեփոխումներ չի իրականացնի առանց արտաքին ուժով պարտադրված հսկողության։

Dear Railroaders,
We have been attempting to schedule an appointment with the Secretary of Culture for the State of Guanajuato in order to present some historical publications concerning issues related to Acámbaro. We have no success.
However, we intend to engage the community in discussions and collaborations about cultural editions related to Maguey Valley. One of those topics is Frank Barry's book, "Adventures in Chasing and Photographing Steam," which contains several steam railroad stories based in Acámbaro.
We share with you a memory from Barry's last visit to our hometown and one of the stories from "Adventures…" (with a sweet memory included: Don Pantaleón Tinajero and Frank Barry's first encounter).
We hope everyone enjoys these stories, and we encourage the community to take part in this new publishing adventure!
Best,
Amigos del Ferrocarril Acámbaro, A. C.
September 2025

Estimados Rieleros:
Hemos intentado programar una cita con la Secretaría de Cultura del Estado de Guanajuato para presentar algunas publicaciones históricas sobre temas relacionados con Acámbaro. Sin embargo, no hemos tenido éxito.
No obstante, tenemos la intención de involucrar a la comunidad en discusiones y colaboraciones sobre ediciones culturales relacionadas con el Valle de Magueyes. Uno de esos temas es el libro de Frank Barry, "Aventuras en la Caza y Fotografía del Vapor", que contiene varias historias sobre ferrocarriles de vapor ambientadas en Acámbaro.
Compartimos con ustedes un recuerdo de la última visita de Barry a nuestro pueblo natal y una de las historias de "Aventuras..." (que incluye un dulce recuerdo: el primer encuentro de Don Pantaleón Tinajero y Frank Barry).
Esperamos que todos disfruten de estas historias y animamos a la comunidad a participar en esta nueva aventura editorial.
Atentamente,
Amigos del Ferrocarril Acámbaro, A. C.
Septiembre de 2025

Demiryolu Meslek Lisesinden mezun olduktan sonra Sincan'da aynı evi paylaştığımız 1990 mezunu Mehmet Aycı'dan bir hikaye dinlemiştim.(Herhalde benim bir yanlışımı daha düzeltiyordu.) Çocuk, akşam eve gelen babasına: "Baba, Mısır'da bir kadın evliya varmış, kızını kurban etmeye götürmüş, yerden bir keçi çıkmış." Babası gülümseyerek; "Be yavrum, ben senin hangi yanlışını düzelteyim. Dediğin yer Mısır değil Filistin, kadın değil erkek, evliya değil peygamber Hz. İbrahim, kızı değil oğlu Hazreti İsmail, keçi değil koç, yerden çıkmadı gökten indi." Neden mi bu hikâyeyi anlatma gereği duydum. Ülkemiz demiryolu tarihine ilişkin Ahmet Onur, 1953 yılında Kurmay Binbaşı iken, "Türkiye Demiryolları Tarihi (1860-1953)" isimli bir kitap yazmış. İyi ki de yazmış. Demiryolu tarihi ile ilgili bugün bile araştırma yapanların başucu kaynaklarından biri. TCDD'nin de halen kullandığı Osmanlı Dönemi yapılan toplam demiryolu hattı uzunluğunun 8.619 km olduğu bilgisi gibi daha pek çok bilgi de Ahmet Onur kaynaklıdır. Kerli ferli pek çok araştırıcımız, yukarıda bahsettiğim kitaptan bazı bilgileri kaynak göstererek ve sağlamasını dahi yapmadan aynen kullanmış. Doğru bilinen ve kulaktan kulağa, kitaptan kitaba, kuşaktan kuşağa aktarılagelmiş demiryolu tarihimizle ilgili pek çok yanlışımız. Düzeltebildiklerimizi düzeltelim. Varsa bizim yanlışımız, birileri de onu düzeltsin. En doğruya doğru bir arayışın tetikleyicisi olalım hiç değilse. Dünya'da 1870 yılı itibari ile demiryolu uzunlukları verilirken, Osmanlı'nın sahip olduğu demiryolu hattı 624 km geçmektedir Le Grande Encylopedie'den aktarılan tabloda. (Onur, 1953, s.6). Fakat bu bilginin doğru olup olmadığının peşine düşmemiş kimse bu güne kadar. Biz 732 km bulduk ve ilk defa tabloya döktük aşağıda. HATTIN ADI TAMAMLANMA TARİHİ UZUNLUK İskenderiye-Kahire (Mısır) 1856 211 km. Köstence-Çernavoda (Romanya) 1860 66 km. İzmir-Kasaba 1866 93 km.

Historian C. Vann Woodward wrote about the term The New South, "From the beginning it had the color of a slogan, a rallying cry. It vaguely set apart those whose faith lay in the future from those whose heart was within the past. . . . It was invariably ladened with a hopeful nationalism suggesting that the lately disaffect South was at last one in faith with the country—or would be as soon as a few more bonds were sold, another appropriation passed, the depression was ended, or the new railroad completed."

In 1877 the so-called "Redeemers" overthrew the governments of Black Reconstruction that had established public schools and guaranteed the right to vote for the former Black slaves. They did it with the help of the Ku Klux Klan that wore white robes and hoods to terrorize Blacks. The Redeemers were an alliance of former Southern Whigs and Democrats who undertook a policy of railroad building and industrialization. Birmingham, Alabama, developed by the railroads as a steel making town using coal, coke, and iron from nearby mines. The Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railroad Company was founded in Tennessee and used mostly Black convicts instead of poor White unionized laborers. When Tennessee frowned on the practice, the TCI&L moved its headquarters to Birmingham. In the early twentieth the TCI&L was sold to U.S. Steel.

Initially, the Redeemers restricted the right to vote for Freedmen, but they did not institute a system of segregation initially. They also instituted a system of share cropping for both poor Whites and Blacks. But when the Populists attempted to form a coalition of White and Black sharecroppers against the railroads and banks, the Southern Democrats who initially joined the Populists instituted a policy of segregation in the 1890s. The system was enforced by a lynchings by the KKK and other White Nationalist groups. Lynching was opposed by the reformer Ida B. Wells, but  in 1895 Book T. Washington, the president of Tuskegee Institute proposed a policy of accommodation to segregation.

The led to the rise of Southern Democrat demagogues, including James Kimble Vardaman and Theodore Bilbo both of Mississippi, Huey Long of Louisiana, and Edward Hull Crump, Jr. of Tennessee.

In 1937 Abel Meeropol, a Jewish-American born in the Bronx, New York City, and a member of the Communist Party wrote a song titled "Strange Fruit" about lynching that continued in the South. In 1937 the jazz singer Billie Holiday recorded the song. In 1939 a Jewish-American playwright from New Orleans named Lillian Hellman wrote a play titled "The Little Foxes" about a corrupt family in Alabama. in the South that attempts to steal railroads bonds to fund the building of a cotton mill. The original play starred the actress Tallulah Bankhead of Alabama. In 1941 it was made into a Hollywood motion picture directed by William Wyler and starring Bette Davis.

This paper outlines the history of two intertwined financial transactions from their inception in 1841 to their ultimate completion in 1849. Unique collateral security and payment arrangements created for these transactions became fundamental to development of equipment finance structures. These were financings of the sale and purchase of 12 locomotives, 450 coal cars, running gear for 600 coal cars, and brakes for the Philadelphia & Reading railroad as it commenced operations in 1842. The P&R was drowning in debt, much already in default. Equipment was being seized in foreclosures. System infrastructure was incomplete. The P&R teetered on the brink of bankruptcy. It had no revenue. The only source of funds was debt. It desperately needed more debt to buy iron rails and complete

"La presente investigación estudia las experiencias de los trabajadores dedicados a la construcción, operación, mantenimiento y reparación de los ferrocarriles entre 1920 y 1955. Durante el periodo, el Estado mexicano promovió un proyecto de modernización que involucró transformaciones económicas y materiales profundas —la urbanización de la ciudad fue la más palpable—, así como culturales y sociales que afectaron los modos de vida de la gente. La actitud de los ferrocarrileros no fue pasiva ante los cambios, buscaron y construyeron estrategias de negociación y resistencia en sus centros de trabajo y en sus prácticas individuales. La diversidad de experiencias de este grupo de trabajadores demuestra que las consecuencias de este fenómeno no fueron homogéneas. Representó un proceso complejo, aunque pudieron obtener ciertos beneficios, mediante la expansión de la política social, muchos quedaron relegados de otros que la misma modernidad ofrecía, tales como programas de vivienda o mejores condiciones de vida. Así, analizó el papel activo de los ferrocarrileros, cuyas prácticas, en ocasiones, fueron lleva-das a cabo al margen de sus organizaciones políticas."

The seismic vulnerability assessment of the historic center of Cusco (Peru), an important UNESCO world heritage site, is dealt with in this paper. First, historical development of the city is presented through an in-depth historical analysis of its transformation over time, from the Inca empire to modern days. Then, an extensive in -situ survey activity, that allowed to collect several information about the main structural features concerning ordinary residential buildings, is shown. Based on the collected data, an empirical method calibrated on Italian historic centers from the authors is applied. It allowed to obtain Damage Probability Matrices and Fragility Curves for different earthquake intensities, as well as to assess the probability of exceeding certain levels of damage when seismic events of different intensities occur. Based on these predicted damage frequencies, it is possible to prevent irremediable losses and to propose retrofitting interventions which can lead to the seismic vulnerability mitigation for the whole historic center.

Landscapes are more than geological formations; they are living records of human struggles. Landscaping Indigenous Mexico unearths the history of Juátarhu, an Indigenous landscape shaped and nurtured by the Purépecha—a formidable Mesoamerican people whose power once rivaled that of the Aztecs. Although cataclysmic changes came with European contact and colonization, Juátarhu’s enduring agroecology continued to sustain local life through centuries of challenges.

Contesting essentialist narratives of Indigenous penury, Pérez Montesinos shows how Purépechas thrived after Mexican independence in 1821, using Juátarhu’s diverse agroecology to negotiate continued autonomy amid waves of national economic and political upheaval. After 1870, however, autonomy waned under the pressure of land privatization policies, state intervention, and industrial logging. On the eve of the Mexican Revolution in 1910, Purépechas stood at a critical juncture: Would the Indigenous landscape endure or succumb? Offering a fresh perspective on a seemingly well-worn subject, Pérez Montesinos argues that Michoacán, long considered a peripheral revolutionary region, saw one of the era’s most radical events: the destruction of the liberal order and the timber capitalism of Juátarhu.

Greek immigration to the United States began slowly in the late nineteenth century but found its stride by the second decade of the twentieth century. Behind the incrementally increasing numbers of Greeks emigrating from Greece was an economic collapse related to a mismanaged agricultural industry, leading mostly young men to pursue economic reward abroad in support of families and villages back home. Most early Greek migrants anticipated an eventual return home; however, many moved beyond simple sojourning into permanent settlement for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of proprietorships, the building of families, and nativist driven anti-immigrant legislation. For those who stayed or eventually arrived as immigration laws eased, the Greek population in America found itself in a liminal place between assimilation and insularity. This antinomy led to Greek-American integration, whereby Greek-Americans found an uneasy balance between Greekness and Americanness, becoming a truly bifurcated community.
This dissertation evaluates the Greek-American experiences and history in Wyoming, which escaped many of the pressures Greeks found in other parts of the country, but nonetheless Greek-Wyomingites made similar adaptive decisions toward cultural integration and settlement. In this study, several institutions aided Greek-American or Wyomingite communities maintain cultural cohesion, despite the pressures of racialized Americanization efforts, regional labor conflicts in the mines and railroads, and shifting demographics. These institutions – Greek-American business ventures (especially coffee shops and taverns), cultural associations, the Greek Orthodox Church, and the Greek Festival – lend toward a functional duality in the Greek communities of Wyoming, each expressed through a social sciences methodological paradigm. This orchestration included elements of transnationalism, whereby the Greek community maintained international connections home; particularism, whereby Greeks retained their ancestral identities through subsequent generations in America; and, cosmopolitanism, whereby Greeks became Americans and Wyomingites through sustained interactions with broader US and Wyoming culture.
Furthermore, in the course of Greek-American community development, some institutions lost their efficacy toward dual-cultural maintenance. Greek proprietorships gave way to largely indiscernible run-of-the-mill American businesses. Greekness became muted as business ownership was no longer necessary or able to retain Greek identity. And associations like the American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA) lost their importance in cultural influence as membership became more cosmopolitan and less Greek. This left the Greek Orthodox Church and its offshoot, the Greek Festival, as the principal agents of Greek identity in the community, albeit with adaptations.
In the conclusion of this dissertation, the cohesion of Wyoming Greekness, as it relies on the near ethnoreligious nature of Orthodox Christianity for the Greeks, finds a continuum in the cosmopolitanism that connects Orthodoxy with converts. While Greekness is maintained in the character of the Orthodox Church, both architecturally and to a lesser degree – through language, it is finding roots beyond genetic Greek ancestry as it integrates with a larger multicultural matrix, truly enlivening the dualism in being Greek-American. In other words, just as Greeks can acculturate and become American, non-Greeks can blend their cultural dynamics with Greek culture through church membership. So long as the Greek Orthodox Church survives, the potential for Greek-American continuance should as well.

This research focuses on the reuse of the abandoned Companhia Paulista Officinas into "Espaço Expressa", at Jundiaí in the city of São Paolo, Brazil. On behalf of the collaborative efforts of various stakeholders and through an ongoing participatory process, this neglected and unused urban area, abandoned for over two decades, has been transformed into a space of expression for the community.

A importância nacional da fazenda Ibicaba é reconhecida há muito tempo; em complemento a esta visão, o presente capítulo discute como a fazenda e sua administração influenciaram o desenvolvimento histórico local, sobretudo do município de Cordeirópolis. O capítulo está focado no papel da família Levy, sobretudo do Coronel José Levy, para a vida comunitária em Cordeirópolis, assim como para a política municipal no século XX, destacando-se aqui as figuras do Dr. Huberto Levy e do Dr. Cássio de Freitas Levy. Finalmente, o capítulo discute a evolução econômica da zona urbana de Cordeirópolis e como o crescimento demográfico do município, por sua vez, influenciou as dimensões rurais da fazenda Ibicaba nas últimas cinco décadas.

Estudo monográfico sobre a actual Sala das Sessões dos Deputados, projectada pelo arquitecto Miguel Ventura Terra após a destruição da primeira sala pelo incêndio de 17 de Julho de 1895. Este novo espaço, com planta em hemiciclo, acolheu a primeira reunião plenária no dia 2 de Janeiro de 1903, ainda sem a totalidade da decoração prevista, ficando esta apenas completa na década de 1920.

This work is a greatly enlarged version of a booklet that I published in 1979, entitled Ghost Towns of the Central Mojave. Here are the stories of more than 100 vanished towns, camps, and colonies in the desert regions of San Bernardino, Kem, and Los Angeles counties. Many of the places described here were limited-purpose settlements or way stations, but the towns themselves were fairly permanent communities that furnished goods and services to a reasonably distinct trading area. A settlement of any importance tended to support at least a business, such as a store or saloon; an arm of government, such as a post office or voting precinct; or an industrial operation, such as a railroad or mill.

The settlements of the desert rarely developed as fully as those of the California Gold Rush or the Comstock lode. As the native Americans had already realized, the rainfall was too limited and the heat too intense to support large populations or vast farmlands.

Among the features of historical mining landscapes in the desert west are claim markers in a variety of forms. The interpretive utility of these features is frequently overlooked by archaeologists and at best, only minimal attention is given them as isolated elements of historical activity. These features, however, have the potential to yield important data concerning a patterned behavior of land use integral to understanding western mining heritage. Oftentimes, claim markers constitute the entire remaining physical record of mining activity in a particular locale. A typology and chronology for the features is proposed, and implications for archaeological research are provided.

So it was with great foresight that Eugene Garlock, the owner of a
mine near Tehachapi, saw an opportunity in the discovery of rich and
large deposits of gold ore in the Rand Mountains, northeast of Mojave.
The Yellow Aster claim, discovered in April, 1895, turned out to be
the most important mine.

But the Rand Mining District lacked a supply of readily available
water. In the beginning, all of it had to be hauled from Goler and
Cow Wells, about a dozen miles up a sandy road from the floor of
Fremont Valley. There, in the deep gravels lying below Cow Wells,
were heavily mineralized but abundant quantities of the "precious
fluid."

Na sequencia do naufragio do vapor "Porto", em 1852, que, pela sua dimensao tragica,comoveu a cidade e o Pais, o poder central ordenou a procura de uma alternativa portuariaa perigosa barra do Douro, para ligar o Norte ao mundo por via maritima. Se a decisaofoi pacifica nessa conjuntura, a procura posterior de uma nova localizacao portuariatornou-se objeto de larga discussao, surgindo um longo estendal de propostas, antes de oporto de Leixoes estabilizar na atual configuracao. A escolha da nova instalacao portuariadesenvolveu-se numa complexa malha de poderes e interesses politicos, economicos esociais, que se arrastou no tempo, em funcao da distância que a nova estrutura ficava dacidade industrial e comercial que o Porto configurava, questionando-se a ligacao destacidade a estrutura portuaria e a sua funcionalidade. Neste quadro desenvolveram-sediversas propostas de engenharia que alvitravam formas de ligar a cidade a nova estruturade Leixoes, sem abdicar do tradicional p...

The Prussian August Sachtler (ca. 1839–1873) and the Scottish John Thomson (1837–1921) were both pioneering photographers who visited Bangkok during the Fourth Reign (1851–1868). Both were in partnership with a brother at Singapore, both traveled through Siam simultaneously, though apparently not together. While the latter became one of the most notable photographers of the East, the former almost fell into oblivion. Only recently have details surfaced which shed light on the career of both artists. This essay considers hitherto unpublished and little-known documents about the activity of both these photographers in the vicinity of Bangkok and Phetchaburi province in 1865 and 1866.

The last entry in Ali Fethî Okyar’s brief 1921 diary is dated 16 October 1921 and reflects his close and long-lasting camaraderie with Mustafa Kemal Paşa that stretched back to their days one class apart at the War Academy in Istanbul in the early 1900s.  The diary entries begin on 30 April 1921 with “departure from Malta”, without any further details.  A week later, Fethî Bey is in Munich, and the following July, he arrives in Rome, again with no details other than “a room in the Hotel Flore”. 
Fethî Bey had been exiled to Malta with many other Ottoman “dissidents” by the English-backed Istanbul Government in May 1919. In 1987, Dr. Fethî Tevetoğlu transcribed the diary entries from Ottoman script and published the modern Turkish result – this is the English translation.

set into motion a wave of exploration programs to measure, divide, and map public lands in America. These ventures produced various types of maps describing jurisdictional boundaries, topographic features of the land, military reconnaissance and campaigns, and special thematic profiles of the geography. Cadastral surveyors, under the direction of the General Land Office (GLO), surveyed township and section lines by magnetic compass (or, later, by solar compass) and measured the lines with lengths of chains. Topographical engineers, under the direction of the Army Corps of Engineers, described and charted the land's elevations, its physical features, and the courses of its waterways. County surveyors, under the direction of territorial surveyors general, laid out townsites to define lots and distribute them to oncoming settlers. All of these surveyors and engineers produced a cartographic legacy as they explored the frontier, described arable regions, and laid the foundation for the orderly disposal of public lands. 1 This A. J. Russell photograph shows a survey party under difficulties in Weber Canyon, 1868. Although it is difficult to identify the figures in the photo, it may well be a crew that included James Martineau. Noel A. Carmack recently co-edited with Karen Lynn Davidson the book Out of the Black Patch: The Autobiography of Effie Marquess Carmack, Folk Musician, Artist, and Writer. He wishes to gratefully acknowledge Mollyanne Hopkins, Kirby Martineau, and Preston Ward for their assistance with this article. 1 For an excellent historical overview of cartographic activities and public land surveys in America, see

Construction of the Central Pacific Railroad portion of the Transcontinental Railroad depended mostly on the labor of young overseas Chinese men. These workers were hired and transported largely from districts of Guangdong Province in southern China almost directly to the mountains and deserts of California, Nevada and Utah over a few months' time. Construction of the railroad predated widespread use of steam driven excavation machinery, forcing the railroad to largely depend on the manual labor of these men. Often working in extreme conditions, from the High Sierras to the deserts of Nevada and Utah, large numbers of workers died during construction between 1865 and 1869. Many more maintenance crew members died during subsequent decades along the same route.

During construction and in the early years of operations in the 1870s, there were few formal cemeteries in which to bury the fallen Chinese and those would not usually allow Chinese burials. The alternative, especially during construction, but even into the maintenance period, was to bury them along the railroad grade, almost certainly following traditional Chinese burial customs.

In this paper, the author discusses more than 40-50 grave locations recently identified at or near Terrace, Matlin and Rozel, all section stations on the Promontory railroad grade in western Utah. Also discussed are a few possible nascent Chinese cemeteries which may have evolved from groupings of construction period burials.

Birçokları tarafından batıda gelişen bilim ve batı temelli ideolojinin bir yansıması olarak görülen demiryollarının gelişim süreci sadece ekonomik, toplumsal ve düşünsel yapı çerçevesinde değil, uluslararası siyaset tarafından belirlenmiştir. Elbette ki bütün bu gelişmelerden, her ne kadar gerileme döneminde olan çok uluslu bir imparatorluk olsa da Osmanlı’da etkilenmiş ve bu değişim sürecini yakalamaya çalışmıştır. Bu çerçevede, önemli yatırımlar yapmıştır. Bu bağlamda Osmanlı’daki Hicaz ve Bağdat demiryolları projeleri uluslararası alanda yankı bulmuş gerek finansal ve siyasal destek gerekse engelleme çabaları çerçevesinde uluslararası siyasetin çokça gündemine gelmiştir. Buna ilişkin olarak, bu çalışma Osmanlı’daki demiryollarına ve özellikle Bağdat demiryolu projesine yönelik literatür ve arşiv kayıtları temelinde konunun dönemin uluslararası politikası açısından bir analizini ortaya koymuştur.

The precarious condition of the railway heritage and the lack of understanding of this cultural resource motivated the investigation into the context around the Paraná railway. The railway heritage is analyzed from its construction to its decline, then, from its abandonment to its conservation. The evolution of the paranaense railway teaches us, among other things, about its political, social, economic and cultural importance for the
society. In the light of developments in the field of conservation and analysis of the processes of tombamento (heritage designation), the way that the state's railway heritage is understood, valued and preserved are identified. The almost exclusive emphasis on historical value shows a tendency towards musealization and a lag from the international conservation context by the Paraná conservation organization, the Cultural Heritage Coordination. To draw attention to the importance of railroad heritage, a Railway Heritage Value Table that extends values beyond historical value was developed. The analysis of the importance of the tombado railway heritage in Paraná is completed based on this table. In consequence of the extended values, a broader vision of heritage was needed to better understand the heritage. A method of interpreting the Paranaguá-Curitiba railroad cultural landscape, the first railway built in Paraná, shows us a global vision of railway heritage as a cultural resource for conservation and as a potential for the future local development. Certain values – that were included on the Railway Heritage Value Table – were ignored in the heritage analysis undertaken by the state.
These values however are found in Paraná railway heritage and they reinforce its importance. The understanding and valorization of the railway landscape from the analysis of essential elements and good practices is advanced. The good practices present the preservation of the railway and industrial heritage especially the international ones. It is also learned ways to use the Paranaguá-Curitiba railway landscape as a vector for local development.

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It shouldn't come as a surprise to any student of English literature that most textbooks, from elementary to advanced, find themselves at a loss for definitions to aptly define what is ‘modern,’ what constitutes ‘modernity,’ and what must be underscored to mark what strange anomaly 'modernism' is. These terms float in reference materials as loose islands of moss floating in a desolate water body, drifting further and further away from each other only to meet at once around the bends. The greatest defining feature of Modernism is certainly industrialisation, alienation, and warfare. But there are other players in this game as well, which contribute majorly, if not equally, to this pellucid period. In this study, we must highlight these aspects, which filled all sorts of vibrancy in the air of Modernism. From lifelike cinemagraphs to robust metal carriages speeding against space and time to deliver an industrious promise of mankind, and finally, the discovery that made remote communication very likely and adopted a timeless motif of trouble or tranquillity.

Սույն հոդվածաշարի նպատակն է գոնե թղթի վրա փրկել հիմնականում գանձախույզներից տարբեր միջոցներով ձեռք բերված լուսանկարներից մեզ հայտնի դարձած և երբևէ չուսումնասիրված անշարժ և շարժական հուշարձանների պատմական, ինչպես նաև գրչագրական արժեք ներկայացնող արձանագրությունները՝ համոզված լինելով, որ դրանց մեծագույն մասն անխուսափելիորեն արժանանալու է հայկական ոչնչացված բյուրավոր հուշարձանների ճակատագրին: Դրանցից են Բաղեշ քաղաքում հայտնաբերված և տեր Մեսրոպ քաջ հռետորի հիշատակին 1734 թ., Գոմոց Սբ. Աստվածածին (այժմ հիմնահատակ ավերված) վանքում կանգնեցված խաչքարը, Քիլիս քաղաքի Սբ. Հովհաննես եկեղեցուն պատկանող և վերջինիս վերաբերող մեզ հայտնի վաղագույն հիշատակումը պարունակող կարասը և այլ հուշարձան:

Luego de la transformación de la Isla de una sociedad agraria a una industrial a partir de los años 40 y la llamada vitrina mundial exitosa de industrialización y democracia en los años 50 y 60, el gobierno de Puerto Rico ha explorado estrategias para fomentar el desarrollo continuo. A partir de los años 80, una de ellas ha sido la promoción de la innovación científica y tecnológica con la esperanza de estimular la creación de nuevos empleos, productos y empresas y el mantenimiento de los ya existentes. Este interés contemporáneo del gobierno en torno a la ciencia y la tecnología ha tenido precedentes en múltiples episodios de la historia económica de la isla y de la región desde el siglo XIX.

In this study, the race of continental European states, especially Austria, Russia and the Ottoman Empire to map the Balkan territories in the 19th century is examined comparatively with its technical and political dimensions.
With the scientific developments of the 18th century, cartography became more than an art in the 19th century. Maps made by artisans were replaced by scientific maps prepared by cartographers. One of the regions where the new scientific cartography was practiced most intensively was the Balkans.
Russia and Austria, which were engaged in a struggle for population in the Balkans, tried to produce detailed ethnic, political and topographical maps of the entire Balkans piece by piece throughout the century. This intense activity in the region drew the cartographic attention of the Ottoman Empire to the Balkans and led to the creation of the most detailed and scientific maps of the Ottoman Empire.
In terms of the ethnic maps prepared, the maps prepared by Russia emphasized panislavism, while the maps prepared by Austria emphasized the multi-ethnic structure of the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire, on the other hand, although hesitant to prepare ethnic maps, included ethnic elements in its military maps and attempted to prepare fully ethnic maps towards the end of the century.
In technical terms, Russia tried to catch up with Austria, which was leading the way in cartography, which was becoming more and more perfect. Although the Ottoman Empire followed the race a little further behind, there was a determined and continuous effort.
This study examines why mapping the Balkans was important for the aforementioned countries, what concerns they had in preparing the maps and what their objectives were. Through the Ottoman Empire's most detailed military map of the 19th century for the Balkans, it is tried to explain the process of the Ottoman State's cartographic efforts.
Keywords: Ottoman Cartography, Balkans Cartography, Mapping the Balkans, Russian Cartography, Austrian cartography

Демонстрируется амбивалентность подходов российских министерств в конце XIX в. в отношении государственно-частного партнерства в рамках реализации проекта железной дороги в Закаспийском генерал-губернаторстве. Приводится аргументация в поддержку и против указанного подхода, раскрываются причины отказа царского правительства от идеи государственночастного партнерства в строительстве Закаспийской железной дороги. Источниковой основой исследования стали протоколы заседания правительственной комиссии, письма правительственных чиновников, статистическая информация по товарообороту с Персией, другие материалы, хранящиеся в Архиве внешней политики Российской империи и в Центральном государственном архиве города Москвы. Автор пришел к выводу, что формальным основанием для отклонения заявки предпринимателей в реализации проекта по строительству данного железнодорожного пути послужило признание финансовой неэффективности для государства участия в данном проекте. Реальной причиной принятия подобного решения стала позиция правительственных кругов, выступивших против привлечения частных инвестиций в реализацию предлагаемого транспортного проекта в Среднеазиатском регионе по причине военно-стратегических и геополитических факторов. Ключевые слова: экономическая история, пути сообщения, среднеазиатский фронтир, российско-иранское трансграничье, Средняя Азия, Бухарский эмират Благодарности и финансирование: Исследование выполнено за счет гранта Российского научного фонда № 24-28-00648, https://rscf.ru/project/24-28-00648/ Для цитирования: Токтамысов С.Ж. Правительственная дискуссия об участии частного капитала в строительстве Закаспийской железной дороги в конце XIX в. // Вестник Российского универси

Schumpeter once expressed the opinion that the economic history of the United States in the second half of the nineteenth century could be written solely in terms of the railroad sector. Clearly an exaggeration, the observation still has the merit of focusing upon one of the dynamic forces in American economic development. Yet our measure of that force is severely restricted. Our only continuous railway series is mileage operated, and such relevant magnitudes as ton and passenger mileage, employment, and capital stock are not available, even in imperfect form, until the 1880's, well after the phase of most rapid growth. The first and principal part of this paper seeks to repair these omissions by setting out a continuous quantitative record of development for the railroad sector from its beginnings in the 1830's to its peak just before the First World War. The detailed statistics compiled by the Interstate Commerce Commission carry the record forward more than adequately from that time on. Four series are constructed: output, employment, capital stock, and fuel consumption. Despite their obvious diversity, as well as the differences in the quality of the underlying information, there is a unity in the approach that should be noted. In the great majority of instances, the estimates have been reached by two alternative routes. The first is by direct manipulation of physical units-ton-and passenger-miles, tons of coal, track mileage, and so forth-whereas the second starts from the financial accounts reflecting these magnitudes-traffic receipts, fuel expenditures, book value of road and equipment-but has the same goal. The obvious NOTE: I gratefully acknowledge the painstaking care with which the original draft of this paper was read by Richard A. Easterlin. His comments and suggestions have contributed much to the final form the paper has taken, although he must be absolved of any responsibility for the shortcomings that remain. 1 See, for example, John W. Kendrick, Productivity Trends in the United States, Princeton for NBER, 1961, p. 55, for a discussion of the link-relative approach and its use in that study. 2 Although the Paasche index is currently weighted in the sense that prices of the current year are used to evaluate output of the current and the base year, there are different results when alternative bases, i.e., output mixes, are used.

O bairro da Passagem é considerado o primeiro núcleo urbano da cidade de Cabo Frio, no estado do Rio de Janeiro, possuindo ainda hoje construções que remontam aos diferentes tempos de sua ocupação. Documentos históricos, textuais e cartográficos, registram a existência de um povoado, ainda no século XVII, nas margens do Canal do Itajuru, curso d'água que ligava a Lagoa de Araruama ao mar. Tratava-se de um local abrigado, que cumpria as necessidades de defesa, onde funcionava um pequeno porto e era ponto de travessia entre as margens, o que explica o nome "Passagem". Entretanto, ainda no mesmo século, uma série de motivos, em especial a necessidade de acesso à água potável, levou à constituição de outro núcleo urbano, no pé do Morro da Guia, atual bairro do Centro. (Figura 1

for help in locating sources, and to Dean Pettinga and Kathryn Vikingstad for editing assistance. 1. 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393,452 (1857). 2. 1 focus primarily upon the near-term implications of Dred Scott. Others have argued that, by forcing black Americans to rely upon courts for protection, the decision has had long-term effects including welfare dependency.