History of Iron technology

The Iron Ages in the West and China did not start with the first appearance of iron but with the first functional applications of iron. Although the initial trajectory leading to these applications was similar in both regions, the West entered its Iron Age with bloomery iron, while China replaced bloomery iron with cast iron. Our zoomed-out approach suggests that this divergence had very little to do with differences in technological capital between the two regions, but was influenced mainly by the applications demanded of iron within the respective socio-political environments. We propose that access to the technologies associated with bronze and pottery, to mass produce cast iron, differentiated China from the West and set each region on its respective course. We further propose that the West's trajectory to adopt bloomery iron was fixed through its reliance on specialists (blacksmiths) who could work independently of these technologies. China's trajectory to adopt cast iron was fixed by the socio-economic powerbase required to set up a cast iron industry at a state level, which was reinforced by an Imperial monopoly from the Han dynasty. Essentially, we have investigated why the West did not develop cast iron technology earlier than China, and why China developed cast iron technology 2000 years before the West.

This study will firstly present a general overview of the history of iron, of sulfur and of iron II sulfide. Specifically, it will focus on the experiment which involves the reaction of iron filings and sulfur to form iron II sulfide. This experiment is frequently used as an exemplar of differentiating physical change from chemical change or of differentiating mixtures from compounds. School textbooks over two hundred years and current research findings will be used to comment on this popular chemical experiment which often supplied one of the earliest experiences of chemistry in the classroom. The study will address the following issues. (1) The differing ways in which the experiment with iron filings and sulfur can be carried out. These are by heating iron and sulfur together or by adding water to a mixture of iron and sulfur. (2) The different teaching styles which have been used. For example experiments that have been used for the object lessons of the 1880s have also been used for the discovery lessons of the 1960s. (3) The use of zinc or copper instead of iron and the use of oxygen (air) instead of sulfur. (4) The problems of defining physical change and chemical change. (5) Experiments which are used to illustrate a chemical change, may not really indicate the quantitative nature of chemical change in that the change may be non-stoichiometric.

This book presents the final report on Medieval period excavations at Kinet Höyük in Hatay province, southern Turkey. The region was contested between the Crusader Principality of Antioch, the Knights Templar, the Kingdom of Armenian Cilicia, and the Mamluk Sultanate. Sources from this period mention Medieval Kinet (Arabic al-Tina, Latin Canamella) as a port exporting timber from the nearby Amanos Mountains. Four habitation levels spanned the mid-12th to early 14th centuries: three of them ending in conflagration and destruction. Its location on the Mediterranean and the main road between Anatolia and Northern Syria led to the recovery of ceramics, coins, and other objects from around the eastern Mediterranean, inland Syria, and beyond. The combination of its stratigraphic excavation and careful analyses of a wide range of materials and objects affords rare insights into economy, settlement, warfare, and many other aspects of life in this region at the time of the Crusades.

This volume is part of a two-part set: ISBN 9781407363363 (Part i); ISBN 9781407363370 (Part ii); ISBN 9781407362571 (Set of both volumes).

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Статья / Article Хайдаков К.С., Суханов Д.А. Химический состав клинков как атрибуционный признак булатных сталей Индо-Персидского региона XVI-XIX веков // Историческое оружиеведение.-2024.-№ 13.-С. 161-266. Khaidakov K.S., Sukhanov D.A. (2024). Himicheskij sostav klinkov kak atribucionnyj priznak bulatnyh stalej Indo-Persidskogo regiona XVI-XIX vekov [Chemical composition of blades as an attributing feature for bulat steels of the Indo-Persian region of the 17th-19th centuries]. Istoricheskoe oruzhievedenie

Р одиной тигельных узорчатых булатных сталей счи-тается Индия и Персия. Сырьевые и оружейные производственные центры возникали и исчезали в разных Индо-Персидских регионах вследствие войн, миграции ремесленников, потери технологий, истощения запасов руды и топлива. В целом это не мешало тому, что в этих регионах в течение нескольких сотен лет, с IX в. до середины XIX в., изготавливали холодное оружие высокого для своего времени качества как из местной железной руды, так и из привозного сырья.

С таринные клинковые булатные стали занимают особое место среди высокоуглеродистых сталей инструментального класса. Сверхвысокое содержание углерода от 1,2 до 2,1%, повышенное содержание примеси фосфора от 0,05 до 0,25%, пониженное содержание постоянных примесей кремния, серы и марганца, отсутствие легирующих элементов делают эту сталь уникальной по химическому составу и свойствам. Основное же их отличие связано с наличием в структуре квазиравномерной слоистой карбидной полосчатости, что для современных сталей карбидного класса неприемлемо.

Due to travel-restrictions during the corona-pandemy the following was presented online on March 5th, 2022, at the 4th International Congress of the "Fédération International d'Éducation Physique et Sportive" (FIEPS, International Federation of Sports and Physical Education) at Reitaku-University, Chiba, Japan.  The presentation was honoured with the ‘best researcher award’.
Its contents focus on the potential of sword-research between Japan and Europe on one hand, and on the potential of traditional Japanese Kendo in particular, for educational purposes outside of Japan also.

In this paper, the effect of different surface treatments on the corrosion resistance in concrete synthetic pore solution is investigated. The results show that, if carburising accompanies normalising, the corrosion resistance of the steel bar will increase without having a negative impact on its mechanical properties.

In the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, corresponding to the southern and western parts of present-day Latvia, an iron industry based on blast-furnace technology, mainly using local bog iron ore, existed in the 17th and 18th centuries. Transfer of knowledge and skill through the recruitment of specialists from other countries of Europe was crucial to the development of this industry; technology was also re-exported to Russia and elsewhere. Recent archaeological and archaeometallurgical investigations supplement the written evidence, highlighting the specific local conditions that influenced the development of ferrous metalworking here in the early modern period.

In the archaeometallurgical study of iron nails to investigate Roman manufacturing processes, multi-analyte characterization provides information on alloy composition and microstructure. Nails from the Roman sites of Forua, Aloria, and Iuliobriga (northern Spain) were studied. To characterize the iron phases and microstructures of the nails, optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy coupled with electron-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), micro-Raman spectroscopy, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) realized in environmental mode, and microhardness measurements were carried out. The chemical composition of the metal was determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF). The corrosion mineralogical composition was determined by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). Aggressive burial conditions had a significant effect on the forms of corrosion of the Forua nails to the point of complete iron loss. Examination of the metal of the nails from the Aloria site revealed that most of the ironwork was made in the villa's own forge. In the case of the Iuliobriga nails, different degrees of forging were identified associated with different workshops.

Необходимость изучения дверных приборов и изделий в объектах архитектуры Беларуси обусловлена важной ролью этих элементов как атрибутов двери, влияющих на общий вид фасада. В статье предлагается систематизация номенклатуры дверных приспособлений. Исследуется развитие дверных приборов и изделий со времени появления первых дверей до 1939 г.

The article offers a version of a systematised conceptual and terminological apparatus in the field, regarding the range of door fitting devices specified in the article. The research subject matter is the development of door fittings from the earliest door appearance until 1939 in Belarus.

The article presents the results of metallographic studies of a collection of smithing products found on the Berezovka medieval Russian settlement, studied in the 1950s in the Shigony district of the Kuibyshev region. The site of the Golden Horde period was studied in 1950, 1952–1955 by A.E. Alikhova, a member of the Kuibyshev archaeological expedition. During the excavations on the settlement, the remains of ground and subterranean dwellings, ruins of furnaces with numerous iron metal slags were discovered, which indicates that the population was engaged in the production of iron and cast iron. In the early 1990s, Samara archaelogical expedition specialists got surface finds from the cultural layer of the settlement destroyed by the Kuibyshev reservoir. The results of metallographic analyses of the collection of smithing products from the Berezovka settlement complement the knowledge about the level of technical development of the population of the Middle Volga region in the Golden Horde period. The analyses were made in the archaeological laboratory of the Ulyanovsk State Pedagogical University.

In the basis of the feudal state, along with the agricultural sector, handicraft production played a significant role. In particular, ferrous metallurgy and metalworking, providing basic tools for other sectors of the economy. Handicraft production of the rural population was an integral part of the economic structure of Ancient Rus'. Considering that the main part of the ancient Russian population was rural residents, without studying the role of rural crafts it is impossible to obtain a full description of the production culture of Ancient Rus'. The formulation of this urgent problem has become possible due to the recent emergence of new archaeological sources. Getting a reliable idea of ​​the nature of rural blacksmithing allows using complex analytical methods for studying blacksmith products. The monograph reveals the role of rural crafts in the economy of Ancient Rus' (10th-15th centuries). New archaeometallographic data on rural blacksmithing are introduced into scientific circulation, published metallographic analyses and the results of a series of experiments on modeling medieval metallurgical processes are summarized.

Resumen: Mediante técnicas de análisis de la insolación directa potencial con herramientas soportadas en sistemas de información geográfica (SIG) y medidas morfométricas en campo, se ha estudiado la incidencia de la luz solar sobre algunos de los conjuntos pictóricos rupestres de Villar del Humo (Cuenca). El objetivo final es determinar en qué medida esta insolación directa, condicionada por la configuración geomorfológica tanto regional como local, tiene influencia en el estado y modalidad de la degradación de las pinturas o su roca soporte. Se ha estudiado cuáles de los conjuntos reciben mayores tasas de insolación, y se proponen posibles recomendaciones para disminuir su incidencia,

As a result of several years of fieldwork and a community archaeology programme, traces of an extensive iron processing centre between Nagykovácsi and Solymár were uncovered. The area is mostly forested, and many extraction and production areas are still visible on the surface. The site was surveyed by teams of the Ferenczy Museum Centre (FMC) and the Közösségi Régészeti Egyesület (KRE) [Community Archaeology Association]. It contributes greatly to our knowledge of the specific profession-related villages of royal service people as the name of the related settlement, referring to a place of ferrous metallurgy, is first mentioned in a late Árpád Age document.

Die Abteilung für Geschichte der Frühen Neuzeit und Rheinische Landesgeschichte, das Zentrum für Historische Friedensforschung, das Bonn Center for Dependency and Slavery Studies und der Verein für geschichtliche Landeskunde der Rheinlande laden Sie zur Teilnahme an der Herbsttagung Mars oder Pax? ‚Rheinische' Übergänge von Krieg und Frieden am 23. und 24. September 2024 in das Bonner Universitätsforum Heussallee 18-24 53113 Bonn herzlich ein.

The emergence, spread and development of iron working in the Carpathian Basin is an essential and
interdisciplinary research field, an important stage of which being the results of the archaeometallurgicalarchaeomaterial examinations presented in this article. The excavation site of Regöly (Hungary)
represents a special source from the earliest Iron culture of the Carpathian Basin, and using the results
of metallographic analysis our aim is to place the examined objects in their proper context with regard
to the process of iron working. One fragment found in the tumulus of Regöly during the excavation
2011–2012 has been presumed part of an iron bloom; this may be the earliest example of iron working
in the Carpathian Basin (630–600 BC). From both an historical and technological point of view this
raises several questions. One aim of our study is to characterise the fragments in order to figure out
what kind of processing has been applied and ultimately see how the ‘iron bloom’ fragment can be
connected in any way to the other iron objects found at the site. Examinations were carried out by
optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) on both the iron objects and
the bloom fragment. Metallographic analysis revealed a very specific microstructure, indicating that
the bloom fragment is not a direct product that came directly from the bloomery furnace; it could be
a secondary or even tertiary product (prefabricated) instead. However, regarding the bloom fragment,
there is evidence of a forging method. During the tests, slag inclusions were also examined. The results
from Regöly were also compared with other finds from a Celtic workshop-type site (Bükkábrány,
320–200 BC). Although a direct connection between the examined iron objects and the iron bloom
fragment (as possible raw material) cannot be confirmed, the iron artefacts and fragments of Regöly
might easily have been made from some basic material as represented by the fragment of an iron bloom
or bar. Even though the find from Regöly does not definitively provide the earliest evidence for iron
smelting technology in the Carpathian Basin area, it does give evidence for some form of iron forging
from a semi-finished product.

Wuppertal today is a town of 350,000 inhabitants in the densely populated land of North Rhine-Westphalia / Bergisches Land in Germany and merged from six cities, Elberfeld and Barmen being the most important ones, in 1929. The name derives from the river, Wupper, along which textile handicraft developed since medivial times, and, starting in the mid-18th century, transformed into a wealthy innovative textile industry centre, known as the German Manchester. Famous quality products like Goldzack elastic or Bemberg lining came from there, it's the birthplace of Aspirin by Bayer, the Rauhfasertapete (a popular ingrain wallpaper), but also Friedrich Engels, co-author of the Communist Manifest, and the poet Else Lasker-Schüler were born here. In 1900 the Schwebebahn (suspension railway) was inaugurated, then and still a symbol for technical innovation, connecting the city following the Wupper. Beautiful villas and industrial architecture manifest the textile past. Today the Pina Bausch dance company and the sculptor Tony Cragg found their home in Wuppertal. This paper tries to explore this intriguing place via its textile context.

The iron dating project Aikarauta has been launched in Finland. This paper presents the results of the preliminary investigations. The ability for radiocarbon measurement by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) of iron in Finland has been demonstrated by using coal-produced iron as reference material. An elemental analyzer has been harnessed to measure the carbon content of small iron samples. In addition, we have hypothesized that a fingerprint of the limestone usage in the smelting process is the high Ca content of iron and slag. This has been examined by performing an iron smelting experiment with limestone as flux, by making elemental analyses of ingredients and the resulting slag and iron, and by a 14C analysis of the produced iron. It is possible that limestone dilutes the 14C contents of the produced iron, making its age determination challenging.

The iron dating project Aikarauta has been launched in Finland. This paper presents the results of the preliminary investigations. The ability for radiocarbon measurement by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) of iron in Finland has been demonstrated by using coal-produced iron as reference material. An elemental analyzer has been harnessed to measure the carbon content of small iron samples. In addition, we have hypothesized that a fingerprint of the limestone usage in the smelting process is the high Ca content of iron and slag. This has been examined by performing an iron smelting experiment with limestone as flux, by making elemental analyses of ingredients and the resulting slag and iron, and by a 14C analysis of the produced iron. It is possible that limestone dilutes the 14C contents of the produced iron, making its age determination challenging.

Özet
Bu makalede, “Metalik Maden Endüstrisinin Tarihsel Süreç Boyunca Teknolojik ve Kültürel Gelişime Etkisi: Kütahya İli Örneğinde Multidisipliner ve Diyakronik Bir Analiz” başlıklı projenin ilk sezon (2022) sonuçlarına dair bir ön değerlendirme sunulmaktadır. Projenin saha çalışması ayağı, “Eskişehir ve Kütahya İlleri Tarih Öncesi Dönem Yüzey Araştırması (EKAR)” projesine entegre bir biçimde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Ayrıca projenin 2022 çalışmalarında elde edilen veriler, EKAR Projesi kapsamında yürütülen çalışmaların 2020 ve 2021 sezonlarına ait sonuçlarla birlikte ele alınarak değerlendirilmiştir. Bu kapsamda Domaniç, Emet, Hisarcık, Kütahya (Merkez ilçe), Tavşanlı ve Simav ilçelerinde incelemeler yapılmıştır. Bu ilçelerdeki saha çalışmaları arkeolojik alanlar, tarihi alanlar, metalik maden cevherleşmeleri ile sanayi öncesi metalurjik aktivitelere dair kalıntı barındıran kırsal alanlar olmak üzere dört farklı tipte alanda gerçekleştirilmiştir.


Abstract
This paper presents a preliminary assessment of the results of the first season (2022) of the project titled “The Impact of Mining and Metal Industry on Technological and Cultural Development Throughout History: A Multidisciplinary and Diachronic Analysis of Kütahya Province as a Case Study”. The fieldwork phase of the project was integrated with the “Eskişehir and Kütahya Provinces Prehistoric Survey (EKAR)”. In addition, the data obtained in the 2022 studies of the project were evaluated together with the 2020 and 2021 season’s results of the EKAR project. Beside the central district of Kütahya Domaniç, Emet, Hisarcık, Tavşanlı and Simav were surveyed and investiagted. Fieldwork in these districts was carried out in four different types of areas: archaeological sites, historical sites, metal ore mineralizations, and rural areas containing remains of pre-industrial metallurgical activities.

Well-dated and preserved medieval bombards are rare and, most of the time, only exist in single exemplar. They are nevertheless exceptional testimonies of the medieval metallurgical skills. The musée de l'Armée (Paris), owns six impressive powder chambers, found in the same place (Meaux, France) and dated from the same period (15th c.). For the first time, this unique set has been studied by classical metallographic investigation, and recent approaches on slag inclusions using SEM-EDS and LA-ICP-MS analyses. The analyses permit to discuss the nature of the metal as well as the process used to obtain the metal (bloomery or finery) but also to consider the diversity of provenances for the metal that was used. These results suggest that five bombards may have been forged in the same area and possibly even in the same workshop, but anyway using metal produced through the bloomery process.

The technology of bloomery iron production in Latvia is a little-studied topic. Only a few excavations have been undertaken, mostly during the 1950s and 60s in connection with hydropower development along the river Daugava. Sources from archives and collections have been reviewed, re-studied and re-interpreted in the light of current knowledge, as part of the TechTrans research project. Visual studies have also been performed to clarify whether the slag was tapped, as previously interpreted, or whether production could be related to the more common slag-pit technology. Archaeometallurgical samples from four of the excavated sites have been analysed to obtain information on the technology, development, processes and the quality of production. The results of this study are set in the context of the technical development of bloomery practice in neighbouring regions to identify influences that may have affected the development of bloomery iron production in Latvia during the Iron Age an...

International audienceAt the end of the Middle Ages, armor was considered both an object for everyday military use and a luxury attire. Furthermore, war practices have undergone major changes both on the technological level (appearance of english longbows or firearms) as well as the organizational one (development of mercenary companies). Accordingly, defensives arms were adapted to suit these new needs. Following the wider socio-economic conditions, it became a marketed commodity with a range of diverseproducts addressing an equally diverse range of customers. Its fabrication dominated by several prestigious centers like Milan or Nürnberg, required specific technical skills to shape the ferrous alloys. Therefore, the study of armor manufacture and tradeoffers great opportunity to understand the European exchange of war materials, techniques and skills, as well as metal selection based on the artifact's purpose. In that perspective, several dozen artefacts fabricated in European...

Resumen: Desde que el arte Levantino (ARAMPI) fue declarado Patrimonio Mundial por la UNESCO en 1998 existe una mayor tendencia hacia su conservación. Con el fin de avanzar en el conocimiento y experiencia en este patrimonio tan específico, en este estudio se testan diferentes productos consolidantes y así generar datos y material tangible sobre la compatibilidad del producto consolidante con el soporte, su concentración y forma de aplicación más adecuada. Los resultados han destacado la relevancia de los estudios previos científicos y empíricos para poder acometer intervenciones adecuadas, pues los productos más adecuados en la teoría han ofrecido peores resultados en la práctica, y determinan la necesidad de ulteriores estudios que amplíen el estudio aquí propuesto.

Появление металлургии железа послужило мощным импульсом развития человечества. Нахождение новых источников железной руды, появление новых методов очистки, способов обработки и изготовления орудий труда во многом влияли на историю как локальных групп, так и всего человечества в целом. Археологические находки железных изделий показывают, на каком уровне развития находились те или иные сообщества в определенный период времени, имели ли они доступ к качественному сырью, использовали передовые или устаревшие к тому времени технологии и т.д. Металлографические исследования помогают ответить на эти вопросы. Однако, сохранность археологического железа, в большинстве случаев, оставляет желать лучшего. В связи с этим для сохранения археологических железных изделий и совершенствования методов реставрации необходимо объединение реставрационных и металлографических исследований.

Archaeological and archaeometallurgical investigations of two smithies in eastern Jutland – one Medieval, the other Early Modern Recent excavations undertaken by Vejle­Museerne have revealed remains of two smithies, one Medieval and the other Early Modern. Although the state of preservation, finds circumstances and methods of excavation were different and, in some ways, less than ideal, it proved possible to gain important and significant information from both.A farmhouse with two small outhouses was found adjacent to a substantial Medieval settlement at Kristinebjerg Øst, located southwest of Fredericia, between Taulov and Erritsø. The farm’s main house, which measured c. 26 x 6 m and was dated to c. AD 1250-1350, appeared to be located separately from the main settlement. The building contained clear traces of a smithy in its eastern part, and the working space was estimated to have been about 6 x 6 m. Numerous plano-convex pieces of slag were found, together with some iron object...

Die Ausstellung »Köln 13 Uhr 58-Geborgene Schätze aus dem Historischen Archiv« im Kölnischen Stadtmuseum 1 lenkte erneut den Blick auf den Archiveinsturz vom 3. März 2009, auf dessen Folgen wie auch auf die zu ziehenden Konsequenzen für die Frage des Umgangs mit dem historischen Gedächtnis der Stadt Köln: »Der Archiveinsturz vom 3. März 2009 hat in Köln und über die Stadtgrenzen hinaus einen Diskurs darüber ausgelöst, wie wir heute und künftig mit unserem historischen Gedächtnis umgehen können und sollten. Die Frage nach der Bedeutung der Erinnerung und der Geschichte fur die Stadtgesellschaft und für das Selbstverständnis der Kölnerinnen und Kölner ist ganz neu gestellt worden.« 2 1 »Köln 13 Uhr 58-Geborgene Schätze aus dem Historischen Archiv« im Kölnischen Stadtmuseum vom 3. Oktober bis 21. November 2010, eine Ausstellung des Historischen Archivs in Kooperation mit dem Stadtmuseum und dem Museumsdienst. Zur Ausstellung liegt ein gleichnamiger Katalog vor, hg. vom Verein der Freunde des Historischen Archivs der Stadt Köln e.V., erhältlich im Kölnischen Stadtmuseum und im Historischen Archiv der Stadt Köln. 2 Einladung des Kulturdezemats der Stadt Köln zum Symposium am 10. Oktober 2010. 3 Ebd.

The aim of this paper is to show the importance of a martial past for urban groups. With the passing of the ‘Verbundbrief’ in 1396, the dominance of the patrician families ended in the city of Cologne. A new form of government based on the guilds was established which in time created its own legitimating narratives. One of them was the insertion of the commune and the guilds in the commemoration of the Battle of Worringen of 1288. In the 16th century, the figure of the Cologne Peasant was linked to this battle. The Peasant originated in the imperial quaternions and was initially only meant to indicate Cologne’s rank as a member of the Empire. He later became both an identification figure for the non-elite urban community and a symbol of the city‘s victory over its former archiepiscopal lord. These narratives were presented in the chronicles of the 15th and 16th century, on printed cityscapes as well as in the form of sculptures in public spaces.

The technology of bloomery iron production in Latvia is a little-studied topic. Only a few excavations have been undertaken, mostly during the 1950s and 60s in connection with hydropower development along the river Daugava. Sources from archives and collections have been reviewed, re-studied and re-interpreted in the light of current knowledge, as part of the TechTrans research project. Visual studies have also been performed to clarify whether the slag was tapped, as previously interpreted, or whether production could be related to the more common slag-pit technology. Archaeometallurgical samples from four of the excavated sites have been analysed to obtain information on the technology, development, processes and the quality of production. The results of this study are set in the context of the technical development of bloomery practice in neighbouring regions to identify influences that may have affected the development of bloomery iron production in Latvia during the Iron Age and medieval period.

catchment area is located in Northeastern Silesia, Poland, and belonged to the southwestern distribution area of the Przeworsk culture from the younger pre-Roman period until the younger Roman period. It is estimated that iron smelting was introduced to this area with the emergence of the Przeworsk culture, circa the 2nd century BCE. Certain cultural and environmental requirements must have been met in order for this technology to spread to this area. Within the framework of interdisciplinary research, the archaeological context of an archaeological site as well as the natural archives were investigated to explore the preconditions and to describe the beginning of early iron smelting in this region. Bog iron ore; early iron smelting; formation; human-environmental interactions; landscape archaeology; pre-Roman Iron Age; Przeworsk culture.

Die alten Verhaltnisse vor der franzosischen Revolution von anderten sich mit der franzosischen Eroberung des Rheinlandes 1792/94. Frankreich fuhrte hier seine durch die Revolution gepragte neue Gerichtsverfassung ein, namlich die Friedensgerichte, Zuchtpolizeigerichte und als obere Instanzen die Tribunaux du Departement und die Cours d’appel. Sie sprachen Recht nach den neuen Verfahrensgrundsatzen, namlich  Verwaltung und Justiz waren getrennt,  alle Burger waren vor dem Gesetz gleich,  die Gerichtssitzungen waren mundlich und offentlich und  die Urteile wurden offentlich verkundet. Preusen ubernahm 1813 diese franzosische Gerichtsverfassung, errichtete als Neuheiten Landgerichte, Schwurgerichte, Handels- und Gewerbegerichte, dazu den Rheinischen Appellationsgerichtshof in Koln. Als die Nationalsozialisten die Macht gewonnen hatten, degradierten sie die bisherigen Lander zu blosen Provinzen und erhoben die Rechtsprechung zur Reichsjustiz. Sie debattierten zwar uber die Einfuhru...

In this paper a collection of iron objects from the Anatolian Seljuks Period, ca. 12 th-13 th century AD, are analysed and discussed from a metallurgical perspective. A total number of 21 iron-steel objects, small knives and flat bodied (with thin cross-section

2002 yılındı b$0ÜÎ3n disiplinler anısı Demirköy Endüstri Arkeolojisi projesi kapsamında yapılan çalışmalar lîüyük Dökümhane Kompleksi Ve bunun 250 m kadar batısında bulunan küçük işlikte geıçekleşt itilmiştir. Geç Osmanlı Dönemine taıihiencn hu dökümhane Kırklareli Demirköy İlçesinde yer almaktadır. Arşiv çalışmaları ile desteklenmekte olan kazıların ana amacı burada gerçekleştiril­ miş olan demir üretim teknolojisinin sosyo ekonomik hoyutlannı lıelirtemektir. Makalede sözü geçen işliğin endüstriye! işlevlerini, demir üıetiminin nasıl ve ne koşullarda geıçekleştiğini ve işlikte ne türlü aktivitelerin yer aldığım saptamaya irindik çalışmalar özetlenmeklerin. Kazıklıda ele geçen veriler ve bu verilere bağlı çark, köriik ve çekiç sistemlerinin lekonstrüksiyonu verildikten sonra yapılan arkeometallıujîk araştırmaların ilk sonuçlan sunulmaktadır. Son olarak, ele geçen buluntular ve bun­ ların işliği tarihlendirebilme açısından önemi vurgulanmakta ve ileriki yıkarda planlanan çalışmalara ...

The emergence, spread and development of iron working in the Carpathian Basin is an essential and
interdisciplinary research field, an important stage of which being the results of the archaeometallurgicalarchaeomaterial
examinations presented in this article. The excavation site of Regöly (Hungary)
represents a special source from the earliest Iron culture of the Carpathian Basin, and using the results
of metallographic analysis our aim is to place the examined objects in their proper context with regard
to the process of iron working. One fragment found in the tumulus of Regöly during the excavation
2011–2012 has been presumed part of an iron bloom; this may be the earliest example of iron working
in the Carpathian Basin (630–600 BC). From both an historical and technological point of view this
raises several questions. One aim of our study is to characterise the fragments in order to figure out
what kind of processing has been applied and ultimately see how the ‘iron bloom’ fragment can be
connected in any way to the other iron objects found at the site. Examinations were carried out by
optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) on both the iron objects and
the bloom fragment. Metallographic analysis revealed a very specific microstructure, indicating that
the bloom fragment is not a direct product that came directly from the bloomery furnace; it could be
a secondary or even tertiary product (prefabricated) instead. However, regarding the bloom fragment,
there is evidence of a forging method. During the tests, slag inclusions were also examined. The results
from Regöly were also compared with other finds from a Celtic workshop-type site (Bükkábrány,
320–200 BC). Although a direct connection between the examined iron objects and the iron bloom
fragment (as possible raw material) cannot be confirmed, the iron artefacts and fragments of Regöly
might easily have been made from some basic material as represented by the fragment of an iron bloom
or bar. Even though the find from Regöly does not definitively provide the earliest evidence for iron
smelting technology in the Carpathian Basin area, it does give evidence for some form of iron forging
from a semi-finished product.