History of Bengal

Bengala, a steamer that sank in 1889 near Capo Rizzuto, Italy, was a relatively new vessel for its time, with an unusually short 18-year service life, given that steamers of the period typically operated for 30 to 40 years. Despite its brief history, SS Bengala played a significant role in the development of Italy's young merchant navy, undergoing multiple ownership changes and serving various Italian shipping companies. Employed mainly along the route to Southeast Asia, it transported Italian migrants overseas and also participated in troop raids during the Italian military expedition to Eritrea in 1887. Despite its historical significance, no iconographic material has yet been found to depict SS Bengala, and archival research conducted in Italy and England has not uncovered any naval plans, photographs, or drawings of the ship. To overcome this gap, the authors employed new technologies and historical information to create a virtual reconstruction. This research combined archival sources with underwater surveys, including a detailed 3D survey by divers and archaeologists. Archival research, including consultation of official documents, provided critical information on the ship's dimensions, superstructure, rigging, materials, and construction methods. The 3D modelling of the ship's external hull, based on precise geometric data from the wreck site, offers a first step towards virtual reconstruction. The modelling is grounded in photogrammetric surveying techniques, ensuring high accuracy in the reconstruction process. The model can be used in augmented reality (AR) applications to enhance underwater exploration, allowing divers to visualise the reconstructed ship in its original environment. Additionally, it supports museum exhibits, interactive visualisations, and educational games, making it a valuable resource for engaging the public with maritime history and archaeology.

This article, “Sufism and its significance within Islam”, offers an in-depth examination of Sufism, exploring its etymology, fundamental definitions, origins, and spiritual philosophy. It traces the historical development of Sufism from its early Islamic foundations to its contemporary manifestations, addressing prevalent misconceptions that often obscure its understanding. Central to the discourse are the defining features of Sufi practice – including Tariqah (spiritual paths), Dhikr (remembrance of God), Muraqaba (meditation), Sufi whirling, and the importance of saint veneration and spiritual lineages (silsilas). The article also investigates the essential teachings of Sufis, such as love, compassion, tolerance, and universal brotherhood, and how these teachings embody both uniqueness and continuity with mainstream Islamic beliefs.

A comparative analysis underscores the similarities and differences between Sufism and orthodox Islam. Through historical case studies and an examination of contemporary trends, the article explores the ongoing significance of Sufism in a modern, globilzed context, as well as the challenges it encounters, including political scrutiny and cultural misrepresentation. In conclusion, the article reaffirms Sufism’s lasting impact as a deeply personal, yet socially resonant, spiritual tradition both within and beyond the Islamic realm.

Review of Sanjay Subrahmanyam's recent book on western Indian Ocean, Across the Green Sea: Histories from the Western Indian Ocean, 1440-1640. University of Texas Press, 2024. American Historical Review, Volume 130,
Issue 3, September 2025, Pages 1321–1322.

In Indian context, with the advent of European medicine, the harnessing of the new medical knowledge to general well being and public service became evident since the foundation of first medical school in British India, Native Medical Institution (NMI, 1822). What was a medical benevolence of the highly visible earlier sovereign feudal power in India became the new disciplinary power of colonial modernity. It signified a perceptive change in the interplays of state power and their attendant effects on institutions, including medical ones.
But, to note, the impact of this worldview was limited mostly to the upper echelon of society. Indigenous practitioners were not much affected by this change for a long time (at least till the last quarter of the nineteenth century).
It was political economy of education – investment for the gener¬ation of desire for European medicine and, consequently, European political hegemony, which led to furtherance of more convincing ap¬proval of the British regime as well as the gradual adoption of Euro¬pean medicine and hegemony socially as a token of benevolence. What may be the most intrigu¬ing part of this discussion is the fundamental ontological and epis¬temological transformations carefully wrought into the matrix of Āyurveda, following its encounter or vigorous exchanges with West¬ern medicine. While in the field of materia medica or mineral or botanical knowledge there was some acceptance of Indian medical knowledge till the early 19th century, after the institutionalization of hospital medicine through the CMC it was completely asymmetri¬cally overdetermined. Āyurveda was now at the receiving end only. Thus the reconstruction of neo-Āyurveda was a definite entity in the consolidation of modern Indian state. In recent years neo-Āyurveda has again reinvigorated through AYUSH (Āyurve¬da, Yoga, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy). It appears to be a new pol¬itics of health in India.
State, medicine – both modern and traditional – and public health are mutually constitutive since 1835 in India. The “biomedicalization” of Ayurveda is, however, not only a phenomenon that occurs within government institutions but also reaches into private practice.

পশ্চিমবঙ্গের মানচিত্রে এক সময়ে জালের মতো ছড়িয়ে থাকা অগণিত নদ-নদীর মধ্যে ইছামতি একটি অনন্য নাম। এই নামটি শুনলেই মনের পর্দায় ভেসে ওঠে দু’টি দেশের সীমান্তের রোমাঞ্চ, ঐতিহাসিক নৌ-বাণিজ্যের জৌলুস, মিঠে জলের মাছের ভাণ্ডার এবং বঙ্গসংস্কৃতির অখণ্ড এক প্রবাহের ছবি। কিন্তু বর্তমান বাস্তবতা একেবারেই ভিন্ন, মর্মান্তিক এবং হতাশাজনক। আজ ইছামতি নদী তার অস্তিত্বের জন্য সংগ্রাম করছে। এটি এখন মৃতপ্রায়, একটি প্রাণহীন জলধারা, যার বুকে জমেছে কেবল কচুরিপানা, দূষিত কৃষি-নালার জল আর স্মৃতির আবর্জনা। এই নিবন্ধে আমরা ইছামতির গৌরবময় অতীত, তার বিলুপ্তির কারণ, তার ফলে সৃষ্ট সামাজিক ও সাংস্কৃতিক সংকট এবং এর পুনরুজ্জীবনের জন্য চলমান ও সম্ভাব্য উদ্যোগগুলি নিয়ে আলোচনা করব। ইছামতি নদীটিকে বর্তমান নদী গবেষকগণ তিনভাগে ভাগ করেন। উচ্চ ইছামতি, মধ্য ইছামতি এবং নিম্ন ইছামতি নামে। উচ্চ ইছামতি নদীটি পদ্মা নদীর একটি শাখানদী মাথাভাঙ্গা নদী থেকে প্রবাহিত হয় এবং বেনাপোল পর্যন্ত প্রবাহিত হয়। মধ্য ইছামতি নদী বেনাপোল থেকে দেবহাটা পর্যন্ত প্রবাহিত হয়। নিম্ন ইছামতি নদী পশ্চিমবঙ্গের সুন্দরবন এবং বাংলাদেশের সুন্দরবনের বুড়ি গোয়ালিনী রেঞ্জ পর্যন্ত প্রবাহিত হয়ে রায়মঙ্গল নদীতে পতিত হয়।
নদীটির উৎস হতে দেবহাটার পশ্চিম পর্যন্ত মোট দৈর্ঘ্য ২০৮ কিমি। প্রবাহ থেকে শেষ অংশ উত্তর ২৪ পরগণা জেলা‎র হাসনাবাদের কাছে এবং সাতক্ষীরা জেলার দেবহাটার কাছে কালিন্দী নদীর সাথে যুক্ত হয়।

The nor'wester of Bengal, commonly known as Kalbaishaki is more than just a regular storm. During the blazing summer months of April and May, when rivers dry up, crops wither and heat waves persist, the Kalbaishaki arrives as a saviour. With its fierce winds, sudden downpours and occasional hail, this thunder squall helps to rejuvenate new life in the Bengal's environment. Despite its destructive power, the storm serves as an outstanding metaphorical motivation for writers and poets to express their emotions. From Mohitlal Majumdar's poem 'Kalbaishaki', to Hemandra Kumar's 'Baisakhi' to Tagore's numerous references about the storm, it has always been a source of strength and resilience amidst turmoil. Kalbaishaki continues to hold a strong cultural affinity shaping the region's folk music, bhatiyali songs sung by boatmen, and beautiful Patua artworks depicting its impact on society. Kazi Nazrul Islam's poem 'Bidhori' uses the storm as a trope to showcase the revolution and destruction of the old order. The power of the storm has been compared with the zeal of freedom fighters to embrace Swadeshi and overthrow the colonial regime. The legacy of this environmental magic continues even today, with works like Anupam Roy's song 'Kalboishakhi' , representing a lover's emotional turmoil and Satyajit Ray's cinema of self-exploration. Regardless of the storm's pool of contribution, the existing works about the storm are very scattered across different genres. Through the usage of historical records, literary sources and contemporary ideas, I have tried to evaluate the nor'wester essence beyond a mere meteorological phenomenon. Perhaps, this is the first paper that tries to link all the cultural significance of the storm into one study, bridging the gap between literature and environment.

The pedagogical tradition in English language teaching and classroom managements in the Bangladeshi colleges undervalue the use of communicative approach designed in the textbook English For Today: for Classes 11 &12, and hereby, fail to meet up the demand of building communicative competence among the students. Though the textbooks in the schools and colleges are designed on the basis of communicative approach, no significant improvement is found among the students. This issue initiates the present study to search for possible problems lying behind it with the assumption that the textbook is not being properly implemented in the classroom. Major objectives set for the present study are: to reveal whether the textbook is being implemented properly in the classroom situation; to point out whether all the tasks and activities included in the textbook are performed by the teachers and students; to discover if teachers' training has any influence on the techniques of using the textbook; and to find out if the present testing system influences the ways of using textbook in the classroom. A review of related literature which supports and justifies the research problem is given in the present study. Being a field research, the study concentrates on the classroom activities. Data have been collected through questionnaires and classroom observation method; and analyzed quantitatively. As the results show, the textbook is not properly implemented in the classroom. This paper ends with some recommendations for the NCTB, teachers and Examination authority for solving the problem.

Hunting of birds has a long history that represents a wide spectrum of aspects. While the Pakmaras are mainly bird hunters scattered across Bengal, the Kakmaras settled only along the coastal districts of southern Bengal, primarily targeting the crows. Although these hunters are labeled as 'untouchables', they formed complex social classifications with kin-based factionalism, marital rituals similar to Bengali customs, burial practices, occupation, and religious affirmations. Understanding ethnic identity, the increasingly sedentary nature and the adaptability of this marginal community in a constantly evolving environment with new customary laws is important. Popular culture and literary works like Dokhol, Amma, Neel Dukher Chhabi, etc., periodically pictured these communities as exotic tribes. This study exposes these community's unification with nature, through bird hunting and forest browsing as not only for livelihood but a representation of their cultural ideas. Through historical narratives, ethnographic observations, recent news, literary sources and archaeological evidence, I have tried to provide an overview of the nomadic bird hunters of Bengal.

The article explores the crucial but little-known role of women leaders in colonial Bengal's jute industry, emphasizing their contributions to labour organizations and the larger political scene. Although male-centric narratives have dominated the historiography of Indian labor movements, this paper examines the gendered aspects of industrial activism, emphasizing the contributions of women such as Prabhabati Dasgupta and Santosh Kumari Devi. Despite being systematically erased from popular labour history, these individuals managed the intensely caste-based and patriarchal environment of colonial Bengal and became powerful trade unionists. To reconstitute their activity within the complex frames of class, caste, and gender, this article engages with archival materials, contemporary literature, and oral histories. By analyzing the ideological divisions that ultimately resulted in their marginalization, the research also places their leadership within the larger framework of nationalist and leftist politics. The research highlights the transversal character of labour conflicts in colonial India and challenges prevailing historiographical exclusions by reclaiming the voices of these women.

Water Hyacinth, invaded the waterways of Bengal in the late 19th century, setting off a series of profound consequences. Its rapid proliferation led to immense hardship in the agricultural sector, prompting a divisive debate between those advocating for complete eradication and those championing scientific exploration of its potential uses. The paper documents the relentless growth and expansion of this invasive species and highlights its profound ecological impact. The economic consequences of the Water Hyacinth or Kochuripana as the bengalis called it, hindered traditional livelihoods such as fishing and transportation while imposing significant costs on agriculture and infrastructure. This study delves into the intricate interplay between local populace, administration, and personal experimental endeavors, aiming to dissect the underlying dynamics that hindered the legislation of the water hyacinth problem. Ultimately, I have examined different source materials like government documents, local chronicles, articles, newspaper, views of  contemporary historians, etc to conclude about the effect of water hyacinth in the Bengal Delta.

বর্তমান বাংলাদেশের সাহিত্যচর্চা সম্পূর্ণ ইউরোপীয় রীতি দ্বারা প্রভাবিত। আধুনিকতা কিংবা উত্তরাধুনিকতার দোহাইয়ে বাঙালির নিজস্ব বোধ-বুদ্ধি, ইতিহাস-ঐতিহ্য এতে উপেক্ষিত। এমনকি নব্য উপনিবেশের করণ-কৌশলে বাঙালি স্বতন্ত্র জাতিসত্তার আত্মপরিচয় দৃষ্ট হয় এমন কোনো সাহিত্যকর্ম নেই। অধিকাংশ সাহিত্যকর্মই সস্তা চটুল ও ঠুনকো আত্মপ্রচারে ব্যাপ্ত। আঙ্গিক সর্বস্ব দর্শনহীন বাতুলতা সর্বত্র। ঐতিহ্যের চর্যাপদ, ইউসুফ-জোলেখা, রসুল বিজয়, মনসামঙ্গল কিংবা শ্রীকৃষ্ণকীর্তনকে যেমন বাঙালির রচনা বলে চিহ্নিত করা যায়। ঠিক তেমনি অষ্টাদশ শতাব্দীর পর দুএকটা সাহিত্যকর্ম ছাড়া আর তেমনটা চিহ্নিত করা যায় না। আর সাম্প্রতিক সাহিত্যে বাঙালি মানস বা বাঙালির সাহিত্য চিহ্নিত করা তো ভীষণ কঠিন। এ গবেষণাটি বাঙালির হাজার বছরের সাহিত্যের রূপ-রীতির স্বরূপ অনুসন্ধানের গবেষণা। হাজার বছরের বাংলা সাহিত্যাদর্শে অখÐ ভাবগত দৃষ্টিভঙ্গি প্রাধান্য পেলেও প্রকাশ-আঙ্গিকে বহুমাত্রিক নানা রূপ-বৈচিত্র্য বিদ্যমান। ঐতিহ্যবাহী বাংলা সাহিত্যধারায় ব্যক্তি স্বাতন্ত্র্য যেমন আছে, তেমনি আছে সমাজ-মানুষের জন্য নিবেদন। আবহমান কালের বহমান সাহিত্যরীতিকে উপলব্ধি করেই নিজস্ব অনুভব, বোধ-বুদ্ধির চর্চাই জাতিগত আত্মপরিচয় সৃষ্টি করতে পারে।

This article explores the interesting development of buses in Kolkata, highlighting their crucial role in connecting the refugee colonies. The story begins with the final era of colonial rule and then follows buses from their modest origins as improvised passenger carriers on cargo lorries to Walford & Company's introduction of motor-driven buses in 1922. Buses' appearance and functionality changed over time to improve passenger comfort and convenience as they became a common form of transportation in cities. The study also explores the period following independence, when the State Transport Services were founded. The importance of buses in influencing Kolkata's urban development is emphasized by the bus network's growth and the government's involvement in offering organized road transport services. The article also discusses Kolkata's traffic problems in spite of the city's vast road network, highlighting the necessity of effective public transport networks. A significant turning point in the development of urban transport in the city is the nationalization of buses. This article intends to give a thorough overview of how buses contributed significantly to the growth and development of Kolkata, influencing people's daily lives during the post partition era.

This study looks at the shrine complex of Pagla Shah Baghdadi in Padua, Comilla. It aims to define its archaeological identity and place it within the broader history of Sufi practice in Bengal. While previous research has focused on silsila-based khānqāhs and institutional centers, this paper explores shrines tied to majdūb or "pagla" saints. These saints draw their significance from personal charisma rather than formal lineage. Fieldwork included a non-invasive survey. This involved recording architecture, measuring dimensions, mapping the area, taking photographs, and conducting oral-history interviews with custodians and devotees. The archaeological evidence, including brick sizes, grave designs, and site layout, suggests construction in the seventeenth or eighteenth century. However, oral traditions suggest that the shrine's history goes back further and highlight the saint's unusual behavior and noted miracles. The simple design of the mosque, the scattered ponds, and the absence of institutional facilities distinguish this complex from established khānqāhs. This reinforces its connection to individual sainthood. By combining material and oral evidence, the study shows that the shrine of Pagla Shah Baghdadi represents an individual-focused form of Sufi practice. It illustrates how the following of a majdūb saint can create and maintain a lasting sacred space outside formal institutions. More broadly, the case enriches our understanding of the diversity of Sufi traditions in Bengal. It also emphasizes the importance of archaeological methods that combine material patterns with local memory when studying everyday religious practices.

Persian's presence is primarily maintained through academic efforts within Bangladeshi universities. The language, literature, history, and civilisation of Persian are actively studied, translated, and promoted by Bangladeshi academic institutions. As a result, Persian has experienced significant progress in Bangladesh. In this article, I will discuss the "Development of Persian Language and Literature in Independent Bangladesh.

The history of 20th-century South Asia seems to contest the idea of South Asia. How can a region consisting of countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan with two violent partitions, four major wars, and several border standoffs constitute a unified region? The Hindu Right takes this question to the extreme by proposing the fundamentally rivalling identities of India and Pakistan, echoing the Two-Nation theory. Joya Chatterji seeks to tackle these claims in her heterodox work by unveiling the histories of the parallels between India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Her central argument is that India and Pakistan are not fundamentally incompatible. On the contrary, they have more points of cooperation than conflict. She traces the historical continuities through themes such as migration, household structures and food habits, allowing her to lift South Asia's 'Iron Curtain' (Introduction). The book is an unconventional historical inquiry with occasional autobiographical anecdotes and breezy, conversational prose, making it available to readership across disciplines of history, political theory and literature.

This paper explores the diverse architectural styles of temple construction in Bengal from the 9th to the 19th centuries. Through a detailed examination of structural variations and decorations, the study highlights how the intermingling of Hindu, Islamic, and later European influences shaped the distinctive temple architecture in this region. The research uses architectural analysis and historical texts to identify key styles, such as the 'do-chala' and 'char-chala' huts, alongside the more ornate 'Ratna' and 'naba-ratna' structures. These styles reflect the religious and cultural synthesis and the geographical and material constraints influencing temple architecture in Bengal. The findings underscore the role of Gaudiya Vaishnavism and regional patronage in fostering a unique architectural heritage characterized by its terracotta embellishments and innovative structural forms. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of South Asian architectural diversity and its socio-religious contexts, offering insights into the region's broader patterns of cultural interchange.

Continuous discoveries of primary sources have been characterising epigraphic researches in Bengal for nearly last five decades. The present work is based on yet another notice of a broken but mostly unspoilt copperplate preserved in a private collection in Kolkata dated in the reign of the tenth-century Pāla king Rājyapāla, son and successor of Nārāyaṇapāla. The only published copperplate of this king, preserved
in the Bharat Kala Bhavan of the Banaras Hindu University, records grant of land in southern Bihar. All the image inscriptions dated in the reign of this king come from south Bihar; only one stone inscription of his reign hails from Bhaturia in northwestern Bangladesh. The present inscription is thus the first land transfer record dated in the reign of Rājyapāla from Bengal, carrying interesting details of land-based transactions under two viṣayas of the Puṇḍravardhana bhukti. This note is not aimed at presenting a critical edition of this copperplate. It briefly underscores the importance of this hitherto unpublished document in understanding vicissitudes of Pāla history in Bengal in the tenth century.

Since the British rule there has been somewhat harmonious coexistence of English and Bangla, the state language, in Bangladesh, which is a monolingual country. Here substantial command over English is considered as a linguistic passport to the arena of globalization and competitive white-collar job market, especially the non-government ones. The booming of multinational companies along with the private ones in the recent years has acted as a socio economic factor underlying the increasing awareness in learning English. This job related factor has given English language the status of career oriented language with a colonial tinge of aristocracy and high prestige triggering Bangladeshi people to learn English not for mutual communicative purpose but to compete the job market. In Bangladesh English is associated with better white-collar job, which earns a person social prestige. Here, a person's socioprofessional identity can be better understood from the nature of his spoken language. White-collar service holders and professionals, in Bangladesh, are found to mix Bangla and English in their conversation. This article is mainly based on Wardhaugh's (1992:107) definition of conversational codemixing which "involves the deliberate mixing of two languages without an associated topic change.

This paper probes how early Portuguese traders in Bengal introduced new ingredients and food techniques that transitioned the Bengali confectionery. The Portuguese arrived in Bengal in the16th-17th centuries and carried on the subsequent exchange of foods and techniques. In particular, the Portuguese introduction of 'acid-curd cheese-making' led to the creation of chhana, which became the basis for iconic Bengali sweets like roshogolla and sandesh. The transformation of sweets had broad socioeconomic effects: it engendered a large sweetmeat industry, created new artisan castes (moiras), and influenced dietary customs. The paper compares Bengal's experience with other Portuguese-influenced regions (such as Goa and Macau), where fusion took different forms (e.g., meat curries, breads, egg tarts) and finally discusses the cultural implications: how Bengali sweets became markers of identity and social change.

This research examines the historical tapestry of the Bengal region's charitable campaign for Ottoman soldiers and refugees during the Balkan and Tripoli Wars (1911-1913). The study meticulously explores how money flow occurred through various factors, such as banks, individuals, and the Ottman Red Crescent Society, highlighting these transactions' complex and diverse nature. This topic is significant as it sheds light on a lesser-known aspect of history and underscores the enduring relevance of archival and historical research.

This study investigates the challenges and prospects of learning four skills of language in English-listening, speaking, reading, and writing, related to communication, at the Higher Secondary Level in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. It attempts to explore the significance of communication skills to achieve communicative competence to have a good command of English. The research also aims to identify the challenges that the students face while learning English language skills both inside and outside the classroom and explore the potential of their skills development. It highlights the current practices of these skills as well as the teachers' effectiveness in applying them and motivating the students to acquire them successfully. It is a quantitative study where a questionnaire survey method is utilized to collect data from a sample of 200 second-year students from 8 different institutions of the Higher Secondary Level in Mymensingh. The findings reveal that students encounter various challenges in terms of learning English, including inadequate language proficiency, lack of motivation, and insufficient exposure to authentic English communication. However, the study also identifies some prospects for improving English language skills, such as providing more opportunities for communication practice, using modern technology, and creating a supportive learning environment. In the concluding section, the paper includes some comments and suggestions that can be taken into account as potential remedies for the challenges in line with the findings. The study recommends that policymakers and educators should take steps to address the challenges and capitalize on the prospects of improving the English communication skills among the students of the Higher Secondary Level in Mymensingh.

In the context of recent debates and focus upon the Anthropocene, Deltaic ecology, climate change, and geopolitics, this paper has attempted to unsettle the established and popular narratives on climate change, geopolitics, and fascism in reference to Bangladesh. Taking recourse to various thinkers, from a transdisciplinary perspective, the normalized notions of human and non-human separation with regard to fascism and geopolitics have been questioned, and it has been proposed that without a radical rethinking of the space categorized as 'the Bengal Delta' as a living entity comprising multiple microcosmic living and sentient entities, it is not possible to grasp the increasingly destructive entanglement of subjective and objective conditions. The idea and practice of fascism can be extended beyond the domain of the nation-state and externalist agents, and the authoritarian, totalitarian, and extractive anthropocentric worldview of the earth, and the delta is as fascist as the human-centric management and mitigation policies pertaining to the water and land in the Bengal Delta.

A History of Bangladesh is an updated, revised and expanded version of the single most useful historical study that we have to explain the complex changing environmental, political, cultural, social and economic conditions that shape everyday experience and future possibilities for the people of Bangladesh.' David Ludden, New York University 'Mindful of the silences and occlusions built into telling national stories, the author brings a fresh, global perspective to bear on enduring nationalist questions. Most signifi cantly, this second edition takes on topics usually relegated to the margins, if addressed at all, in standard histories. Questions of gender, kinship and sexuality are woven skilfully into the body of the text rather than added on in a token gesture. This alone makes it an exceptional -and exemplary -resource for the study of Bangladesh.'

This article locates Jayadeva's Gītagovinda within the context of the courtly poetry emanating from the royal court of Lakṣmaṇa Sena, the great Vaiṣṇava king of early medieval Bengal, while identifying Jayadeva's poetry as the fountainhead of the Radha idea which is the landmark characteristic of Bengal's Vaiṣṇavism.

The potential role of microhistory in rescuing the lost remnants of past from oblivion is emphasized in this brief article, and the significance of a microhistorical perspectives for the historigraphy of the Bengali people is discussed with some of the references to the recent and relevant scholarship.

Anyone who knows Bengal will be familiar with the world of bhuts (ghosts) and sankchunnis (spirits of married women). Tithi Bhattacharya uses this entry point to make an important intervention in the social history of India. Focusing on Bengal, she sheds light upon how colonialism intersected with the worlds of Indians and their ghosts. Bringing ghosts back to the heart of Bengali modernity, Bhattacharya argues that examining death provides a new method of interpreting the emergence of Indian nationalism. Drawing upon a variety of Bengali and English language sources, she argues that "a new imaginary of death was necessitated by a new regime of labor and capital" (157). Bhattacharya puts capitalism front and center in a process whereby upper-caste elites vanquished older ghosts and refashioned an emergent Indian nation along Hindu lines. Chapter 1 begins by investigating pre-colonial ghosts in Bengali cultural lives. Sharing physical and emotional spaces, ghost-human relations cut across class and caste lines. The bhadralok ("respectable folk") Rajendralal Mitra and the poor fisherman (with canny abilities to trap bhuts in urns) could not have been socially farther apart. But for both, the ghostly world was part of their spiritual and social fabrics. Traditional Bengali ghosts were social beings, engendering ecumenical participation: both Hindus and Muslims warded off evil spirits, invoking Krishna and Allah. Importantly, stories of the poor and lower castes provided the "narrative bridge" which allowed these old ghosts to continue (albeit transformed) in a modern urban, bhadralok social milieu. Chapter 2 puts the bhadralok front and center, examining the emergence of new types of spirits that emerged during the nineteenth century. In fashioning their more modern rationalism, the bhadralok delineated the village ghosts of the peasantry along caste hierarchies and sensibilities ("lowly bhuts"). Bhattacharya shows how the bhadralok-greatly influenced by an emergent Scientific Spiritualism-maintained a tradition of "higher" saintly discourse that distinguished them from the lower classes. Shishir Kumar Ghose regularly organized s� eances, but these represented a "scientific" (and firmly bhadralok) way of communicating with the dead. The delineation between older, "lower" spirits and the pabitra (holy ghosts)

This chapter intervenes in the study of colonial nationalism and anti-caste movements in late nineteenth-century Bengal. It juxtaposes two perspectives: first, a critique of dominant postcolonial theories that reduce caste to a product of colonial subject-formation; and second, an exploration of Matua declarations of social justice, rooted in the lived experiences and religious practices of their devotees. Together, these vantage points illuminate the limits of colonial and postcolonial frameworks, while foregrounding Dalit articulations of dignity and equality.

This research presents a comprehensive analytical study of Mughal architecture in Dhaka, the capital of Bengal, focusing on its architectural characteristics, stylistic features, functional aspects, and socio-cultural significance within the wider framework of Mughal India and South Asia. During the Mughal period, Dhaka emerged as a major political, administrative, economic, and cultural hub, which led to the construction of numerous mosques, forts, caravanserais, civic structures, and residential complexes. These architectural monuments reflect a distinctive synthesis of Indo-Islamic architectural traditions, local craftsmanship, and urban planning strategies, while also accommodating climatic, social, and functional requirements. Through systematic fieldwork, this study documents and analyzes key Mughal-era sites,

This study presents an archaeological fieldwork exploration of the Sonargaon region, a historically significant area that served as the first independent Muslim sultanate capital of Bengal, established by Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah in 1338 CE. Sonargaon attained its peak prominence during the fourteenth century under successive rulers, including Sultan Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, Sikandar Shah, and Giyasuddin Azam Shah, and later as the capital of Isa Khan’s Bhati kingdom. The present fieldwork focused on documenting the region’s architectural heritage, encompassing medieval religious institutions, Mughal-era structures, British-period residential buildings, and the city’s defensive water features. Notable monuments surveyed include Khasnagar Dighi, the Company Kuthi (Neel Kuthi), mausoleums, mosques such as Goaldi Mosque (1519) and Abdul Hamid Mosque (1433–36), dargahs, monastic complexes, and historic residences in Panam Nagar and Isapur. The investigation highlights the evolution of urban and architectural development in Sonargaon, revealing the interplay of Sultanate, Mughal, and colonial influences. Despite the lack of preserved Hindu-period urban structures, the study underscores the city’s strategic defensive planning, monumental construction techniques, and stylistic features of religious and residential architecture. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of Sonargaon’s historical significance and provides a foundation for future conservation and archaeological studies in the region.
This fieldwork focused on the colonial architecture of Panam Nagar and the Folk Art Museum of Sonargaon, emphasizing historical archaeological sites from various periods. Particular attention was given to construction techniques, decorative elements, and comparative features of Panam’s colonial architecture. Under the supervision of the Department of Archaeology, Comilla University, the study provided valuable insights into Sultanate-period architecture, tombs, colonial-era structures, zamindar houses, and their historical and structural contexts. We extend our sincere gratitude to Dr. Muhammad Sohrab Uddin, Associate Professor and Head of the Department, for his expert guidance, as well as to all faculty members for their invaluable support throughout the project.

Keywords: Sonargaon, Panam Nagar, colonial architecture, Folk Art Museum, archaeological fieldwork, Sultanate-period architecture, tombs, zamindar houses, historical structures.

Situated in the modern-day Hooghly district on the banks of the Bhagirathi
(Hooghly River), Serampore is widely recognised for its colonial heritage,
especially as a Danish trading outpost and a centre of Christian missionary
activities during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. However,
long before the Danes set foot in 1755 CE, this area had the marks of
a complicated and multi-layered past, shaped by rural Brahmanical
settlements, Vaishnava religious institutions, and Mughal-era political
dynamics. The history of Serampore prior to its formal urbanisation
remains relatively underexplored, often overshadowed by its colonial
narrative.

This paper re-examines the earliest phases of coinage in coastal Bengal with a specific focus on cast copper coins, a category that has received comparatively little scholarly attention. While punch-marked silver coins are widely regarded as the earliest Indian coinage, dating to the sixth century BCE, evidence from nearly thirty archaeological sites in coastal Bengal suggests a significant circulation of cast coins whose chronology remains unclear. Were these issues contemporaneous with punch-marked coins, or do they represent a later development?

To explore these questions, the study undertakes a comparative analysis of eastern Indian sites—including Kauśāmbī, Śrāvastī, Pāṭaliputra, Vaiśālī, Sonepur, and Śiśupālagarh—alongside the Bengal evidence. The paper aims to clarify the chronology, typology, and weight standards of cast copper coins, thereby situating coastal Bengal within the broader monetary history of early India.

The Early-Historic period saw a major shift in coastal Bengal’s monetary economy, marked by the coexistence of punch-marked coins (PMC) and early uninscribed cast copper coins (EUCCC) from the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological and epigraphic evidence, including the Mahāsthān inscription and finds from Chandraketugarh, Dumdum Mound, Tilpi, Harinarayanpur, Tamluk and others, indicates that while silver PMCs supported long-distance trade, EUCCCs, served everyday transactions. Their spread across more than thirty sites, reflects both economic adaptation to a post-Mauryan silver shortage and assertions of regional identity. EUCCCs thus emerge as central monetary system of early coastal Bengal before the arriving of Kushana copper coins, embodying the interplay of commerce, politics, and resource constraints.

The Early-Historic period in Indian history is significant in the course of events. In the last quarter, the Kushāṇas arrived from the north of Hindu-Kush and entered the mainland during the period of Vima-Taktau or Vima-Kadphises but were able to create and expand their empire in the Indian Subcontinent centred on Mathura under the rule of Kanişka I (c. 127-150 CE). According to the Rābātak Inscription of Kanişka I, their last territory in the East was 'Ziri-Thambo' or Śri-Campã (modern Bhagalpur region of Bihar), the capital of Anga. But there are no sherds of evidence according to the Kushāṇas in the coastal Bengal from any literary or inscriptional data except plenty of copper, imitated copper, gold, and imitated gold coins of different Kushāna rulers found in the vast area which raises questions about the position of Kushāṇas in coastal Bengal. Significantly, if the Kushāṇas did not occupy Bengal, then why were various types of coins prevalent in the coastal regions? Did the presence of an international port like Tamralipta lead to the arrival of coins in this region? In the present paper, an attempt will be made to find the solution to the 'Kushāna Question' and analyze these issues through the sources we find in this vast region.

The process of abandonment is intricate. Abandonment occurs in several locations throughout the world. There are several reasons why a brick structure or piece of construction might no longer have any owners or users. A range of problems, mostly a confluence of social, economic, or environmental variables, are the underlying causes of abandonment. What occurs when individuals depart or abandon a location? The term abandonment implies disuse and an end to claims of ownership or interest. Abandonment can be intentional or accidental, abrupt or gradual, short-term. long-term, or permanent. A building, an activity area, a region, or a settlement may all experience abandonment. A structure or settlement that has been abandoned may be kept for storage, left to deteriorate or destroyed, or rebuilt and reoccupied. The archaeological record and its interpretation could be affected differently by any of these factors. The Lalmai-Mainamati region contains Buddhist cultural sites that date to between the seventh and thirteenth centuries AD. These sites were discovered in an abandoned state and archaeologists later excavated them to learn more about their political and cultural histories using the artifacts they found there. The process by which these sites were abandoned, however, remains unknown. In the context of the Lalmai-Mainamati Archaeological Region, a study of Buddhist site abandonment and other environmental issues will be presented in this article.

This article explores the Baul tradition, a unique spiritual and musical movement rooted in Bengal, through the lens of its emblematic instrument—the Ektara. It delves into the philosophical and cultural significance of Baul practices, which transcend religious orthodoxy and emphasize love, humanity, and inner realization. The Ektara, with its single string and profound resonance, serves not only as a musical instrument but also as a symbol of unity, simplicity, and the Bauls’ minimalistic lifestyle. Tracing the historical lineage, performative expressions, and metaphysical dimensions of the Baul-Ektara relationship, the article underscores how this folk tradition challenges rigid socio-religious boundaries and offers a living testament to India’s intangible cultural heritage. By situating Baul songs and performances within broader contexts of oral literature and devotional mysticism, the study reaffirms the enduring power of indigenous musical traditions to inspire resistance, introspection, and transcendence.

This research investigates the trade connections between Bengal and the Ottoman Empire from the 16th to the 18th centuries. It examines how British companies, Armenian traders, and Turkish merchants utilized a range of inland and maritime routes to facilitate the flow of goods from Bengal to Ottoman territories. Initially, the British-Armenian traders, recognized for their extensive networks in Bengal, served as primary intermediaries. At the same time, Turkish merchants played a crucial role in transporting commodities such as silk, indigo, and textiles. Moreover, the study highlights the strategic significance of the Jeddah port in linking Bengal to Istanbul, thereby bolstering the Ottoman economy. Additionally, it highlights the profound economic impact on the Ottoman Empire, including the influx of luxury goods and the introduction of new trade practices, demonstrating how Bengal's trade played a crucial role in shaping the Ottoman economic framework. This research analyses historical records and secondary sources, providing a detailed account of the Bengal-Ottoman trade relationship within early modern global trade networks.

The numismatic legacy of Giyāth al-Dīn Bahādur Shah, who ruled Bengal from 720 H to 724 H, offers critical insights into the region's turbulent political landscape. Although no coins solely in Bahādur Shah's name are dated 728 H, a select group of coins from 727 H suggests a brief assertion of sovereignty, challenging imperial authority. These rare issues serve as tangible evidence of Bengal's contested autonomy during the early fourteenth century and offer valuable material for understanding the region's complex numismatic and political history.

The decline of a sovereign power originates the emersion of the provincial rulers who were subjugated under him. They intend to grab the central power. Gradually, among them one can able to acquire the entire authority under his own possession and became the supreme ruler. The inscriptions are the most reliable sources to know about the social condition under these rulers, mainly the administrative, political, socioe-eonomic, socio-political, cultural as well as the religious picture of the contemporary period. Among these rulers most of them were issued the land grant charters which are the most valuable sources to get a clear idea about whole structure in their realm. It also reflects the changes in the various part of the society, mainly in the administration, land transaction procedure etc, under the supremacy of the contemporary rulers one after another. After the collapse of the Gupta emperor various independent ruler emerged from various part of undivided Bengal and ruled for a long time, issued a number of land grant charters and more or less, they were able to established their successful impression in the administrative system of Bengal (undivided) during their tenure.

The decline of a sovereign power originates the emersion of the provincial rulers who were subjugated under him. They intend to grab the central power. Gradually, among them one can able to acquire the entire authority under his own possession and became the supreme ruler. The inscriptions are the most reliable sources to know about the social condition under these rulers, mainly the administrative, political, socioe-eonomic, socio-political, cultural as well as the religious picture of the contemporary period. Among these rulers most of them were issued the land grant charters which are the most valuable sources to get a clear idea about whole structure in their realm. It also reflects the changes in the various part of the society, mainly in the administration, land transaction procedure etc, under the supremacy of the contemporary rulers one after another. After the collapse of the Gupta emperor various independent ruler emerged from various part of undivided Bengal and ruled for a long time, issued a number of land grant charters and more or less, they were able to established their successful impression in the administrative system of Bengal (undivided) during their tenure.

Amborkhana Dargah mosque in Sylhet, Bangladesh is a historic architectural monument which reflects the glorious past of Islam through its beautiful architectural quality. This volume examines the architectural aspects of the mosque, exploring its history in a chronological framework and charting its development to the present with contemporary drawings and photographs by British troops. The architectural aspects of the mosque, its section and leveling are being investigated and also the description is made about the section of the mosque. In this, the civilization and the foliage density around the dargah were observed. Contemporary photography documents the current state of the mosque and its continued religious and cultural significance. The research combines history and context with today's heritage challenges and may serve as a paradigm to help lead the way to heritage awareness and saving the architectural character of the traditional urban village of Sylhet. This study provides an evidence-based perspective, by paying equal attention to sustainable heritage management and the importance of history and community in a city that is rapidly urbanized.

Published by Primus Books lasertypeset by sai graphic design arakashan road, Paharganj, New delhi 110 055 Printed and bound in india by replika Press Pvt. ltd. this book is meant for educational and learning purposes. the author(s) of the book has/have taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. in the event the author(s) has/have been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action.

The early medieval inscriptions of Bengal reflect certain manifestations of science such as aspects of land assessment, usage of numeric symbols and variety in symbolic representation of script. Since the inscriptions related to the documents of land grant have been initiated during the post-Gupta period in Bengal, hence it can be concluded that these scientific tendencies had developed from that period onwards.  Here, we will try to focus on the inscriptions of some late Gupta and early post Gupta period and the inscriptions of Gopacandra, Dharmāditya , Samācāradeva and Śaśānka. Since, there was a dearth of literary material in Bengal at that time, these inscriptions are the main source for the understanding of the application of scientific and technical knowledge during that period.
Based on the amount of crop plantation on a plot, the measurement of the land was inferred and accordingly the price of land was determined. For example, the size of harvested land for one kulya was made in such a way that its reference can be recorded in the inscriptions. Accordingly there was a certain standard of land value. This land assessment process led to the development of an organized agricultural science. Different script symbols are found here against a letter. Various numeric symbols are available against the numbers which varied from inscription to inscription. These features of scientific aspect had thus flourished in Bengal from the 4th-5th century, which provides an insight of knowledge through the inscriptions prevalent in that era.

रत्नपात्रं सस्यपात्रं पात्रमोषधि संयुतम ।
पद्मं करे च कर्त्तव्यं भुवो यादवनन्दन ।।

जो रत्न पात्र, शस्य पात्र एवं औषधि पात्र से संयुत है । हे यादवनन्दन ऐसी (भूदेवी) के कर में पदम् और कर्त्तव्य को सुशोभित किया गया है।

Bhudevi is the primeval Goddess not only mentioned - as in the verse from Vishnu Dharmottar  Purana; 3; 61; 2 … ‘in the hands of (Bhu) the Earth a jewelled- vessel, a corn vessel and a vessel full of medicinal plant and a lotus should be made’  She is the Goddess of Fertility, maternal sustenance. The most ancient goddess who was imagined and worshiped for multiple aspects of Earths abundance and power (Mara invokes her) and her portrayal is therefore multifaceted. In this article the evidence of the glorious Bhudevi even under the lotus feet of Vishnu being shown with lotus and vases, varada and abhaya, Naga attendants, herself having multi hooded Naga over her head, many makara riding attendants with vases, from Khajuraho has been traced back from over a millennium  before  and has been  tried to be shown in her context. She was the ADI DEVI worshipped by the ancient folks under  diverse imagery  including the elephant lustrated goddess adopted by Buddhists and Jainas from at the least 2nd century BCE . Herein it is stressed that her Gajaabhishikta Devi imagery was assimilated by the Brahmanical religion some 600 years later, sometime when Lakshmi had been accepted as coming out of the Samudramanthan episode and depicted in the Gupta period. A lintel from Khajuraho clearly shows Bhudevi eminently seated over a tortoise on the elephants of the four quadrants with vase and flower witnessing the Samudramanthan. Before (Gaj)Lakshmi came into vogue (Gaj)Bhudevi was worshipped from many centuries earlier.

With the establishment of British East India Company rule, the Bengal Presidency was formed, which covered present-day Bangladesh, the Indian states of West Bengal, some parts of Orissa, and Bihar. However, the area of Bengal as an administrative entity has been changed during the colonial and postcolonial eras. It was located on the gateway of the Bay of Bengal, which facilitated maritime connectivity and the mobility of peoples, goods, and ideas across the world. However, the identities of diverse migrants from different parts of South Asia were generally categorized as "Indian" in the colonial records. Such generalizations often hide the identity of speci c migrating groups from South Asia, particularly the Bengalis. The rich literature on Bengali migration relates to sending laborers, remittance, and policy issues from economic and sociological perspectives. However, the Bengali migration worldwide, mainly in the UK, the USA, North America, and Australia, has a long pedigree. This chapter attempts to compile the Bengali migration globally during the modern era. It will thus focus on several interrelated issues. First, it will deal with the umbrella term "Indians. " Secondly, it will illustrate the history of Bengali migration outside Bengal. This chapter will provide a clear picture of the connectivity between Bengal and other parts of the world and the Bengali historical migration using archival and non-archival sources. Thus, it will signi cantly contribute to the growing eld of mobility studies and connected histories in the Global South.