Gestalt Theory

La presente investigación explora cómo la música, más allá de ser una expresión artística, puede convertirse en una herramienta pedagógica poderosa para el desarrollo integral de los estudiantes. A través de un proyecto de intervención en una telesecundaria, se buscó demostrar que el pensamiento musical no solo impulsa aprendizajes académicos, sino que también fortalece la autoestima y el autoconocimiento de los alumnos. El estudio se apoya en marcos legales y curriculares vigentes en México, así como en la reflexión sobre los desafíos que dejó la pandemia en la educación. Los resultados evidencian que integrar la música en el aula genera un ambiente más positivo, estimula la creatividad y permite a los estudiantes reconocerse y valorarse a sí mismos. Se concluye que la educación musical, aplicada de manera consciente, es un medio efectivo para formar jóvenes con mayor confianza personal y sensibilidad social.


This research explores how music, beyond being an artistic expression, can become a powerful pedagogical tool for the integral development of students. Through an intervention project in a telesecundaria, the study aimed to demonstrate that musical thinking not only enhances academic learning but also strengthens students’ self-esteem and self-awareness. The work is grounded in the current legal and curricular frameworks in Mexico, as well as in reflections on the challenges left by the pandemic in education. The results show that integrating music into the classroom creates a more positive environment, stimulates creativity, and allows students to recognize and value themselves. It is concluded that music education, when applied consciously, is an effective means to form young people with greater self-confidence and social sensitivity.

Summary This article stages a confrontation between latent nominalist attitudes about inherent expression in perception—physiognomy—and new affective modes. In a classic analysis, Gombrich warned of the lack of veridicality of physiognomic perception, a sentiment endorsed by postmodern theories. At the same time, affect theory affirms a level of directly available intensities. Using the example of Rudolf Arnheim, it can be seen that the two are really specular opposites of each other, each merely valorizing different poles of the affect-cognition scale. Arnheim’s Gestalt theory shows how immediate percepts can have a generic structure, which is differentiated with further acquaintance. Arnheim, however, shows how perception can never account for all the power of expressive seeing. Perception and cognition is always embedded in a social matrix. Using an example of racist antisemitic propaganda used by Gombrich, the political implications of Arnheim’s position are demonstrated.

With the rise of colonialism, from the 15 th century on Europeans entered into contact with other continents, foreign cultures and languages. By and by, linguists came to realise, first, that not all languages are related, and that for some of them the categories of Latin cannot be applied; second, that most European languages are similar not only because of universalist principles of grammar but, simply, because they are related. The Danish linguist Rasmus Rask (1787-1832) and the german August Schleicher were among the first to establish language relatedness based on methods of comparative analysis. Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) described in detail a consonant shift, known as Grimm's Law. Grimm's Law states that a chain of consonant changes took place from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic in the first millennium BC, which accounts for regular phonetic contrasts between otherwise related words in germanic and other Indo-European languages -cf: frère à brother, dent à tooth, etc. A. Schleicher introduced the model of a common language family tree. Most European languages belong to language families which evolved from a common proto-language -Proto-Indo-European (PIE). PIE is a theoretical construct, a reconstruction based on the comparison of related languages and language subgroups. It was spoken during the Neolithic age, from around 4500 Bc to around 2500 Bc. The comparative method of analysis demonstrating genealogical relatedness is considered to be the most outstanding achievement of 19th century linguistics. Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, "to share") is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signals (a common "code"). The sender conveys information to the receiver through a "communication channel": To make sure that the message reaches its recipient successfully, the form of encoding should be appropriately chosen so as to overcome potential barriers. Communication is not specific to human language: it is part of the life of all biological organisms. One way or another, all living creatures communicate. E. O. Wilson 1 defines biological communication as "Actions on the part of one organism that alter the probability pattern of behavior in another organism in an adaptive fashion". The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile and haptic, olfactory, electromagnetic, or biochemical. Some species make use of a number of channels. Elephants, for instance, communicate with every sense they have: touch, taste, smell, vision and hearing. * Spiders, like plants, have mainly chemical communication but can also communicate with visual and acoustic (vibratory) signals. In the photograph below, you can see a jumping spider displaying rich colour and ornamentation during the courtship period. Insects (arthropods) communicate using sounds -cf. the chirping of crickets or the buzzing of cicadas. 2 Edward Vajda. Retrieved from: . htm There are two major hypotheses about the emergence of human language. According to creationists, a superior species or a deity created men and gave them language. creationists assert that there is a qualitative difference between the cognitive, mental and language capacities of men and other species -a gap that evolution cannot account for.

Summary We report an effect of anomalous transparency that is similar to other phantom effects. In an experiment aimed at testing the combined role of (i) motion of the occluding surface and (ii) lightness contrast and polarity on the perception of anomalous transparency, we found that transparency is perceived only with low contrast, and enhanced when the occluding surface is moving. A tentative explanation is suggested, based on simultaneous lightness contrast as a segregation factor and on motion as an integration factor, and discussed in light of previous studies conducted in the theoretical framework of Gestalt theories in perception.

Since its beginnings, the history of AI has been accompanied by two rival paradigms, cybernetics and Gestalt theory, which dominate the discourse of machine learning to this day. The author first reconstructs these two perspectives on AI, but does not choose one over the other. Instead, he asks whether the two poles of the debate still do justice to the real possibilities of AI. Perhaps AI hallucinations are the decisive impetus for thinking about the relationship between machines and human perception. The analogy between what the "hallucinating machines" do and what the Surrealists did opens up a new perspective on AI. In moments of rational breakdown, the Surrealists discovered paths of unexpected creativity. Hallucinations, errors, and confusion enabled them to transcend logic and convention...

This study examines how phenomenological philosophy expands the space-human relationship based on experience in cultural, social and psychological contexts through architecture and modern art works. The aim of the study is to evaluate the effect of phenomenological perspective on conceptual art and architecture by analyzing Marcel Duchamp's works that redefine the space-human dialectic with architectural components such as windows and doors; transforming the perception of space and objects. Perception and phenomenology of space are discussed within the scope of the theories of different thinkers in the context of 20th century space conceptualizations. The sample of the study, whose conceptual structure is developed based on the qualitative research method, consists of four works of Duchamp associated with architecture. The presence of perception theories such as Empiricism, Rationalism, Nativism and Gestalt in Duchamp's works is questioned on the basis of the phenomenological approach. As a result, it has been determined that Duchamp's architecture-related and experience-oriented works present indicators that can be explained especially by Empiricist and Gestalt theories within perception theories. In a general evaluation, it can be said that Duchamp prepared the ground for the phenomenological interpretation of architectural space with his avant-garde space studies.

Aesthetic literacy and well-being within the context of poetic outputs presuppose that there may be new ways of epistemic construction or knowledge-building facilitated by and compatible with various transcendental phenomena which are specific to poetic manifestations of artistic authenticity and an array of varieties of other trans-personal experiences. Within this context, poetry emerges as a meta epistemic means of experiencing wisdom, spiritual-aesthetic wellbeing, imagination and insight associated with supra-rationally defined transcendental knowledge layers based on metacognition and related with artistic or aesthetic literacy intrinsically defined by nonlinear cognitive experiences, idiosyncratically experienced subjective observations in stark contrast to the world of realities based on mere experimentation and evidence, the world of visions, a multitude of objective phenomena related with and attainable by positivist cognitive experiences, deterministic materialist paradig...

O programa parcial aqui oferecido corresponde à primeira metade do curso de Teoria do Conhecimento e Metafísica do semestre letivo de 2025.2, cuja segunda metade será ministrada pelo Prof. Dr. Abel Lassalle Casanave.

A primeira metade desta disciplina consistirá em uma apresentação sistemática da Mereologia ou Doutrina de Partes e Todos desenvolvida por Edmund Husserl na Terceira Investigação Lógica, conforme redação da primeira edição. O percurso de análise previsto consiste em: (i) mostrar os débitos dessa teoria de Husserl para com outros representantes ilustres da Escola de Brentano — mais notadamente Stumpf, mas também Ehrenfels e Meinong; (ii) examinar o arcabouço conceitual trabalhado por Husserl em sua teoria própria — e.g. as noções de ‘parte’, ‘todo’, ‘dependência’, ‘independência’, ‘pedaço’, ‘momento’, ‘fusão’, ‘fundação’, ‘concreto’, ‘abstrato’, ‘agregado’, ‘a priori material’ e ‘formal’, entre outros.

Ao cabo deste estudo, serão feitas reflexões gerais sobre a relevância da Mereologia para o projeto fenomenológico de Husserl em seus outros interesses de pesquisa.

I was very impressed with Eric Livingston's rejoinder to Mike Lynch on the current state of ethnomethodology. He still has a lot of explaining to do with regard to studies of science (not least mathematics!) but he definitely hits the nail on the head re. unique adequacy

Türkçeye yapısöküm, yapıbozum diye de çev rilen dekonstrüktivist kuramının öncüsü olan Derrida'nın "différance" kavramı üzerinden Mevlana örneğinde tasavvufi şiirin gerçeği anlatmada niçin başka bir lisan tekellüm etmeye çalıştığı ile ilgili bağlantı kurmaya çalıştığımız bu yazımız, Derrida'nın "dilin "gerçek"i ifade etmede, mutasavvıfların ise "hakikat"i yani mistik-metafizik gerçekliği ifade etmede yetersiz olduğu iddiasında olmaları üzerinedir. Burada dikkat edilmesi gereken nokta "hakikat" ve "gerçek" kavramları birbirinden hayli farklı anlamlarda kullanılsa da hiçbir metnin ya da sözün mutlak ve kesin bir anlamının, "dil" denilen göstergeler sistemi içinde ifade edilemeyeceğidir. Derrida bunu "différance" yani anlamın hep ertelenmesi ve askıya alınması olarak tanımlarken, Mevlana örneğinde sufi şairler ise "dil"in aczine vurgu yaparak hakikatin asla "dil"e getirilemeyeceğini ileri sürerek"sükût"u öne çıkarmışlardır. Bu anlamda "dil" üst başlığında söz ve yazının kaypak doğası kesin bir anlam içermekten uzaktır. Dolayısıyla ne dünyevi gerçekliği ne de mistik hakikati dile getirmede güvenilir bir araçtır.

La riflessione filosofica contemporanea sulla coscienza oscilla tra due poli: da un lato il riduzionismo neuro-materialista, che la concepisce come epifenomeno dell'attività cerebrale; dall'altro il panpsichismo e le sue varianti cosmopsichiste, che postulano la coscienza come proprietà pervasiva della materia o del cosmo. Il sineuralismo, qui esposto nella sua forma protoeuretica, intende superare questa dicotomia proponendo una concezione unitaria e sinechistica della coscienza, concepita come campo energetico diffuso, intercettabile da strutture capaci di agire come reti di cattura e modulazione.

La riflessione filosofica contemporanea sulla coscienza oscilla tra due poli: da un lato il riduzionismo neuro-materialista, che la concepisce come epifenomeno dell'attività cerebrale; dall'altro il panpsichismo e le sue varianti cosmopsichiste, che postulano la coscienza come proprietà pervasiva della materia o del cosmo. Il sineuralismo, qui esposto nella sua forma protoeuretica, intende superare questa dicotomia proponendo una concezione unitaria e sinechistica della coscienza, concepita come campo energetico diffuso, intercettabile da strutture capaci di agire come reti di cattura e modulazione.

Qual è la definizione di pensiero critico? Un'ottima domanda. Inizierei con una prospettiva più ampia. Che cos'è propriamente il "pensare"? È un'attività della nostra mente che fluisce in due modi distinti. In parte, scorre in maniera "incontrollata", come quando ci abbandoniamo al flusso della coscienza. In parte, invece, è un processo "controllato", finalizzato a un obiettivo, come ad esempio la risoluzione di un problema.

Gemäß des Konstruktivismus sind wir die Konstrukteure unserer eigenen Welt und nicht durch eine externe Realität determiniert. Seine am meisten konsistente Formulierung, der Radikalen Konstruktivismus (RK), behauptet, dass wir unsere Erfahrung nicht transzendieren können. Deshalb macht es wenig Sinn zu sagen, dass sich unsere Konstruktionen den Strukturen einer externen Realität annähern. Was sind die Konsequenzen einer derartigen Sichtweise? Können wir sie benutzen, um kognitive Artefakte zu bauen -eine Möglichkeit, der Freizügigkeit philosophischer Spekulationen über Wahrheit und Wirklichkeit zu entrinnen? Der vorliegende Beitrag soll die Grundzüge des RK darstellen, sofern dies bei seiner Heterogenität möglich ist. Fragen werden behandelt wie etwa: Sind unsere Konstruktionen arbiträr? Wie können wir miteinander reden, wenn unsere Kognition organisationell abgeschlossen ist, wie es der RK behauptet? Und schließlich die für mich interessanteste Frage: Wer macht wirklich die Konstruktionen? Zeichnet dafür eine Seele verantwortlich?

Zusammenfassung Die Berücksichtigung des psy-
chischen Strukturniveaus in der humanistischen Psy-
chotherapie gewinnt in den letzten Jahren immer
mehr an Bedeutung. In diesem Artikel beleuchten
wir die Bedeutung der psychischen Struktur und Per-
sönlichkeitsdiagnostik nach der Operationalisierten
Psychodynamischen Diagnostik. Aus Sicht von fünf
humanistischen Schulen (Integrative Gestalttherapie,
Integrative Therapie, Existenzanalyse und Logothera-
pie, Personzentrierte Psychotherapie, Psychodrama)
diskutieren wir die Einbettung der Strukturniveaus
in die jeweiligen Persönlichkeitstheorien. Gemein-
samkeiten ihrer theoretischen Fundierungen legen
nahe, dass die Strukturdiagnostik als Orientierungs-
system für die Persönlichkeitsdiagnostik herangezogen werden kann, da sie vergangene und aktuelle
(Beziehungs-)Erfahrungen phänomenologisch erfasst
und dadurch die Selbstentwicklung der Person her-
meneutisch verstehbar macht. Die Strukturachse trägt
dazu bei, das Beziehungsgeschehen systematisch zu
erfassen und kann daher als diagnostisches Instru-
ment in der Arbeit und Forschung der humanistischen
Psychotherapien eingesetzt werden.

Buddhist stupa reliefs, with their specific placement in architectural space, create unique conditions for their viewing. They were attached to religious monuments (stupas) and were looked at during the ritual of circumambulation. This article examines how various strategies of image composition were used to optimize the readability of narrative images and enable the perception of a chronological flow. As a close examination of the pictorial structure shows, the strategies set out in Gestalt theory are also applied in images that were viewed under circumstances contrary to Western habits. The examples discussed, showing scenes from the life of the Buddha, were subject to different conditions of viewing and a different art-historical background but followed the same perceptual-psychological imprint.

In the history of science, there are individuals who have had a decisive influence on its development by connecting different directions and thus pointing out perspectives for development, and sometimes even working toward the institutionalization of scientific paradigms. In the history of Gestalt theory, Jürgen Kriz is undoubtedly one such important figure.

The understanding of sexuality (and sex therapy) depends very much on whether a more narrowly somatic or more broadly phenomenal perspective is adopted. The presentation transfers the fundamental concern of Critical Realism, namely to take a position on the question of the connection between the soul and the body, to the field of sexuality.
Essential classical terms of Gestalt theory (reference system, centring) and newer concepts (multiple-field approach) are transferred to sexual events. A Gestalt-theoretical perspective on sexuality as a phenomenon isolated from the whole of human life and coexistence is inconceivable: sexuality is therefore also considered in terms of its function in relationship and attachment. This also applies to the relationship between patient and therapist.
The implications of this perspective are discussed in regard to the practical therapeutic approach.

Around 100 years ago, Max Wertheimer’s famous work “Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt II” was published, in which he first presented what has since been widely referred to as the “Gestalt laws” (albeit not always appropriately). What is less well known is that Wertheimer at the same time dictated the fundamental theses on the development and healing of mental disorders to the German psychiatrist Heinrich Schulte for an article that can be regarded as the cornerstone for Gestalt psychological psychopathology. A comparison of the two studies shows that Wertheimer pursued the same far-reaching project in both works, namely, to decipher the “inner structural laws” of Gestalten – in the first work for the area of simple instances of seeing, in the other for the area of community in human life and its role in mental health. This shows that Wertheimer’s project of exploring the “structural laws of Gestalt” had more and something different as its goal than the often-simplified understanding of the “Gestalt laws” in textbooks and on the Internet would suggest.

Summary
Viewing psychotherapy conversations from an epistemic perspective involves analysing how psychotherapist and client manage their knowledge, insufficient knowledge (uncertainty) and lack of knowledge (unknowledge). This article focuses on the use of the epistemic disclaimer “I don’t know”, i.e., a linguistic expressions that speakers employ to indicate uncertainty or unknowledge, in a corpus of psychotherapy sessions. The main aims, both qualitative and quantitative, are to identify the syntactic and pragmatic manifestations of “I don’t know” in the corpus (linguistic analysis), which of them express unknowledge or uncertainty and why (epistemic analisys), how many of them are used by client and psychotherapist respectively. The practical purpose of this study is to give psychotherapists, counselors, clients etc. a few easy criteria for establishing when and why I don’t know communicates uncertainty or unknowledge.

In the years between 1920 and 1926 Husserl dedicated three university courses to the analysis of the passive structuring of experience, therefore to those syntheses among the contents of perception that are constituted before spontaneity and any categorial operation of the subject. The fundamental idea that emerges from the “Analyses Concerning Passive Synthesis” (Analyzen zur Passiven Synthesis) is that of the presence of an internal normativity to the contents of experience which is not actively imposed on the latter by the subject but which shines a priori and in a completely passive way throughout those same contents. The forms found on the level of thought and judgment can already be found – precategorially – on the ground of empirical experience. These therefore need nothing but getting “explicited”, going back genetically from those pre-categorial processes of passive constitution of the perceptive sphere to the higher-order cognitive-categorial operations that are typically found in discursive and scientific thought (categorization, interpretation, production of inferences, predication ecc.). In other words, for Husserl, there is a “logic of experience”, transcendental and pre-reflective, which would act as a starting point for the autonomous structuring of the subject’s cognitive processes and thus, in a broad sense, of his experience of the world. In the present intervention I therefore propose to briefly retrace some of the main theoretical points of these husserlian lectures with the aim of showing, in particular, how the notion of ‘passive genesis’ of experience, as it emerges from those, is essentially compatible with the Gestaltist one of perceptual organization. Similarly to what Husserl claimed, for Gestalt psychologists perception is configured as a mechanism of “dynamic self- distribution” of segmentation processes of the perceptive field that obey precise “factors” or “laws” (Gestalt laws), that are a priori and immanent to the very domain of perceptual experience.

Color from motion describes the perception of subjective color that spreads over physically achromatic regions that are seen in apparent motion. Multiple frames are shown in quick succession, each frame composed of a random placement of differently colored dots on an achromatic background. From frame to frame, the locations of all dots are fixed, whereas the color assignments of dots in the test region change. Subjective color can be measured by color matches to and cancellation by real lights; can be seen with chromaticity differences alone in test and surround dots; and is independent of contour formation. In stereoscopic view, the perception of depth, as well as color and form, can be recovered in tandem with seeing motion. We suggest that in natural scenes, mechanisms triggered by motion may reconstruct the depth, color, and form of partially obscured objects so that they can be seen as if in plain view.

This paper explores the striking philosophical resonance between Gestalt theory and the spiritual
teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, stressing on holistic perception and self-integration. Gestalt philosophy, pioneered by
thinkers such as Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, posits that "the whole is greater than the sum of
its parts"—a foundational principle that highlights the human mind’s tendency to perceive unified patterns rather than
fragmented elements. The paper draws parallels between the Gestalt approach to self-awareness—through recognizing
patterns in cognition, emotion, and behavior—and the Gita's call for an integrated comprehension of duty (dharma),
action (karma), and cosmic order (rta). By examining these two frameworks, the study reveals how both Gestalt
psychology and Vedantic philosophy offer complementary pathways toward personal and spiritual growth through the
cultivation of holistic awareness.

Autoliderazgo femenino e inteligencia gestáltica
Estudio de caso de un grupo de venezolanas migrantes resilientes en Norte y Centroamérica
Resumen
Se presentan resultados de una pesquisa cuyo objetivo fue realizar un estudio fenomenológico hermenéutico del autoliderazgo femenino, visto desde el empoderamiento de siete venezolanas migrantes radicadas en Estados Unidos, México y Costa Rica, nacidas el siglo XX entre los años 30 y 90. En cuanto al horizonte hermenéutico, estas mujeres ejercen
el autoliderazgo desde el uso de la inteligencia gestáltica en contextos sociohistóricos desafiantes. En el abordaje metodológico se utilizó la triangulación de métodos para adaptarse a las especificidades de las versiones de las entrevistadas como unidades de análisis para lograr la comprensión de la acción de la vida humana desde la experiencia de
estas migrantes. Son siete venezolanas que residen en países con condiciones de desarrollo humano que pueden o no apoyar en su base societal a la equidad. Se concluye que, la manera como gestionan las emociones hace la diferencia en la resiliencia y empoderamiento
de estas mujeres sin edadismo.
Palabras clave: mujeres venezolanas migrantes, inteligencia gestáltica, autoliderazgo, equidad, edadismo.
Female self leadership and gestalt intelligence.
Case study of a group of resilient Venezuelan migrant women in North and
Central America
We present the results of a research whose objective is: to carry out a phenomenological hermeneutic study of female self leadership, seen from the empowerment of seven Venezuelan migrant women living in the United States, Mexico and Costa Rica, born in the 20th century between the 1930s and the 1990s. Regarding the hermeneutic horizon, these women exercise self leadership from the use of gestalt intelligence in challenging socio historical contexts.In the methodological approach, the triangulation of methods was used to adapt to the specificities of the versions of the interviewees as units of analysis to achieve an understanding of the action of human life from the experience of these
migrants.It is concluded that the way emotions are managed makes a difference in the resilience and empowerment of these women without ageism.
Key words: Venezuelan migrant women, gestalt intelligence, self leadership, equity, ageism

Dieses Buch setzt sich mit wesentlicehn Ansätzen zur Bedeutung sinnlic-ästhetischer Wahrnehmung und künstlerischer Produktion auseinandern (u. a. Gestaltpsychologie, Psychoanalyse, konstruktivistische und systemische Ansätze, Morphologie). Der Autor zeigt, daß eine konsequente Reflexion aktueller naturwissenschaftlicher Konzepte (u.a. Chaostheorie, Selbstorganisation, Synergetik) zu einer nachhaltigen Umorientierung im Bereich der Psychotherapie führen müßte. Auf dieser Grundlage werden zum einen Berührungspunkte der wissenschaftlichen Fundierung der Integrativen und Morpologischen Musiktherapie herausgearbeitet. Zum anderen werden die allgemeinen Gründe für die Notwendigkeit therapeutischer Arbeit mit den Künsten aufgezeigt, durch die der Diskurs um die Wissenschaftlichkeit kunsttherapeutischer Verfahren durch erkenntnistheoretische Grundlagen bereichert.
Dr. Martin Drewer, geb. 1959, Dipl. Päd., Dipl. Musiktherapeut, Percussionist.

Trained subjects were asked to identify the temporal order of three 2O-msec tones (891, 1,000, and 1,118 Hz), which were immediately followed by a fourth tone. It was found that this added tone, irrelevant to the observer's task, decreased the identifiability of the preceding three-tone pattern, as compared with that of the same pattern in isolation. Such a blanking of the memory of the three-tone sequence was most effective when the frequency of the fourth tone was either identical to that of the first pattern tone or when it lay 1/6-1/3 octave above the highest pattern frequency. The blanking effect was strongest when the duration of the fourth tone was equal to that of the pattern components.

Redaktionelle Vorbemerkung
In den letzten 10 Jahren ist die Po-
pularität der künstlichen Intelligenz
(KI) dank der Entwicklung neuer Ver-
sionen der neuronalen Netze (NN)
- Bilderkennung und große Sprach-
modelle - extrem schnell gewach-
sen. Die Errungenschaften sind real
und decken viele Bereiche der Wirt-
schaft, des Alltags und verschiedener
menschlicher Aktivitäten ab. Der ge-
staltpsychologisch orientierte Autor
ist Atomphysiker, Entwickler eines
der ersten Texterkennungs-Program-
me, Pionier in vielen Bereichen von
Erkennungs-Software und zugleich
ein überaus sachkundiger Kenner
dieser Technologien. Er ist auch ein
aktiver Benutzer von ChatGPT. Der
Zweck seines Artikels ist es, die inhä-
renten Mängel dieses Tools herauszu-
arbeiten, die großen Schaden anrich-
ten können.

Ci sono numerose ragioni per leggere questo libro di Perls, scritto nel 1942, che ho avuto l'onore e il piacere di tradurre in italiano. Perché ha un valore storico, in quanto costituisce il primo testo fondamentale di quella che sarà la Psicoterapia della Gestalt. Da questo libro appare chiaro l'apporto di Perls in qualità di fondatore della Psicoterapia della Gestalt. Perché in esso si possono rintracciare chiaramente le origini storiche e teoriche della Psicoterapia della Gestalt.

intende intervenire sui principali temi della ricerca filosofica contemporanea, senza preclusioni di scuola e di provenienza accademica. La Rivista è liberamente accessibile online all'indirizzo , ha cadenza semestrale e si avvale del lavoro volontario di tutti coloro che la producono. Gli articoli scientifici, pubblicati nelle sezioni La Questione Filosofica e Laboratorio, sono sottoposti ad un processo di revisione tra pari a singolo o a doppio cieco secondo quanto indicato dall'Art. 9 del Regolamento per la classificazione delle riviste di area non bibliometrica. I contributi pubblicati nelle altre sezioni possono non essere sottoposti a revisione secondo quanto indicato dall'Art. 9, comma 5 del medesimo Regolamento, sebbene in alcuni casi il Direttivo si riservi la possibilità di sottoporli a revisione.

Part of the business of argumentation theory involves resolving a conceptual dispute over what argumentation and argument are in the first place. This dispute has produced various "concepts of argument." The goal of this paper is twofold: (1) to develop a complete ontology of argumentative phenomena, capable of accounting for various conceptions of argument-something, as I argue, that is badly wanting in argumentation theory; and, within this ontology, (2) to defend a position that there is but one concept of argument needed to grasp these diverse phenomena and conceptions of argument and argumentation. I move in four steps. First, I briefly sketch the discussion over arguments-as-activities and arguments-as-products. Second, I go back to the classic work of Twardowski on actions and products and adapt it for argumentation theory, producing a complex yet systematically organized conceptual ontology of argument and argumentation. This conceptual housekeeping allows me, third, to critically engage some of the recent, Frege-inspired philosophical literature on the concept of argument, while defending act-based approaches to argument(ation). Fourth, I present a positive proposal of a minimal, contrastivist concept of argument as a set of reasons advanced to support a conclusion C 1 rather than another conclusion C n .

This paper examines Roman Ingarden's criticism of Kazimierz Twardowski's philosophical programme. According to Ingarden, the style of philosophizing cultivated by Twardowski prevented his students from engaging in complex philosophical problems. Ingarden's writings suggest that, as a result, they ignored phenomenology. The paper argues that Ingarden's criticism is not entirely accurate. Members of the Lvov-Warsaw School were familiar with Edmund Husserl's phenomenology, and although they often criticized it, they recognized its value. Moreover, it can be demonstrated that Husserl's ideas influenced several of Twardowski's students.

Resumo Neste trabalho, examinamos os passos que conduzem Husserl, na obra Ideias I, a tratar do modo de doação dos objetos espaciais para a consciência, especialmente no intervalo que compreende os parágrafos §41 e §44. Interessa-nos acompanhar e examinar a formulação do que chamamos de "perspectivismo" perceptivo, consistindo na teorização de que o aparecer dos objetos perceptivos é marcado pela apresentação por perfis (Abschattungen). O perspectivismo da percepção aparece sob diversas facetas no percurso da obra. Nossa investigação se dedica a dois momentos importantes de alusão ao perspectivismo perceptivo: na caracterização do índice existencial da realidade como estando "simplesmente aí" na atitude natural e na descrição da unilateralidade do objeto em oposição ao ser absoluto da consciência.

Late 19th century Gestalt psychologists rebelled against the tenants of traditional epistemology and newly defined psychophysics. They introduced powerful new ideas. These ideas were supported by a myriad of experiments showing that the whole is not the sum of the parts. These appearance experiments include Simultaneous Contrast, Gelb's doorway, and Benary's Cross. The traditional Gestalt explanations of these experiments call for cognitive top-down inferences, that are difficult to describe as detailed computer models. Late 20th century ideas of image processing refined bottom-up sensation mechanisms to include low-level spatial interactions and multi-spatial frequency image analysis. As did Gestalt theory, spatial image processing ideas depart from single pixel models, such as Colorimetry. Spatial models of lightness have been shown to account for Simultaneous Contrast, Gelb's doorway and Mondrian experiments. Benary's Cross used two identical gray triangles, surrounded by one black and two white sides, making them have qualitatively equal surrounds. The Gestalt interpretation is that the two gray triangles look different because one appears to belong to the cross and the other does not ("Belongingness"). This paper analyzes Benary's Cross using spatial-image-processing. This quantitative analysis shows that bottom-up coarse sampling is as good an explanation of apparent lightness as top-down cognition. Sampling is much easier to calculate from image data.

Summary in English [paper is in German]: In Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, we refer to a classic work (1966) by Norbert Bischof, who distinguishes between different meanings of “inside” and “outside” and sheds light on the historical background of ideas. In this article, we refer to the distinctions that are essential for psychotherapeutic action, without going into the philosophical background in detail.

Zusammenfassung: In der Gestalttheoretischen Psychotherapie beziehen wir uns bei der Standortfrage auf eine klassische Arbeit (1966) von Norbert Bischof, der verschiedene Bedeutungen von "Innen" und "Außen"  unterscheidet und dabei die ideengeschichtlichen Hintergründe beleuchtet. Im vorliegenden Beitrag werden daraus abgeleitet die für psychotherapeutisches Handeln wesentlichen Unterscheidungen referiert, ohne im Detail auf die philosophischen Hintergründe einzugehen.

Encyclopedia entry (Encyclopedia of Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy; original is in German): The term “space of free movement” goes back to Kurt Lewin and describes the entirety of the regions in the live space that are accessible to the person from their current position. As a rule, this is a multi-connected area that is essentially limited by what a person cannot do (exceeds their abilities) or what they are not allowed to do (rules, norms, etc.). For example, a child's space of free movement is generally smaller than that of an adult. As the child grows up, the accessible area of activity expands as their abilities increase and fewer rules and prohibitions apply as they get older. It is important to note that it is not the “objectively possible range of movement” that is meant, but the “psychological space of free movement” as it exists for the individual concerned in the respective psychological situation.

Zusammenfassung: Der Begriff „Raum der freien Bewegung“ geht auf Kurt Lewin zurück und beschreibt die Gesamtheit der Regionen im Lebensraum, die der Person von ihrer gegenwärtigen Position aus zugänglich sind. In der Regel handelt es sich dabei um ein mehrfach zusammenhängendes Gebiet, welches sich im Wesentlich durch das beschränkt, was eine Person nicht kann (ihre Fähigkeiten übersteigt) oder was sie nicht darf (Regeln, Normen etc.). Beispielsweise ist der Raum der freien Bewegung eines Kindes in der Regel kleiner als jener eines Erwachsenen. Im Zuge des Heranwachsens erweitert sich der zugängliche Tätigkeitsbereich des Kindes, da seine Fähigkeiten zunehmen und mit zunehmendem Alter auch weniger Regeln und Verbote gelten. Wichtig ist, dass nicht der „objektiv mögliche Bewegungsspielraum“ gemeint ist,  sondern der „psychologische Raum der freien Bewegung“, wie er für das betroffene Individuum in der jeweiligen psychologischen Situation besteht.

Summary in English (article is in German): Human life is a shared, social life and is therefore inevitably linked to people's dependence on and responsibility for each other. Both - the dependencies on each other and the responsibilities for each other - change again and again from situation to situation and over the course of a lifetime. However, the image of a self-sufficient person who is completely independent of their fellow human beings and responsible for nothing and no one but themselves is and remains a distorted image.
In psychotherapy, we meet people for whom being dependent on and responsible for each other can become a thematic issue in very different ways as they live together with others: In successful cases, both aspects are understood and lived in such a way that a good balance is achieved in the person's social relationships. In the successful case, both aspects are understood and lived in such a way that a good balance is established in the person's social relationships. These two aspects then also act as a reliable basis for securing the essential living conditions and for dealing with acute life crises. In problematic cases, an imbalance in a person's psycho-social life can become apparent, either directly burdening them and their social environment or indirectly preventing them from coping with other problems.
Pathologizing classifications such as “dependent personality disorder” do not help anyone when dealing with people who are in problematic situations in these areas. Instead, what is needed is a rediscovery of the abilities and resources of the distressed client to bring her interpersonal life, with all its dependencies and responsibilities, into a new, more constructive balance. This essentially involves being able to assert oneself appropriately in the "powerfield" (Kurt Lewin) of others and to vary one's powerfield in accordance to the respective situation. The psychotherapeutic situation can offer opportunities for experimentation and growth in both of these areas.
The article explains and discusses this on the basis of three problem constellations in which dependency and responsibility can become an issue in psychotherapy: A persistence in one-sided dependence on others; an avoidance of responsibility (of relationships and situations in which others could be dependent on one); a one-sided striving for self-sufficiency (an avoidance of relationships and situations in which one could be dependent on others oneself).

Zusammenfassung: Menschliches Leben ist gemeinschaftliches, soziales Leben und damit unvermeidlich auch mit Abhängigkeit von Menschen voneinander und Verantwortung füreinander verbunden. Beides – die Abhängigkeiten voneinander und die Verantwortlichkeiten füreinander – ändern sich von Situation zu Situation und über die Lebensspanne hinweg immer wieder. Das Bild eines autarken, von seinen Mit-Menschen völlig unabhängigen und für nichts und niemanden außer sich selbst verantwortlichen Menschen ist und bleibt jedoch ein Zerrbild.
In der Psychotherapie begegnen wir Menschen, für die das Aufeinander–angewiesen–Sein und Füreinander–verantwortlich–Sein im Zusammenleben mit anderen in ganz unterschiedlicher Weise thematisch werden kann: Im gelungenen Fall werden beide Aspekte so verstanden und gelebt, dass sich ein gutes Gleichgewicht in den sozialen Beziehungen des Menschen einstellt. Dann wirken diese beiden Aspekte auch als verlässliche Basis für die Sicherung der wichtigsten Lebensbedingungen und für die Verarbeitung akuter Lebenskrisen. Im problematischen Fall kann sich ein Ungleichgewicht im psycho-sozialen Leben des Menschen bemerkbar machen, das ihm und seinem sozialen Umfeld entweder direkt zur Belastung wird oder indirekt an der Bewältigung anderer Probleme hindert.
In der Begegnung mit Menschen, die sich in dieser Hinsicht in Problemlagen befinden, helfen pathologisierende Einordnungen wie etwa „abhängige Persönlichkeitsstörung“ niemandem. Es bedarf vielmehr einer Wiederentdeckung der Fähigkeiten und Ressourcen der in Not geratenen Klientin, ihr mit-menschliches Leben mit all seinen Abhängigkeiten und Verantwortlichkeiten in ein neues, konstruktiveres Gleichgewicht zu bringen. Dazu gehört wesentlich, sich im Machtfeld anderer angemessen behaupten und das eigene Machtfeld der jeweiligen Situation entsprechend variieren zu können. Für beides kann die psychotherapeutische Situation Möglichkeiten der Erprobung und des Wachsens bieten.
Der Beitrag erläutert und diskutiert das anhand von drei Problemkonstellationen, in denen in der Psychotherapie Abhängigkeit und Verantwortlichkeit thematisch werden können: Ein Verharren in einseitiger Abhängigkeit von anderen; ein Vermeiden von Verantwortlichkeit (von Beziehungen und Situationen, in denen andere auf einen angewiesen sein könnten); ein einseitiges Autarkiestreben (ein Vermeiden von Beziehungen und Situationen, in denen man selbst auf andere angewiesen sein könnte).

Summary in English (article is in German): Human life is a shared, social life and is therefore inevitably linked to people's dependence on and responsibility for each other. Both - the dependencies on each other and the responsibilities for each other - change again and again from situation to situation and over the course of a lifetime. However, the image of a self-sufficient person who is completely independent of their fellow human beings and responsible for nothing and no one but themselves is and remains a distorted image.
In psychotherapy, we meet people for whom being dependent on and responsible for each other can become a thematic issue in very different ways as they live together with others: In successful cases, both aspects are understood and lived in such a way that a good balance is achieved in the person's social relationships. In the successful case, both aspects are understood and lived in such a way that a good balance is established in the person's social relationships. These two aspects then also act as a reliable basis for securing the essential living conditions and for dealing with acute life crises. In problematic cases, an imbalance in a person's psycho-social life can become apparent, either directly burdening them and their social environment or indirectly preventing them from coping with other problems.
Pathologizing classifications such as “dependent personality disorder” do not help anyone when dealing with people who are in problematic situations in these areas. Instead, what is needed is a rediscovery of the abilities and resources of the distressed client to bring her interpersonal life, with all its dependencies and responsibilities, into a new, more constructive balance. This essentially involves being able to assert oneself appropriately in the "powerfield" (Kurt Lewin) of others and to vary one's powerfield in accordance to the respective situation. The psychotherapeutic situation can offer opportunities for experimentation and growth in both of these areas.
The article explains and discusses this on the basis of three problem constellations in which dependency and responsibility can become an issue in psychotherapy: A persistence in one-sided dependence on others; an avoidance of responsibility (of relationships and situations in which others could be dependent on one); a one-sided striving for self-sufficiency (an avoidance of relationships and situations in which one could be dependent on others oneself).

Zusammenfassung: Menschliches Leben ist gemeinschaftliches, soziales Leben und damit unvermeidlich auch mit Abhängigkeit von Menschen voneinander und Verantwortung füreinander verbunden. Beides – die Abhängigkeiten voneinander und die Verantwortlichkeiten füreinander – ändern sich von Situation zu Situation und über die Lebensspanne hinweg immer wieder. Das Bild eines autarken, von seinen Mit-Menschen völlig unabhängigen und für nichts und niemanden außer sich selbst verantwortlichen Menschen ist und bleibt jedoch ein Zerrbild.
In der Psychotherapie begegnen wir Menschen, für die das Aufeinander–angewiesen–Sein und Füreinander–verantwortlich–Sein im Zusammenleben mit anderen in ganz unterschiedlicher Weise thematisch werden kann: Im gelungenen Fall werden beide Aspekte so verstanden und gelebt, dass sich ein gutes Gleichgewicht in den sozialen Beziehungen des Menschen einstellt. Dann wirken diese beiden Aspekte auch als verlässliche Basis für die Sicherung der wichtigsten Lebensbedingungen und für die Verarbeitung akuter Lebenskrisen. Im problematischen Fall kann sich ein Ungleichgewicht im psycho-sozialen Leben des Menschen bemerkbar machen, das ihm und seinem sozialen Umfeld entweder direkt zur Belastung wird oder indirekt an der Bewältigung anderer Probleme hindert.
In der Begegnung mit Menschen, die sich in dieser Hinsicht in Problemlagen befinden, helfen pathologisierende Einordnungen wie etwa „abhängige Persönlichkeitsstörung“ niemandem. Es bedarf vielmehr einer Wiederentdeckung der Fähigkeiten und Ressourcen der in Not geratenen Klientin, ihr mit-menschliches Leben mit all seinen Abhängigkeiten und Verantwortlichkeiten in ein neues, konstruktiveres Gleichgewicht zu bringen. Dazu gehört wesentlich, sich im Machtfeld anderer angemessen behaupten und das eigene Machtfeld der jeweiligen Situation entsprechend variieren zu können. Für beides kann die psychotherapeutische Situation Möglichkeiten der Erprobung und des Wachsens bieten.
Der Beitrag erläutert und diskutiert das anhand von drei Problemkonstellationen, in denen in der Psychotherapie Abhängigkeit und Verantwortlichkeit thematisch werden können: Ein Verharren in einseitiger Abhängigkeit von anderen; ein Vermeiden von Verantwortlichkeit (von Beziehungen und Situationen, in denen andere auf einen angewiesen sein könnten); ein einseitiges Autarkiestreben (ein Vermeiden von Beziehungen und Situationen, in denen man selbst auf andere angewiesen sein könnte).

Wie hieß die erste psychologische Fachzeitschrift? Hieß sie vielleicht »Phänomenal«? Falsch geraten! »Phänomenal« ist zwar die beste psychologische Fachzeitschrift, die erste psychologische Fachzeitschrift war die »Zeitschrift für Erfahrungsseelenkunde«. Sie wurde gegen Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts von Karl Philipp Moritz aus dem Kreis um Johann Wolfgang von Goethe gegründet. Wenn sich in der Welt des Geistes etwas Großes ereignet hat, dann war Goethe daran stets beteiligt. Es ist deshalb ein Jammer, dass er so empörend früh, ja, dass er überhaupt gestorben ist. Goethe und die Lehre von der Gestalt »Orbis sensualium pictus -die sichtbare Welt.« So hieß das schöne Schulbuch des Johann Amos Co menius. In diesem Buch hat Goethe gern gelesen und es in »Dichtung und Wahrheit« als das beste Schulbuch gerühmt. Goethe liebte die anschauliche Welt, Goethe war Phänomenologe und begeisterter Naturforscher. Es war ihm beispielsweise aufgefallen, dass der Mensch wie sein nächster Verwandter, der Schimpanse, einen Zwischenkieferknochen hat (Kleemann 1983). Es war ihm auch aufgefallen, dass Queck-silber immer die Gestalt einer Kugel annimmt. Im vierten Kapitel seiner »Wahlverwandtschaften« hinterlässt Goethe darüber einen aufschlussreichen Dialog. »Ich dächte«, fiel ihm Eduard ein, »wir machten ihr und uns die Sache durch Beispiele bequem. Stelle dir nur das Wasser, das Öl, das Quecksilber vor, so wirst du eine Einigkeit, einen Zusammenhang ihrer Teile finden. Diese Einung verlassen sie nicht, außer durch Gewalt oder sonstige Bestimmung. Ist diese beseitigt, so treten sie gleich wieder zusammen«. »Ohne Frage«, sagte Charlotte beistimmend. »Regentropfen vereinigen sich gern zu Strömen. Und schon als Kinder spielen wir erstaunt mit dem Quecksilber, indem wir es in Kügel-chen trennen und es wieder zusammenlaufen lassen«.

Summary in English (article is in German): Max Wertheimer's famous work “Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt II” was published around 100 years ago. In it, he presented for the first time what has since been generally referred to as the “Gestalt laws” (although this is not always accurate). It is less well known that at the same time Wertheimer dictated an article to the German psychiatrist Heinrich Schulte on the development and healing of mental disorders, which can be regarded as the foundation stone for Gestalt psychological psychopathology. A comparison of the two studies shows that Wertheimer pursued the same far-reaching project in both works, namely the
project, namely to decipher the “inner structural laws” of gestalts - in the first work for the area of simple cases of seeing, in the other for belonging to a community and its role in mental health. This shows that Wertheimer's project of researching the “structural laws of Gestalt” had more and something different as its goal than the often simplified understanding of the “Gestalt laws” in textbooks and on the Internet would suggest.
The article is the German-language written version of the lecture “Wertheimer
on Gestalt Laws of Seeing and of Mental Health” at the 23rd Scientific Congress of the GTA in Milan/Italy, ‘Mind, Perception, Reality’, September 25-27, 2024.

Zusammenfassung: Vor rund 100 Jahren erschien Max Wertheimers berühmtes Werk „Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt II“. Darin stellte er erstmals das vor, was seither allgemein als „Gestaltgesetze“ bezeichnet wird (wenn auch nicht immer zutreffend). Weniger bekannt ist, dass Wertheimer zur gleichen Zeit dem deutschen Psychiater Heinrich Schulte einen Artikel über die Entstehung und Heilung von psychischen Störungen diktierte, der als Grundstein für die gestaltpsychologische Psychopathologie gelten kann. Ein Vergleich der beiden Studien zeigt, dass Wertheimer in beiden Arbeiten das gleiche weitreichende Projekt verfolgte, nämlich die „inneren Strukturgesetze“ der Gestalten zu entschlüsseln - in der ersten Arbeit für den Bereich einfacher Fälle des Sehens, in der anderen für die Zugehörigkeit zu einer Gemeinschaft und deren Rolle für die psychische Gesundheit. Dies zeigt, dass Wertheimers Projekt der Erforschung der „Strukturgesetze der Gestalt“ mehr und etwas anderes zum Ziel hatte, als es das oft vereinfachte Verständnis der „Gestaltgesetze“ in Lehrbüchern und im Internet vermuten lässt.
Der Beitrag ist die deutschsprachige Schriftfassung des Vortrags „Wertheimer on Gestalt Laws of Seeing and of Mental Health“ bei der 23. Wissenschaftlichen Arbeitstagung der GTA in Mailand, “Mind, Perception, Reality”, 25.-27. September, 2024.

STUDY PROGRAM OF QURANIC STUDIES AND EXEGESIS FACULTY OF USHULUDDIN PTIQ UNIVERSITY JAKARTA ACADEMIC YEAR 2024/2025 II ACKNOWLEDGMENT By mentioning the name of Allah SWT, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful, we praise and thank Him for His blessings, who has bestowed His grace, guidance, and inayah to us, so that we can complete this paper with the title "PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE". In this era of globalization, English language skills are very important. Therefore, this paper aims to examine the application of Prepositional Phrase in English learning, especially in improving students' language skills. This research uses qualitative methods with data analysis from several sources. The results of this study are expected to contribute to the development of effective English learning strategies. We have compiled this scientific paper to the maximum and received assistance from various parties so that it can facilitate the making of this paper. For that we extend many thanks to all those who have participated in making this paper. Apart from all that, we fully realize that there are still shortcomings both in terms of sentence structure and grammar. Therefore, with all the shortcomings in this paper, we accept all suggestions and criticisms from readers so that we can improve this scientific paper. Finally, we hope that this scientific paper on PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE can provide benefits to readers.

By mentioning the name of Allah SWT, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful, we praise and thank Him for His blessings, who has bestowed His grace, guidance, and inayah to us, so that we can complete this paper with the title "PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE". In this era of globalization, English language skills are very important. Therefore, this paper aims to examine the application of Prepositional Phrase in English learning, especially in improving students' language skills. This research uses qualitative methods with data analysis from several sources. The results of this study are expected to contribute to the development of effective English learning strategies. We have compiled this scientific paper to the maximum and received assistance from various parties so that it can facilitate the making of this paper. For that we extend many thanks to all those who have participated in making this paper. Apart from all that, we fully realize that there are still shortcomings both in terms of sentence structure and grammar. Therefore, with all the shortcomings in this paper, we accept all suggestions and criticisms from readers so that we can improve this scientific paper. Finally, we hope that this scientific paper on PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE can provide benefits to readers.

In this era of globalization, English language skills are very important. Therefore, this paper aims to examine the application of Prepositional Phrase in English learning, especially in improving students' language skills. This research uses qualitative methods with data analysis from several sources. The results of this study are expected to contribute to the development of effective English learning strategies. 1 We have compiled this scientific paper to the maximum and received assistance from various parties so that it can facilitate the making of this paper. For that we extend many thanks to all those who have participated in making this paper. Apart from all that, we fully realize that there are still shortcomings both in terms of sentence structure and grammar. Therefore, with all the shortcomings in this paper, we accept all suggestions and criticisms from readers so that we can improve this scientific paper. Finally, we hope that this scientific paper on PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE can provide benefits to readers.