Forestry Policy and Economics

Abstrak Aquilaria sp merupakan satu daripada enam genus dalam keluarga Thymelaeaceae yang dipercayai menghasilkan gaharu. Ia juga dikenali sebagai gaharu, karas atau depu bagi pemain gaharu di Malaysia. Gaharu pada mulanya digunakan sebagai pewangi atau stanggi dikalangan masyarakat tempatan yang diperolehi melalui orang asli. Bagi masyarakat Malaysia pula penglibatan pada peringkat awal bermula sebagai pencari dan pengumpul gaharu sehingga memiliki ladang persendirian adalah menjadi matlamat banyak pihak seperti

El Grupo del Cluster Forestal se creó a raíz de la iniciativa de los Presidentes de Centroamérica de delegar a Harvard-INCAE la elaboración de estrategias de competitividad para llevar las economías centroamericanas al Siglo XXI, en un mundo de globalización de la economía.  Estos grupos y análisis que aquí se presentan, se han dado en este marco.  En Honduras, gracias a la iniciativa de la Fundación para las Inversiones y Desarrollo de Exportaciones (FIDE), se creó un grupo de competitividad del Cluster Forestal.  Este documento resume la situación del sector forestal de Honduras y recomienda la estrategia a seguir para posicionar al país en un mejor nivel de cara a la globalización de la economía mundial y las características competitivas con que ya cuenta el sector en la economía nacional y regional.

"This paper explores farmers' compliancewith forest rules in the High Forest Zone of Ghana and the factors influencing
compliance through interviews with 226 farmers. Specifically, it assesses compliance with rules that regulate
and/or prohibit: (i) felling of timber trees on farmlands, (ii) farming in forest reserves, and (iii) use andmanagement
of fire on farmlands. The results are based on self-reported responses about compliance with rules and indicate a
high level of compliance with farming and bushfire rules, while the tree-felling rule is violated by many farmers.
Compliance behaviour is influenced by numerous normative and instrumental factors, such as perceived fairness
of rules, need for resources for livelihood and domestic use, and fear of sanction; but also, by somecontextual factors,
such as regulatory and socio-economic contexts. In the case of Ghana, efforts to strengthen forest law compliance, in
particular the felling of trees on farmlands, need further consideration of the normative perspectives to compliance,
andmay point towards legal reforms that bring the legislationmore in accordance with the norms held by farmers"

"Illegal forest activities are increasingly recognised as one of the major sources of deforestation and the degradation of the world’s tropical forests. International recognition of and response to the problem of illegal forest activities—most notably illegal logging—
have significantly increased since the 1990s, with numerous international, regional and bilateral initiatives emerging across the globe. The international response to illegal forest activities is largely focussed on illegal logging (i.e., the harvesting of timber in violation of national laws) and the enforcement of forest regulations as the major strategy for addressing illegal forest activities and non-compliant behaviour.
This PhD thesis assesses the relationships between law enforcement and the livelihoods, individual motivations and contextual factors that inform compliance with forest rules. The
research builds on a case study of the law compliance of forest farming communities inhabiting the fringes of forest reserves in the High-Forest Zone of Ghana. The study first explores the concept of forest communities’ livelihoods and the potential implications of the EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) voluntary partnership agreement (VPA) for forest communities’ livelihoods (Article I). Second, it examines farmers’ forest values and the potential role of these values in farmers’ compliance with forest rules (Article II). Third, it explores the motivations and factors that influence farmers’ compliance with a number of formal or state forest rules (Article III). Finally, Article IV proposes an analytical framework for forest law compliance, outlining a set of factors and variables that affect compliance behaviour at the individual and group levels. The study results are derived from an expert questionnaire survey concerning the forest
communities’ livelihoods in the FLEGT VPA in Ghana and an interview survey with farmers in the High-Forest Zone of Ghana concerning farmers’ forest values and their compliance with a number of forest rules. The study results suggest that the implementation of the FLEGT VPA is likely to have both positive and negative impacts on forest communities’ livelihoods. Further, it suggests that farmers ascribe major importance to those forest values, which directly contribute to their livelihoods, including forests’ subsistence, environmental and economic values. Concerning law compliance, it is found that farmers’ compliance with forest rules is determined by a myriad of factors, including
the perceived fairness and legitimacy of the rules and ruling authorities, social and cultural norms, fear of sanctions, and the need for resources for their livelihoods and for domestic use. Further, the study suggests that farmers’ forest values may, to some extent, influence their compliance with forest rules. Finally, based on the theories of rule compliance and available literature on the sources of non-compliance in forestry, the study identifies a set variables influencing compliance behaviour at the individual level (e.g., instrumental incentives, legitimacy and social and personal norms), and group or societal level (e.g., regulatory constraints, political capacity, corruption, property rights and markets)."

Economic  criteria  for  designing  a  PES  based  on  the model of von Thünen. The von Thünen’s model was  applied  to  determine  the  spatial  distribution  of  forests  and  other  land  uses  within  the  San  Juan  La  Selva Biological Corridor in Costa Rica. According to  the  model,  the  spatial  location  of  land  uses  is  a  function  of  transportation  cost.  Using  socio-economic  data  collected  in  the  field  and  GIS  information, the location and intensity of production activities nearby a central market were determined. Also,  using  the  land  expected  value,  an  analysis  of  investment on forest use and competitive alternative uses  was  carried  out.  The  main  competitive  uses  are  pineapple  and  banana,  forest  plantations  of  Gmelina  arborea  and  cattle  ranching.  Additionally,  the opportunity cost of both environmental services and  abandoning  the  minimum  alternative  option  were  calculated.  It  was  proved  that,  in  some  cases,  the  PES  amounts  obtained  were  inferior  to  those  currently paid by Fonafifo.

Criterios económicos para diseñar un pago por servicios ambientales basado en el modelo de von Thünen. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303369858_Criterios_economicos_para_disenar_un_pago_por_servicios_ambientales_basado_en_el_modelo_de_von_Thunen [accessed Aug 23, 2016].

Illegal logging is a major concern throughout the tropics.  In Peru, the government has issued timber concessions in over 762,222 square kilometers of tropical forest in 2003 and 2004.  We quantify and seek to understand the economic rationale for violations of the national forestry law in these concessions. Using field reports from OSINFOR inspections from 2009 to 2014, we quantify the extent of this problem, develop a conceptual framework that predicts when it is most likely to occur, estimate a probability model of which concessions are breaking and which are abiding by the rules, and assess whether OSINFOR’s system of inspections is likely to have reduced illegal timber trafficking. We implemented a single difference strategy to estimate the Average Treatment Effect on the Treated (ATET).  Using propensity score matching to the nearest neighborhood and kernel matching, we found that field inspection of a concession reduced on average between 1,530 and 1,885 cubic meters of mis-reported timber harvest that could enable illegal timber trafficking. These results are statiscally significant and robust.

Since the end of 2000s, many forest-rich countries have engaged into results-based deforestation reduction monitoring under REDD+ mechanisms. A set of methods and tools designed at international level is expected to be transferred to the domestic level in many developing countries, in order to generate information on how these countries contribute to global emissions reduction through local forest landscapes. Using the monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) device as an example, this paper sets out to analyze this knowledge transfer by identifying bottlenecks. It proposes an original analysis that will help to better understand how such knowledge transfers could be improved at the domestic level. Based on empirical case studies related to REDD+ projects in Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda, it assesses knowledge transfer and the role of sta-keholders involved at multiple levels (global, regional, national and local). For this purpose, we used the Research Integration and Utilization (RIU) model, which is an analytical framework allowing analyses showing how scientific results can be owned, integrated and disseminated to meet specific needs. Results show that there is a weakness in MRV knowledge transfer from global to local levels and back. The MRV knowledge has a strong research background, a weak MRV knowledge integration and a mitigated direct utilization. The RIU model allows us to identify significant weaknesses in the transfer of MRV knowledge, including institutional dys-function, weak institutional coordination, a lack of integration and reduced utilization of the scientific knowledge produced, despite the creation of coordinating institutions. These weaknesses are due partly to the absence of a common platform between exogenous and endogenous knowledge. To overcome these obstacles, synergies between scientists and indigenous actors should be explored and developed.

This paper introduces a modeling approach for the assessment of policy options within the forest-based bioeconomy. The feedback between the forestry dynamics model and the economic model of the global forest-based sector of the proposed framework is essential, not only for response analysis as to the development of forest resources and for a correct assessment of future harvesting potentials, but also for the assessment of the impact of different management regimes on wood-based product markets. Test runs of the modeling framework on a Swedish case highlight the necessity of considering timber assortments for a comprehensive integration of forest resources and wood-based commodity market dynamics. Hence, the composition of harvest demand in terms of timber assortment affects the allocation of harvesting activities and, consequently, the development of forest resources (and thus future harvest potentials), as well as the production, trade and consumption of wood-based products.

A B S T R A C T
Smallholder ownership of forests has grown rapidly over the last 25 years, leading to global forest transition; however, incentives are required to keep smallholders growing trees under long-term afforestation contracts. This article reports on smallholders' willingness to join afforestation programs, growing Acacia mangium under contract on their private farmland. In a Choice Experiment, we examine the effects of policy attributes of afforestation contracts, including contract duration, labour participation, timber insurance, training opportunities , road improvement, and expected income. We report the marginal value of changes in monetary terms. A scale-extended latent class model was used to analyse preference heterogeneity in data of 323 smallholders from three different regions in Indonesia (West Kalimantan, Yogyakarta, and South Sumatera). These regions are at different forest transition stages. Our results indicate that there are four latent preference classes, which value attributes of the contract differently. Individual characteristics (risk orientation, tree growing experiences, and occupation), and regional differences explain the probability of preference class membership. Our findings have important implications for enhancing afforestation strategies that improve social welfare of smallholders in various forest transition stages.

Un análisis de los orígenes de este problema puede revelar que, a la vez que los modelos económicos de desarrollo han sido extractivos de los recursos naturales, han sido las políticas de otros sectores las que más  han influido en generar esta complicación, primordialmente porque el marco de políticas forestales no ha sido compatibilizado con el marco general de políticas del país y viceversa. Por primera vez en Honduras, se ha adoptado una Visión de País 2010-2038 y un Plan de Nación 2010-2022 que entrega una dirección hacia dónde el país va a orientar su desarrollo, bajo qué principios se va a sustentar y qué objetivos pretenderá lograr en el futuro.  Este marco general permite hacer un análisis de compatibilización de políticas sectoriales que aseguren un desarrollo armónico y holístico.  Este es el propósito de este proceso.

Forest degradation and deforestation are some of the major global concerns as they can reduce the forest carbon stock and sequestration capacity. However, the carbon stock and sequestration potential in a mixed dipterocarp tropical forest remains unclear due to a lack of information. This study was carried out on the carbon stock and estimated its economic value to justify its conservation. Six plots were established in the Endau Rompin National Park, Johor and subplots measuring 50 × 20 m were established in each plot. All trees greater than 15 cm DBH (diameter at breast height) were identified and the parameters measured included tree height and diameter. The aboveground carbon (AGC) content was about 222 Mg(C) ha-1 , belowground carbon (BGC) was 53 Mg (C) ha-1 and it was 6 Mg (C) ha-1 for other components. In total, the carbon stock amounted to 281 Mg (C) ha-1. On the other hand, the total CO 2 sequestrated in the mixed dipterocarp forest amounted to 1,040 t CO 2 ha-1. The carbon value was estimated at RM32,240 t CO 2 ha-1 or $7,280 t CO 2 ha-1. Therefore, the study found that the dipterocarp forest should be preserved to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. ABSTRAK Degradasi hutan dan penyahhutanan merupakan masalah global utama kerana ia boleh menurunkan penyimpanan karbon hutan dan kapasiti pensekuesteran. Walau bagaimanapun, penyimpanan karbon dan potensi pensekuesteran dalam hutan tropika dipterokarpa campuran masih tidak jelas kerana kekurangan informasi berkaitannya. Kajian ini dijalankan ke atas simpanan karbon dan anggaran nilai ekonominya untuk memberi justifikasi pemeliharaannya. Enam plot diwujudkan di Taman Negara Endau Rompin, Johor dan subplot berukuran 50 × 20 m diwujudkan di setiap plot. Semua pokok yang lebih tinggi daripada 15 cm DBH (diameter aras dada) telah dikenal pasti dan parameter yang diukur termasuk panjang dan diameter pokok. Kandungan karbon atas tanah (AGC) adalah 222 Mg(C) ha-1 , karbon bawah tanah (BGC) adalah 53 Mg(C) ha-1 dan 6 Mg(C) ha-1 untuk komponen lain. Secara keseluruhannya, simpanan karbon terkumpul adalah 281 Mg(C) ha-1. Sementara itu, jumlah CO 2 tersekuestera dalam hutan dipterokarpa campuran berjumlah 1,040 CO 2 ha-1. Nilai karbon dianggarkan sebanyak RM32,240 t CO 2 ha-1 atau $7,280 T CO 2 ha-1. Oleh itu, kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa hutan dipterokarpa patut dipelihara untuk mengurangkan pengeluaran gas rumah hijau.

Para revertir las tendencias que por décadas han caracterizado a Honduras, el Plan de Nación, al año 2022, espera formar una nación reconocida por su riqueza natural y por la actitud de un Estado comprometido con la protección y la conservación ambiental, la lucha contra el cambio climático y la cultura de un pueblo decidido a crecer en perfecta armonía con su patrimonio natural.  En materia de mitigación y adaptación al cambio climático, se espera que el país pueda iniciar un proceso sistemático de restauración ecológica y productiva de los territorios de vocación forestal en estado de degradación. Lo anterior no solo implica una mejora significativa en las condiciones ambientales del país, sino la posibilidad de acceder a recursos financieros por cientos de millones de dólares en los próximos años. Con el propósito de hacerle frente a estos retos, el ICF ha preparado un Plan Estratégico Institucional 2010-2015, el cual ha originado esta consultoría, para estimar los costos asociados con su ejecución y para sugerir cómo gestionar la cooperación externa en su apoyo y fortalecimiento institucional.

The consequence of state controlled forestry in Cameroon has been the overexploitation of forest resources often in conflict with local forest dependent communities and state conservation objectives. The failure of state controlled forestry to achieve sustainable forest management has led to the emergence of new network like arrangements amongst which is independent forest monitoring (IFM) by civil society. The aim of this paper is to scrutinize the factors which affect the effectiveness of IFM governance network in Cameroon. Our research focused on a case study of Cameroon, employing a governance network perspective. The main findings are that national civil society in Cameroon is playing a significant role in improving transparency in the forest sector and holding decision makers to account. The paper finds a shift from technical areas of forest monitoring to the monitoring of social obligations and the respect of community rights by private companies. An analysis of actors highlights a strong network of national NGOs with self-defined goals and strategies engaged in very fluid relationships with law enforcement agencies beyond traditional ministries of forests and wildlife characterised by a spectrum ranging from complementarity, substitution and rivalry. The lack of sustainable funding and weak capabilities of national NGOs to navigate these fluid relationships emerges as core constraints for network effectiveness. Accordingly, recommendations for effectiveness entail strategies for sustainable funding, capacity strengthening and network coordination to address current weaknesses but also to build trust and credibility of the governance network.

Typically, forest policy-analysis focuses on the forest industry; however, this article argues that analysis should take into consideration non-forest economic–political sectors, creating an inter-sectoral analysis of pathways. An analysis of Brazil's recent forest governance changes allows to outline the political dynamics, thrust and ideas that most influence the use of forests in a political economy whose overall developmental and environmental policies are defined primarily by agribusiness. The Brazilian Congress passed a New Forest Code in 2012, greatly relaxing the previous Code from 1965. The law-changing project was an illustration of the tension between the large landholders-lobby, and the new sustainability demands of various sorts of “green economy” proponents. The recent framing of forests by the agribusiness lobby and the Minister of Agriculture are assessed to explain why and how the understanding and pathway of sustainability in relation to forest and other land uses has changed since 2012. Studies on the major impacts of the post-2012 forest laws are also reviewed. A novel approach is taken, uniting an analysis of large-scale agriculture, tree plantation companies, and socio-environmentalists. It is shown how the New Forest Code and other measures that have brought together the agricultural and forestry frontiers, policies and vocabularies in Brazil have made their united analysis necessary. Brazil provides an important case to study how some parts of the “brown economy” and “green capitalism” pathways are supporting each other in practice, and how the forest industry has become a key actor in this alliance, to the detriment of “socio-environmentalism”.

Aim: To assess phenological and morphological parameters of Uapaca kirkiana Müll. Arg. provenances at sixteen years of age. Place and Duration of the Study: The trial was established in 1997 at Nauko in Liwonde Forest Reserve, Malawi. Methodology: Data collection on phenology and morphology (flowering, fruit production, diameter at breast height (dbh), height, and crown width) of Uapaca kirkiana provenances and families was carried out every month from flowering period up to fruiting period (January to May 2014) at sixteen years of age after out planting. Results: The results show that there were significant (P<0.001) variations in flowering sex ratio among the provenances. Phalombe provenance did not deviate significantly from sex ratio equality. The other provenances showed significant male biased sex ratios. There were no significant (P>0.05) differences in number of fruits per tree, dbh, height and crown width among the provenances. However, Phalombe had the highest mean number of fruits per tree (365±158). The mean dbh, height and crown width were: 10.1±0.1 cm, 7.7±0.06 m, and 3.0±0.05 m, respectively. There were no significant correlation between number of fruits and dbh (r=0.326; P=0.091) and the height (r=0.119; P=0.547). However, there was significant modest correlation between number of fruits and crown width (r=0.454; P<0.05). Number of fruits had high heritability value (0.72) followed by height (0.59) and dbh (0.53), while crown width did not appear to be under high genetic control with low heritability value of 0.13. Conclusion: The higher estimated heritability value for number of fruits per tree indicates that phenotypic selection for this trait could be highly efficient. Further studies should investigate heritability and genetic correlation between growth and desirable fruits traits (fruit size, sweetness, pulp ratio, etc) for efficient tree domestication and improvement strategy.

The Osa Peninsula and its Golfo Dulce Forest Reserve, which contain the largest remaining forest on Costa Rica's Pacific coast, currently experience great pressures from smallholders clearing for agriculture and gold mining. The paper compares the sustainability of Costa Rjca's current model of extensive government intervention on the Osa, combined with natural forest management, to a proposed relatively free-market approach also promoting the same package of technological change and industrial promotion. Concluding that the current approach fails to promote sustainable development, the authors propose an alternative free-market-oriented approach that, while not without its own risk, represents a much more feasible and, therefore, potentially more successful approach to the country's deforestation problems. The authors point out that it might not be possible to provide a sustainable income on the Osa for all the residents of the peninsula and to maintain secondary forest cover at the same time. Policymakers must be clear about what they want to sustain, who receives the benefits, and who bears the costs of their sustainable development efforts.

The European Union (EU), the United States of America (USA), and Australia have adopted specific measures to avoid the placing of illegal timber on their markets. These measures might encourage the diversion of timber products from traditional large importers to destinations with a less stringent regulatory framework. During 2001–2013, the international trade in tropical primary timber products (logs; sawnwood; veneers and plywood) decreased by 13% in volume and increased by almost 5% in value. Imports by Australia, the EU, and the USA halved, while those by emerging economies such as China and India initially remained stable and later increased. Tropical timber products—mostly logs and sawnwood—might have been diverted towards emerging economies over the period considered. This general trend is confirmed when analyzing imports from countries that are implementing voluntary partnership agreements (VPA) within the EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) Action Plan. Several factors might influence these market dynamics, including changes induced by the 2008 financial crisis and the increasing domestic demand for timber products by emerging nations. The effects of legality measures on market trends are still unclear. Nonetheless, they might have encouraged uncertainty with regards to traditional importers and favored emerging ones.

This paper addresses management and policy issues arising from
the 2009 and other recent fires that burnt the iconic ash-type
forests of eastern Victoria. After sketching a general framework
for an analysis of sustainability, the paper elaborates the results
of a simulation study on seed collection and storage (to be
published separately), especially in relation to the risks posed to
the ash-type state forests by major fires. These forest types are
notably fire sensitive and easily killed by fires of moderate or
even mild intensity. They are also cyclical in the extent of seed
production and do not set seed in commercial quantities for the
first 20 years of life. If seed collection and storage is restricted
to 'low' levels until 2050, the risks are substantial, involving
probabilities over 90% for alpine ash, implying insufficient seed
to permit artificial regeneration of those burnt areas that have
not regenerated naturally, whether climate change occurs or not.
Those risks can be reduced substantially by higher levels of seed
collection, but even at 'median' levels the probabilities may
approach 40% under high rates of climate change. The simulated
outcomes for mountain ash state forests are much less severe but
the impacts of high rates of climate change are still great enough
to cause discomfort.
Data for the ash-type conservation reserves were not available
but descriptive reports indicate that the risks for both forest
types in the conservation reserves may be very high, as many of
the old-growth stands in the national parks (often closed water
catchments) were severely burnt in the 2003,2006-2007 or 2009
fires. The risks posed by fire in the next 20 y to water quality and
biodiversity are very likely to be material.
This leads to advocacy of active management measures that
include: (1) a well-equipped workforce, (2) removal and salvage
of fire-killed trees along access roads, (3) seed collection and
artificial regeneration in conservation reserves, ( 4) strategic swaps
of age classes to the advantage of both tenures, (5) regrowth
thinning for habitat management and water production, ( 6) better
access for fire management and more fuel reduction burning and
(7) strategic orientation of harvest areas.
In the past, the conservation versus development debate about
forests has been a 'zero-sum game'. Whatever one side gained
the other lost, as areas were transferred from one designation
to the other. That approach neglects the role of a third player,
Mother Nature, especially relating to fire, and this means that a
joint approach to addressing the risks is desirable.
The ash-type conservation reserves are as much about multiple
uses as are state forests. Some uses are common to both, some
excluded from one and not the other, and some that vary by
degree rather than absolute exclusion in one or the other. We face
a future in which there is a material risk that we will lose most or
all of these ash-type forests, not over millennia, but in the next
60 y. We can decide to do nothing and accept that loss, or we can
engage in active management to conserve their values and uses
by reducing the risks across both tenures.

Forest values play an important role in forest management practices, and in the design and implementation of forest policy and the legal framework. This paper assesses the importance of farmers’ forest values and the potential associations
between farmers’ forest values and their compliance with the tree-felling rule in Ghana. The results are derived from a survey with farmers, inhabiting fringes of forest reserves in the High Forest Zone of Ghana. With the exception of the forest
value for future generations, forest values that contribute to immediate subsistence and livelihoods are perceived as the most important (i.e. environmental, subsistence and economic forest values). These values provide, among others, wide variety of
foods, such as wild crops and bushmeat, farming land, medicinal plants, household items such as ropes, lianas and mats, firewood and shelter. Aesthetic and religionrelated forest values are considered to be the least important. Multivariate binary
logistic regression analysis suggests that farmers’ forest values may to some extent influence their compliance with the tree-felling rule. Economic, religion-related and learning forest values are likely to encourage compliance with the tree-felling rule.

Traditional energy sources like fuelwood, charcoal, cow dung, and crop residue are common for household domestic energy consumption in the majority people of the study area as well as in Ethiopia. However, information related the impact of household fuelwood consumption on forest degradation is limited in the study area. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the impacts on households' domestic fuelwood consumption on deforestation and forest degradation in Motta district northwest Ethiopia. A random sampling procedure was employed to select 140 sample households involved in the household survey. Then open ended and close ended semi structured questioners were provide for each sample household. In addition, sample bundle of fire wood and sack of charcoal were measured to quantify households' traditional measuring unit into standardize biomass unit. Descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression was performed to examine household fuelwood impact on forest degradation and for identifying main determinant factors affecting households' daily fuelwood consumption.. The result revealed that farmers owned plantation is the main source of fuelwood consumption a species like Eucalyptus globulus. Annually they consumed 2.36 kg/household. Hence, the total communities consumption was around 3,635.51ton dried biomass of fuelwood which is estimated about 1.89 hectare of forest land is degraded due to households' domestic energy consumption in the study area. The statistical regression analysis also revealed family size and their residence far from fuelwood source had statistically significant different. It is confirmed that household fuelwood consumption had negatively impact of forest resource development and accelerate deforestation and forest degradation rate. Hence, in order to solve deforestation and forest degradation due to forest dependence energy consumption; providing other alternative energy accessibility like electricity, solar energy, biogas, improved cook stove are recommended.

This study is to inquire, in aggregate as well as by subsectors into timber demand of forest industry
that stands to be highly important in the economy of the Düzce province. To this end, firstly a series of trend
analyses is carried on with respect to timber demand quantities as well as to sources to meet the timber
demand of Düzce forest industries. Next, a two-way ANOVA is executed where the two factors are forest
industry subsectors (namely sawnwood, veneer sheets, parquet, and wood-based panels) and sources (from
within Düzce, from outside Düzce and imported) from which the timber demand is met. The data used for the
analyses belong to the period between 1997 and 2007, and forecasts are carried out for the years between
2008 and 2012.
Notwithstanding fluctuation to some extent, an increasing trend is observed in the aggregate timber
demand of forest industry. However, the demand trend appears not to be positive as such for each subsector.
Meanwhile, timber demand of Düzce forest industry as a whole is met from the sources within the province
to a decreasing degree, that is, the demand is increasingly met by the sources from outside the province and
the country. Yet again these trends do differ when it comes to forest industry subsectors. The trend
differences attributable to the subsectors and timber sources are justified statistically by the results of analysis
of variance.

In literature on Natural Resource Management related policies in Africa and Cameroon in particular, Colonial heritage was defined and identified. The question of this paper is whether "community forestry" which promotes giving back the forest to people breaks with this tradition. The key elements of Colonial heritage in resource management were deduced from literature. Based on these benchmarks the program and practice of community forestry in Cameroon were evaluated. Data about community forestry in Cameroon was collected in 10 selected communities in 2009/10. Today in practice community forestry favors techno-scientific knowledge about the forest, separate nature from human life, is a bureaucratic controlled engagement with nature and is aimed to make nature and people productive. The benchmark identifies a strong Colonial heritage within community forestry in Cameroon and questions whether the aim of including the local people in forest management, correcting their previous exclusion by the Colonial policy in the management of their forest resources, thus, the self determined life of people within the forest can be reached.

Conceitos de base do estudo Conceitos de ecossistema e serviços de ecossistema e tipologias destes serviços Conceito de ecossistema Adotando aqui a a definição do Millennium Ecosystem "um ecossistema é um complexo dinâmico de comunidades de plantas, animais e microrganismos e o meio abiótico interagindo como uma unidade funcional. Os Humanos são uma parte integral dos ecossistemas." (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2015b, p.3; a tradução é nossa). Esta definição vem na linha da que tinha sido adotada pela Convenção sobre a Diversidade Biológica em 1992 segundo a qual "um ecossistema é um complexo de organismos vivos e do meio abiótico com o qual interagem num local específico." O ecossistema que vai ser considerado neste estudo é constituído pelos espaços florestais de Portugal, ou seja, é o ecossistema que tem por suporte as áreas de floresta, matos e pastagens. Conceitos de estrutura, processos, funções, bens e serviços e valores de um ecossistema De Groot et al. (2002) distinguem os conceitos de estrutura, processos, funções, bens e serviços e valores de um ecossistema.

Evaluations on community forestry outcomes are important to observe whether the program community forestry produces what it has promised. For the evaluation -as an alternative to the comprehensive criteria and indicators on sustainable community forestry-, we propose an approach based on the core policy objectives of the program. In fact, community forestry is very much connected to the following three objectives of: 1) alleviating the poverty of forest users, 2) empowering them, and 3) improving the condition of the forests. Based on field tests in two community forests in Indonesia, the focus on the core policy objectives appears to provide a more practical approach than the use of complex criteria and indicators. We conclude that our approach allows rapid evaluations and eventually reduces the associated costs and time without compromising the goals of the evaluation.

The forestry sector is one of the key sectors indicated in the SDGS, with a specific SDG Goal 15, and crucial for Brazil. This paper aims to contribute to the discussion of the role government needs to play in shaping the business environment to foster the achievement of the SDGs by investigating how can business climate indexes be used to shape public policy. In order to do that, the Forest Investment Attractiveness Index (FIAI) has been applied to the state of Tocantins, in Brazil, to further comprehend which areas of public policy intervention would be more relevant to support the development of a sustainable forestry sector. The results indicate that the sort of tool can only be used in a preliminary analyzes of the economic, political and institutional environment related to the forestry sector.

Forests and forest sector have never been an isolated island in ocean, but an integral part of the economy, society and environment. The notion of sustainable forest management (SFM) as an outcome of international forest policy processes and deliberations, including economic, social and environmental dimensions, has been broadly received as an overall aim for national forest policies and programmes since Rio Summit. Derived from this multidimensional substance of SFM, the successful implementation of it should be, respectively, an outcome of well coordinated forest, economic, social and environmental policies. The need for comprehensive and inter-sectoral approaches as a prerequisite for proceeding towards improved forest resource management and sustainable development has been clearly articulated and highlighted by IPF/IFF-processes as well as by Ministerial Conferences on the Protection of Forests in Europe. Also, such leading global organisations as FAO and World Bank have seen the necessity of addressing e.g. the poverty alleviation issues from comprehensive and cross-sectoral perspective in their recently redesigned Forest Strategies. National forest programmes as a process provide a potential strategic framework, which enable cross-sectoral approaches and policy coordination through participation and partnership arrangements. Forest policy formulation processes are evolving in many countries adopting these principles. Two major challenges-and weaknesses-have been faced especially in the implementation stage of national forest programmes: inter-institutional arrangements for policy coordination to implement SFM in support of sustainable development may be ineffective, and policy research providing knowledge on cross-sectoral policy impacts and inter-sectoral linkages may be virtually non-existing. A few empirical analyses available are mainly related to the issues of deforestation and poverty. In addition, some econometric models have been specified to include policy variables from sectors external to forests. These two main challenges in mind an International Conference was arranged on the topic "Cross-sectoral Policy Impacts on Forests" as a joint effort of and in partnership

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This paper introduces a modeling approach for the assessment of policy options within the forest-based bioeconomy. The feedback between the forestry dynamics model and the economic model of the global forest-based sector of the proposed framework is essential, not only for response analysis as to the development of forest resources and for a correct assessment of future harvesting potentials, but also for the assessment of the impact of different management regimes on wood-based product markets. Test runs of the modeling framework on a Swedish case highlight the necessity of considering timber assortments for a comprehensive integration of forest resources and wood-based commodity market dynamics. Hence, the composition of harvest demand in terms of timber assortment affects the allocation of harvesting activities and, consequently, the development of forest resources (and thus future harvest potentials), as well as the production, trade and consumption of wood-based products.