European and International Law

The National Report on the Drug Situation in Estonia has been drafted by the Estonian Drug Monitoring Centre for the submission to the Ministry of Social Affairs of Estonia and the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). All EU REITOX National Focal Points of the Central and Eastern Europe (CEEC) countries are subject to reporting responsibility and have been submitting an annual report since 2001. The present report is the second report, which gives an overview of the drug situation in Estonia in 2001. The structure of the report is based on the EMCDDA Guidelines for National Reports, which are the same for all EU and CEEC countries. This report provides an outline of the political and legal framework, epidemiological situation and demand reduction interventions in Estonia in 2001. The data presented in the report is key information to be used by the Ministry of Social Affairs of Estonia and the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Every year the EMCDDA outlines specific key issues national reports have to focus on; demand reduction expenditures, drug use among young people aged 12-18, social exclusion and re-integration have been defined as key issues in 2002. From May 2001 the Estonian National Drug Monitoring Centre (EDMC) has been responsible for the collection and analysis of epidemiological and statistical data in the drug field. EDMC was established in the Institute of Experimental and Clinical Medicine (IECM) and is functioning as the National Focal Point (NFP) for the EMCDDA. The EDMC is collecting information from different institutions related to the drug field. The main information channels are the same as in the previous reporting period (Figure ).

he ship also had NMP Marines on the bridge on anti-pirate watch † Non dovrai che restare sul ponte e guardare le altre navi passare † † * Le opinioni espresse in questo articolo sono frutto di riflessioni e ricerche di entrambi gli autori. La redazione dei paragrafi 2 e 4 è attribuibile a Paolo Busco, a Filippo Fontanelli quella dei paragrafi 3 e 5. Un ringraziamento particolare alla Professoressa Nerina Boschiero per il sostegno e l'incoraggiamento scientifico. Grazie anche a Daniele Canestri, Giacomo Delledonne, Giuseppe Martinico e Alessandro Pizzuti per i preziosi consigli. Gli errori, le omissioni e le imprecisioni sono esclusivamente nostre.

The dispatch of the Italian Navy Ship "Fasan"  to protect the Italians
aboard the vessels of the Global Sumud Flotilla
heading for Gaza is a preventative measure in accordance with international law
and the Navy's  tasks. It is not
a matter of opposing at sea those who intend to use force
against Italian citizens and vessels, but of exercising
the right to protect their lives and safety should a dangerous situation arise.

Migration has long been a defining global phenomenon, with millions moving across borders for diverse reasons, both legal and illegal. Recent increases in international conflicts and violence have further intensified migration and asylum-seeking worldwide. Due to its strategic geographical position, Türkiye remains a key destination and transit country, receiving migrants mainly from the Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia. While Bangladeshi migration has not yet become a significant concern for Turkish authorities, their presence in Istanbul is steadily growing, comprising both documented and undocumented workers. This study investigates the working conditions of Bangladeshi migrant workers in Istanbul. It draws on secondary sources to contextualize existing literature and employs primary data collected through a survey of Bangladeshi workers. Data were processed and analysed using SPSS. The research considers working conditions as the dependent variable, examining their relationship with key independent variables: type of work, workplace rules and regulations, formal versus informal employment and salary and benefits. Age, gender and duration of employment were included as control variables. Findings indicate that working conditions among Bangladeshi migrants vary significantly across these factors, underscoring the diverse experiences and vulnerabilities faced by this migrant community in Istanbul's labour market.

SOMMARIO: 1. La Corte costituzionale giudice “di sistema” della conformità al diritto UE? Una nuova rotta con poche coordinate. – 2. L’enfasi sul tono costituzionale e la prospettiva del sindacato di costituzionalità come equivalente funzionale della disapplicazione. – 3. Dal tono costituzionale al surplus di garanzia (ovvero: quando la disapplicazione non basta). – 4. Regola o eccezione? Rivalutare la specificità del contributo della Corte costituzionale nei casi di contrasto col diritto UE.

SOMMARIO: 1. L’interpretazione conforme al diritto UE prima e dopo la “doppia pregiudizialità”. – 2. Lo statuto debole dell’interpretazione conforme al diritto UE nel giudizio di legittimità costituzionale. – 3. History repeating? L’interpretazione conforme al diritto UE nell’ambito della “nuova” doppia pregiudizialità.

Pubblicato nel fascicolo speciale su "Da Granital al ‘tono costituzionale’: l’interpretazione conforme del diritto nazionale al diritto UE, oggi", in https://europeanlitigation.eu/rapporti-tra-supreme-magistrature-nazionali-e-corte-di-giustizia/

The World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement mechanism was designed to provide a rule-based framework for resolving international trade conflicts, ensuring fairness, predictability, and equality among members. However, in practice, the system often reflects the power asymmetries between developed and developing nations. This paper critically examines the extent to which the WTO dispute mechanism is power-based rather than genuinely rule-based. Drawing on recent case law, trade disputes, and the challenges faced by weaker economies, the analysis demonstrates that while the formal structure appears neutral, outcomes frequently favour states with greater economic, political, and legal capacity. Key deficiencies, including limited access to resources for developing countries, the politicization of rulings, and enforcement asymmetries, highlight systemic inequalities. The paper concludes that unless reforms address these imbalances, the WTO will continue to reinforce existing power structures rather than serve as a truly impartial arbiter of trade disputes. Recommendations include strengthening support for developing states, enhancing compliance mechanisms, and ensuring that the principles of fairness and inclusivity underpin global trade governance.

La marina militare è stata ed è tuttora al fianco dei pescatori. Proprio in quesE giorni si celebra una sorta di anniversario: la prima missione del servizio di vigilanza-pesca svolto dalla marina in favore
dei pescatori è datato 2 oDobre 1959. In quella data i dragamine Gelso e Frassino furono incaricaE della prima missione di vigilanza pesca; da allora, per quarant'anni, la marina è stata ogni giorno
vicino ai nostri pescatori. Oggi ha questo compito sono desEnate due navi, un pattugliatore classe Cassiopea e una corvetta classe Minerva.
Da allora la presenza della marina a fuanco dei connazionali non è mai venuta meno. Essa assolve a tre ruoli fondamentali. Il primo è
quello di protezione degli interessi nazionali; la pesca coinvolge aspeP politci e diplomaEci, e quindi la presenza delle unità della marina militare tutela gli interessi nazionali in spazi di mare non
ancora delimitati.
Il secondo ruolo è di protezione della vita dei pescatori dalla
violenza posta in essere dalle marine dei paesi del Nord Africa, che avanzano rivendicazioni in
queste zone. Infine, c'è il ruolo di soccorso in caso di necessità.

Cette note propose une explication et une mise en perspective des principales évolutions en matière de marché unique numérique. Les arrêts commentés interviennent dans la période de mise en conformité au règlement 2016/679 (RGPD) 1 et, pour le dernier, après la fin du délai de mise en conformité. Ainsi, depuis le 25 mai 2018, le RGPD est pleinement entré en vigueur. Il abroge donc la directive 95/46/CE 2 . Les arrêts permettent à la fois d'illustrer l'anticipation du juge sur l'application du RGPD ainsi que son interprétation après son application (effective). Le marché unique numérique qui est une des priorités de la Commission européenne 3 se construit au fil de l'eau. Il a une dimension planétaire, mais également transdisciplinaire. Ainsi, il est amené à réglementer l'enseignement. La récente mise en demeure 4 de l'Institut des techniques informatiques et commerciales (ITIC) par la CNIL (Commission Nationale de l'Informatique et des Libertés) pour usage excessif de la vidéosurveillance illustre bien le large spectre de domaines que recouvre le marché unique numérique en termes de protection des données. En l'espèce, l'établissement filmait en permanence le personnel, les enseignants et les élèves, dans leurs salles de cours et dans leurs lieux de vie. Cette note d'actualité propose d'aborder cette évolution s'appuyant sur trois arrêts récents. Le premier concerne le respect du droit d'auteur sur internet dans un travail scolaire. Le second présente les éléments constituant des données à caractère personnel dans une copie d'examen. Enfin, la 1 Règlement (UE) 2016/679 du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 27 avril 2016 relatif à la protection des personnes physiques à l'égard du traitement des données à caractère personnel et à la libre circulation de ces données, JO L119/01. 2 Directive 95/46/CE du Parlement européen et du Conseil, du 24 octobre 1995, relative à la protection des personnes physiques à l'égard du traitement des données à caractère personnel et à la libre circulation de ces données, JO L281/31. 3 Communication de la Commission européenne, « Un marché unique numérique pour l'Europe : La commission définit 16 initiatives pour en faire une réalité », 6 mai 2015, IP-15-4919. 4 Le 2 juillet, la Présidente de la CNIL a mis en demeure l'Institut des techniques informatiques et commerciales de mettre en conformité son système de vidéosurveillance.

This article examines the differential treatment of Ukrainian refugees compared to those from other regions, particularly the Middle East and Africa, within the European Union. While the EU has demonstrated a swift and substantial response to the Ukrainian refugee crisis, inconsistencies in the application of refugee rights and protection mechanisms have emerged. The paper delves into the key rights enshrined in international refugee law and analyzes their implementation in the context of Ukrainian refugees. It highlights disparities in access to asylum procedures, temporary protection measures, and social services. The potential long-term implications of these disparities for refugee integration and EU refugee policy are explored. Furthermore, the paper discusses the geopolitical factors influencing the EU's response to the Ukrainian refugee crisis and the potential impact of the 2024 US presidential election on global refugee resettlement efforts. It concludes by proposing policy recommendations to ensure equitable treatment of all refugees and strengthen international cooperation in addressing the global refugee crisis.

This paper aims to comparatively investigate the numerous and variegated regulatory, case-law, and doctrinal sources, both international and European, relevant to the topic of environmental liability. The objective, in particular, is to examine the aspects closely related to the role of the materially responsible party, generally identified as the operator, in order to demonstrate the possibility of extending such liability to States, either jointly or severally, thus promoting the establishment of new supranational mechanisms for oversight and sanctioning their activities. In fact, the international cardinal principle that attributes all the burdens of prevention and repair to those who produce pollution or create a threat thereof, does not prevent the meaning of responsible from also including the State in which the contaminating activity is carried out; nor that States can act and cooperate, in the name of primary prevention, to improve levels of environmental protection, especially with regard to global phenomena such as climate change and widespread pollution mainly caused by emissions of toxic substances produced by humans.

The present contribution discusses about two decisions of the European Court of Justice (Taricco bis) and of the Italian Constitutional Court (Judgment no. 269/2017). The first has stated limitations on the applicability  in Italy of Rules of International law and of European Union law in the conflict with the fundamental principles of the  Italian Constitution. The second concerns procedural and substantial rules relevant for protection of fundamental rights, in the relationship betwween the Italian Constitutional Court nd the European Court of Justice. The paper hopes a better integration between the National Constitutional Courts and the Common Judges and the International European Courts, for the protection of Constitutional and European Rights

The paper comments on the German constitutionl Court's ruling of 5 May 2020 in the Weiss case. The dispute before the Bundesverfassungsgericht concerns the Pubic Sector Purchase Programma (PSPP) of the European Central Bank. The latter was one of the four programs thet embodied quantitative easing , specifically aimed at purchasing government bonds. The  ruling, in the opinion of the author of the paper marks a metamorphosis of the European Economic Constitution and represents a renowal, corrisponding to a change in the concption and function of law

The article analyses the new provisions of the Statute of the Court of Justice and its Rules of Procedure requiring the proactive publication, on the Court’s website, of written observations submitted in preliminary reference proceedings by the parties and other interested persons. This development represents a significant step forward for the Court of Justice, which has historically prioritised confidentiality to protect the serenity of proceedings and the equality of arms between parties. Against this backdrop, the Article delves into this aspect of the reform through the theoretical foundations of open justice alongside the evolution of the rules and case-law on access to court documents. It also explores the implications of the reform, with particular attention to the possibility for the parties and interested persons to object to publication. To that end, the Article includes an empirical analysis of the number of objections and published observations during the first six months of the new regime’s implementation. A combined reading of the normative and empirical findings suggests that the widespread concerns over an extensive use of objections appear (for now) to be unfounded, and that a real paradigm shift towards greater openness at the Court of Justice may indeed be underway.

This essay provides a brief overview of some geopolitical fractures and related policy conflicts that currently divide EU member states, not only politically, but also socially and in terms of national public opinion.
This exercise is linked both to the definition of probable scenarios for institutional evolution and to a reconsideration of the trajectory followed thus far by the European integration process.

Chiều ngày 10 tháng 4 năm 2025, Phiên B của HICAC 2025 tập trung thảo luận về các các tranh chấp phát sinh từ các dự án xây dựng tại Việt Nam để nhận diện những thách thức và đề xuất giải pháp nhằm nâng tầm chất lượng giải quyết tranh chấp với sự tham gia của 09 chuyên gia giàu kinh nghiệm trong nước.

Tác giả: Ông Nguyễn Công Phú – Luật sư thành viên Công ty Luật LNT&Partners, Nguyên Thẩm phán – Phó Chánh toà Kinh tế TAND TP.HCM

L’articolo analizza la trasformazione del controllo sociale nell’era digitale, passando dal modello del Panopticon foucaultiano al nuovo paradigma del “postare e segnalare”. In questa fase, la sorveglianza non è più esercitata da un'autorità centrale, ma dalla collettività stessa: si alimenta attraverso la continua esposizione volontaria sui social (postare) e si concretizza in forme di giudizio e sanzione diffuse (segnalare). La vita online diventa così spazio di autodisciplina e controllo reciproco, dove l’identità è costantemente modellata dallo sguardo altrui e la punizione si attua tramite meccanismi orizzontali come la cancel culture e la gogna mediatica.

The European Union, as any other organisation, has been evolving. It is a natural need of necessary adjustment of a given organisation to current challenges which are never constant. However, in the case of the European Union, this evolution has been intensifying for some time and, moreover, it has been more frequently observed in practice, while treaties have remained relatively stable (the last interference in the primary law was, in fact, in 2009, in the Treaty of Lisbon). In effect, it is not an overstatement to say that the European Union, despite its strong, since treaty-based, framework for operations, is, in a way, an underspecified, in status nascendi, structure. The procedural essence of the Union consists in the pending process of 'becoming', which means that in terms of epistemology the Union has not yet been described fully, and the definition and explanation of Union decision making processes fall behind the process of changes happening in the EU. The latter always precede legal regulations, which-as experience suggests-register changes that have occurred in the practice of Union institutions' operations with a significant delay. In fact, a lot of Union functioning mechanisms are first established in practice and then 'inserted' in treaty regulations, taking on the form of binding de lege lata solutions. Therefore, it can be safely said that while analysing the phenomenon of the European Union,

This case note aims to analyse the Mirin ruling. It begins by presenting the facts of the case, the Advocate General’s Opinion, and the Court’s judgment. The analysis then focuses on the ruling’s significance, exploring possible underlying reasons for the Court’s different approach in this case from the more restrictive stance previously taken in cases involving the free movement of married same-sex couples and rainbow families under EU law. The broader implications of this ruling for the protection of transgender rights under EU law are considered, and some gaps in protection and points which have not been clarified by the ruling are also highlighted.

The international lawyers occasionally turn to international instruments or established international institutions making an assessment of their place in the life of world community and national law-and-orders. However, it is changing not only the ideas about such instruments and institutions, but also the perception of international law itself as well as issues which arise on a certain historical stage. What does international law of the last two decades feature? The article treats of a number of recent trends demonstrating a special development. Their nature is different and affects the normative and the organizational bases, the international and national legal mechanisms of international norms implementation, the fields of human rights and security of states. Some of them come from the development of legal relations, the others the modern technologies, the thirds the complexity and specifics of the legal norms system. The identified features reveal the change in international law and the information background against which international law develops at the present time.

Tax policy in the European Union consists of two components: direct taxation, which remains the sole responsibility of Member States, and indirect taxation, which affects free movement of goods and the freedom to provide services. The most important efforts for the tax harmonization were made in the domain of the indirect taxation, the consumption taxes influence the price supported by the final consumer and prevent the fiscal neutrality necessary for a fair competition on the communitary market. The paper aims to present the excises harmonization stage within the European Union. The analyze concerns taxation basis, excises rates, circulation of excises bearers products between the members states.

The purpose of this paper is to present changes in legislation during 2013-2017 in the area of consensual dispute resolution with the participation of consumers-in particular with regard to the emergence of electronic procedures. Various features of the analysis of law in force as well as the analysis of law as has it evolved in history are used in the implementation of this objective. The author addresses model European solutions provided under Regulation (EU) No 524/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2013 on online dispute resolution for consumer disputes and amending Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 and Directive 2009/22/EC (Regulation on consumer ODR) and presents two important institutions of consensual dispute resolution with the participation of consumers within the framework of the European ODR platform. The author concludes that the introduction of digital procedures cuts down expenses, the duration of disputes and provides a realistic option of achieving its final result; it is also stressed that this is of particular significance in the resolution of cross-border disputes within 90 days -where we encounter obstacles in

The purpose of this paper is to present changes in legislation during 2013-2017 in the area of consensual dispute resolution with the participation of consumers-in particular with regard to the emergence of electronic procedures. Various features of the analysis of law in force as well as the analysis of law as has it evolved in history are used in the implementation of this objective. The author addresses model European solutions provided under Regulation (EU) No 524/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2013 on online dispute resolution for consumer disputes and amending Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 and Directive 2009/22/EC (Regulation on consumer ODR) and presents two important institutions of consensual dispute resolution with the participation of consumers within the framework of the European ODR platform. The author concludes that the introduction of digital procedures cuts down expenses, the duration of disputes and provides a realistic option of achieving its final result; it is also stressed that this is of particular significance in the resolution of cross-border disputes within 90 days -where we encounter obstacles in

La possibile fornitura, da parte di Starlink, di servizi satellitari per il Governo italiano solleva una serie articolata di implicazioni giuridiche e regolatorie. Il contributo esplora tali profili alla luce dell'assenza di un quadro normativo internazionale adeguato, delle recenti evoluzioni del diritto dell'Unione europea in materia di concorrenza e sovvenzioni estere, nonché della disciplina sugli appalti pubblici e sul Golden Power. In questa prospettiva, si riflette anche sul possibile contrasto con l'obiettivo di autonomia strategica perseguito dall'Unione europea nel settore delle telecomunicazioni satellitari. The potential supply of satellite communication services to the Italian government by Starlink raises a complex set of legal and regulatory issues. In light of the absence of a coherent international legal framework and recent developments in EU competition and foreign subsidy law, as well as public procurement and Golden Power rules, this article aims to analyse these issues. It also examines the possible incompatibility with the European Union's objective of achieving strategic autonomy in the satellite communications sector. SOMMARIO: 1. Tre debolezze regolative.-2. Questioni legate all'affidamento del servizio.-3. Criticità connesse alla disciplina Golden Power.-4. Problemi connessi alla disciplina sulle sovvenzioni estere e alle potenziali condotte anticoncorrenziali di SpaceX.-5. Temi concernenti il contrasto con l'autonomia strategica dell'UE.

Аннотация. Статья представляет собой рассуждение, проведенное в логике мысленного эксперимента. В качестве исходной предпосылки взяты смелые идеи И. Канта и графа Л.А. Камаровского об установлении в будущем "законосообразности" (верховенства права) не только внутри обществ, но также между государствами, когда конфликты разрешаются международным судом, подкрепленным солидарной силой великих держав. Задача состоит в том, чтобы наметить возможности и векторы продвижения главных держав и геополитических центров Запада к этому идеалу с учетом известных барьеров (связанных прежде всего с неприятием ограничения собственного суверенитета), интересов повышения международного престижа, легитимности, расширения влияния, а также с включением социально-эволюционных механизмов конкуренции в этой сфере.

В статье развиваются идеи И. Канта о «законосообразности» в отношениях между государствами как главном условии предотвращения войн и достижения устойчивого («вечного») мира. Поскольку войны в XXI в. возобновляются, идеи Канта остаются актуальным вызовом для современных и будущих мировых лидеров, политиков и дипломатов. Отмечен значительный вклад России конца XIX в. – начала XX в. в развитие правового регулирования вопросов войны и мира в Европе. Особая роль принадлежит графу Л. А. Камаровскому, его трактату «О международном суде» (1881 г.), где четко обозначены проблемы реализации верховенства права в системе международных отношений. Сформулирован принцип Канта-Камаровского. Кратко обозначены основные идейные и институциональные достижения за последние сто лет. Начало XXI века — время активных дискуссий относительно глобального конституционализма в сфере международного права. Здесь ведется острая полемика, выдвигаются разнородные проекты, изложенные в недавнем фундаментальном труде А. Н. Медушевского, однако в них не уделяется должного внимания ключевой проблеме солидарной силовой поддержки авторитетного независимого суда. Рассмотрены самые высокие барьеры для реализации верховенства права и условия их преодоления. Проблемой остается универсальность международных правовых норм. Показано, что императив вовлечения государств в широкую гуманистическую коалицию требует эволюционного подхода как развития идей Канта о значимости антагонизма в мировой истории.

In these days, lending in foreign currencies is one of the most complex economic and social problems, which arises several legal questions not only in those Member States of the European Union, where such contractual constructions have been applied, but in relation to the judicial practice of the Court of Justice of the European Union (hereinafter CJEU). The study was inspired by the CJEU’s new judgement, which was recently published, in September 2017. This judgement facilitates to examine some problematic questions in detail, with reference to the interpretation of Directive 93/13/EEC and with regard to the specialities of the Hungarian regulatory environment. Notwithstanding the fact, that both the Hungarian legislator and the bodies applying law intended to close the debates on the lending in foreign currencies, statistics show the opposite. Between 1 November 2013 and 31 December 2016, more than 36,000 cases were submitted to the different courts from all over Hungary. About 19...

Un vecchio scritto che commentava la visita di stato del presidente Carlo Azeglio Ciampi in India (12-16 febbraio 2005), di cui ero stato testimone. In esso criticavo la disorganizzazione dimostrata dalla nostra rappresentanza diplomatica e mettevo in luce come e perché l’India vedesse l’Italia come una potenza di second’ordine.

Η σύγκρουση μεταξύ Ισραήλ και Ιράν που άρχισε στις 13 Ιουνίου 2025 και η κλιμάκωσή της, πέραν των άλλων συνεπειών της, φέρνει στο προσκήνιο το ζήτημα που αφορά στα Στενά του Ορμούζ που ελέγχονται από το Ιράν. Ένα ιδιαίτερο θέμα αφορά, πέραν των γεωπολιτικών προεκτάσεων που η σύγκρουση έχει σε σχέση με την σημασία των Στενών, στις συμβάσεις ναυλώσεως (charterparties) και γενικότερα ζητήματα διεθνούς ναυσιπλοΐας.

This study explores the pivotal role of provisional relief in international commercial arbitration, specifically through the lens of Article 17 of the UNCITRAL Model Law (1985) and Article 17 of the Iran International Commercial Arbitration Law (1997). Provisional relief aims to safeguard the rights of parties pending arbitration, necessitating the provision of adequate security for its implementation. The enforcement of such relief often requires the involvement of third parties, such as banks or service providers, whom the arbitral tribunal mandates to comply with the relief orders. However, resistance from these third parties to comply can lead to legal challenges, raising questions about jurisdiction for compensation claims. The paper argues that while the arbitrator's authority to grant provisional relief is contract-based, a judge's authority is state-derived, potentially affecting the perceived legal standing of arbitral orders. It posits that disregarding the effectiveness of arbitration as a form of dispute resolution would render arbitration l aws ineffective, underscoring the assumption that third parties failing to honor provisional relief should be held liable under general civil liability principles. This abstract underscores the necessity of a robust legal framework to manage the dynamics between arbitral tribunals, the disputing parties, and third parties, ensuring the integrity of the arbitration process is maintained.

In ogni fase di crisi con Teheran, lo Stretto di Hormuz
torna al centro dell’attenzione per il rischio di escalation.
Sebbene l’Iran minacci periodicamente di bloccarlo,
vincoli giuridici e fattori geografici rendono tale scenario
improbabile. Teheran potrebbe però ricorrere a misure
belliche asimmetriche. Di fronte a possibili evoluzioni
imprevedibili, l’Ue è chiamata a rafforzare la propria
presenza navale per garantire la sicurezza dei traffici
energetici globali.

Фролов Константин Геннадьевич -кандидат философских наук, научный сотрудник сектора социальной эпистемологии. Институт философии РАН. Российская Федерация, 109240 Москва, ул. Гончарная, д. 12, стр. 1. Научный сотрудник Международной лаборатории логики, лингвистики и формальной философии. Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики».

Treason, punishment is death penalty to offender after conviction in court while the procedure of execution depends of law of each country in East Africa country (EAC). For instance in Tanzania law and practice if someone conviction in court the procedure according the criminal procedure Act cap 20 R.E 2019 of Tanzania section 322 to 325 provide the death penalty procedure are;-1 "322(1) where any person is sentence to death, he shall suffer death by hanging, and 325(1) as soon as conveniently may be after sentence of death has been

This commentary aims to analyze and highlight the principal contributions of the report prepared by Prof. Vincent Ooi, which stands as a valuable addition to the ongoing discourse on the concept of nexus in international tax law. Prepared in anticipation of the forthcoming meeting of the International Law Association's Tax Committee, to be held in Paris on June 26/27, 2025 (Rapport 5: #The practice of double taxation agreements and nexus") the report distinguishes itself through its conceptual depth, clarity of exposition, and systematic analytical approach.

Θέματα παρέκτασηςκατά τον κανονισμό 1215/2012‣ 

ΜονΕφΘεσ 257/2024, ΜονΠρΘεσ 8157/2024,
ΜονΠρΠειρ 3771/2022, με κοινές παρατηρ.Α. Άνθιμου

ΜΟΝΟΜΕΛΕΣ ΕΦΕΤΕΙΟ  ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΗΣ 257/2024
Έφεση κατά πρωτοβάθμιας καταδικαστικής απόφασης. Εκκαλούσα ουγγρική εταιρία. Εφεσίβλητη ελληνική εταιρία. Λόγοι έφεσης: εσφαλμένη ερμηνεία και εφαρμογή νόμου και κακή εκτίμηση των αποδείξεων. Διεθνής δικαιοδοσία πρωτοβάθμιου δικαστηρίου. Σιωπηρή παρέκταση. Εκκαλούσα δεν πρόβαλε σχετική ένσταση στο πλαίσιο της πρωτόδικης διαδικασίας. Προστασία των αδύναμων διαδίκων. Καταναλωτές. Εκκαλούσα ισχυρίζεται ότι είναι καταναλώτρια. Απορρίπτει ισχυρισμό. Αποδεικνύεται η εμπορική ιδιότητα και δραστηριότητα της εκκαλούσας στο πεδίο των εκτροφής βοοειδών και άλλων ζώων, χονδρεμπόριο κρεάτων, και σχετικές εμπορευματικές μεταφορές. Δεν προβλήθηκε από την εκκαλούσα στον πρώτο βαθμό. Δεν υπάρχει υποχρέωση υπόμνησης από το δικαστήριο, όταν δεν προβάλλεται σχετικός ισχυρισμός. Σιωπηρή παρέκταση και απόρριψη λόγων έφεσης.

ΜΟΝΟΜΕΛΕΣ ΠΡΩΤΟΔΙΚΕΙΟ ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΗΣ 8157/2024
Αίτηση λήψης ασφαλιστικών μέτρων από βελγική εταιρία στην Ελλάδα. Υφιστάμενη συμφωνία παρέκτασης υπέρ των δικαστηρίων του Βατερλώ Βελγίου για όλα τα θέματα που απορρέουν από την παρούσα σύμβαση. Επίκληση της συμφωνίας παρέκτασης από την καθ’ης ελληνική εταιρία. Απορρίπτει ισχυρισμό. Αν και αποκλειστική, συντρέχει με την εσωτερική νομοθεσία (τόπος εκτέλεσης). Ανάλογη είναι και η ρύθμιση του ενωσιακού δικαίου. Έλλειψη εννόμου συμφέροντος. Η επίκληση της συμφωνίας παρέκτασης αποσκοπεί στην καθυστέρηση της δίκης. Δεν υπάρχει στοιχείο οφέλους για την καθ’ης από την εκδίκαση της αίτησης στο Βέλγιο. Απορρίπτει την ένσταση.

ΜΟΝΟΜΕΛΕΣ ΠΡΩΤΟΔΙΚΕΙΟ ΠΕΙΡΑΙΑ 3771/2022
Αγωγή αποζημίωσης αγγλικού αλληλοασφαλιστικού οργανισμού κατά ελληνικής εταιρίας. Ερημοδικία εναγόμενης. Αυτεπάγγελτος έλεγχος διεθνούς δικαιοδοσίας.  Εντοπισμός υφιστάμενης αποκλειστικής συμφωνίας παρέκτασης υπέρ των αγγλικών δικαστηρίων. Η συμφωνία καταρτίστηκε πριν από την έξοδο του Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου από την ΕΕ. Αδιάφορο ότι κατά το χρόνο συζήτησης της ένδικης αγωγής η Αγγλία δεν αποτελεί πλέον κράτος μέλος της ΕΕ. Η συμφωνία υπερισχύει της γενικής δωσιδικίας της κατοικίας του εναγόμενου. Με βάση τη lex fori δεν προκύπτει ότι υφίσταται οιοσδήποτε λόγος ακυρότητας της συμφωνίας παρέκτασης. Νόμιμα ορίσθηκαν τα δικαστήρια της Αγγλίας ως παρεκτεινόμενα δικαστήρια. Απορρίπτει αγωγή.

Purpose-This paper aims to critically examine the European Union's legislative initiative to establish an Anti-Money Laundering Authority (AMLA), which will introduce union-level supervision and provide support to national supervisors in the field of anti-money laundering and countering the financing of terrorism (AML/CFT), as well as to financial intelligence units (FIUs) in European Union (EU) member states. The paper discusses why this initiative was deemed necessary, which are the key objectives, rules and principles of AMLA and which challenges and opportunities will emerge as AMLA becomes operational. Design/methodology/approach-This paper draws on reports, legislation, legal scholarship and other open-source data on the EU legislative initiative to establish a new AMLA. Findings-AMLA will provide a comprehensive framework for EU-level AML/CFT supervision and for cooperation among FIUs. If all organisational challenges are properly addressed, the new authority will significantly enhance the EU's ability to tackle money laundering and terrorism financing. Originality/value-To the best of the author's knowledge, this study is one of the first to examine the mission, governance and supervision mechanisms of the EU's AMLA, as well as the challenges and opportunities associated with its functioning.

Ce document est un devoir universitaire analysant le conflit frontalier entre le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua centré sur le fleuve San Juan. Ce différend historique trouve son origine dans l'annexion de territoires par le Costa Rica et la compétition pour le contrôle d'une potentielle route de canal interocéanique. Le cœur du litige repose sur l'interprétation et l'application du Traité Cañas-Jerez de 1858, qui accorde la souveraineté du fleuve San Juan au Nicaragua (incluant la rive droite) mais reconnaît un droit de navigation commerciale au Costa Rica.

This article examines the uncertainties in the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) relating to religious minorities, particularly case law involving families, and particularly children. In view of the increasingly religiously diverse and pluralist societies of the European Union, the ECtHR is required to ensure that, in terms of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), both individuals and collective religious or nonreligious minorities are afforded religious freedom against so-called secular values which pursue majority interests, although there may be genuine cases where minority rights to freedom of religion need to be limited. This article argues that, in several cases, the ECtHR, with respect, appears to have allowed some secular laws of various States which restrict the freedom of religious minorities, to prevail without the need to adequately justify such limitations. Furthermore, the margin of appreciation doctrine has been widely used by the ECtHR, and has permitted States Parties to interpret religious rights and freedoms within the broader context of their national cultures, values and traditions. However, the argument that a lack of consensus between the laws of Contracting States allows a wide margin of appreciation may risk jeopardising the protection of minority religious rights, including those of children. Although the margin of appreciation doctrine is integral and essential to the Convention's system of constitutional-interpretive principles, it should be confined within acceptable limits, mainly by appreciating its subordination to the Convention's primary constitutional principles and also its relationship with other secondary principles, particularly proportionality. The ECtHR is urged to follow a careful and considered process of balancing of interests in the application of Article 9.2 to ensure that the legitimate interests of families of religious (and non-religious) minorities are protected, and to avoid a mechanistic or over-deferential application of the margin of appreciation doctrine.