English Word formation

In many languages, affixes can be used to derive words with the same semantic types and can therefore compete in word formation. This paper discusses how to quantitatively assess the competition between derivational affixes based on their semantic similarity. Two possible measures of affix rivalry drawn from studies in ecology are examined: the Sørensen index, which considers the proportion of shared functions between rival affixes; and the Percentage similarity coefficient, which is based on the realization frequency of functions. Two complementary measures (Balanced richness and Balanced abundance) are also proposed to further analyze the semantic dissimilarity between rival affixes. Using the semantic competition between six French deverbal suffixes as a case study, we show how these four measures suit the quantification of affix rivalry and help capture different aspects of the phenomenon.

Living languages are in a continuous motion, adapting to the social contexts in which they are used; they take form as different registers or dialects, they appear in the written or spoken mode, and, above all, they move withtime, changing chronologically. A specific instance of chronological change occurs in the individual. When languages are acquired or lost, they adapt to the successively changing constraints of the speaker's mind and to the conditions of the social environment.

This paper analyzes the word-formation processes of gaming terms that are used in COD (Call Of Duty) Twitter account. The data analyzed were tweets that were posted by the Call Of Duty Twitter account administrator from January 1 st 2020 until April 30 th 2020 in which Re-Tweets are not considered as data. The method used is a generic qualitative inquiry approach with a narrative method. We find gaming terms used in the twitter account and analyze it with Brinton's wordformation processes theory. The findings show that several gaming terms like "OP", "XP", and "Chute" were found and all of them were formed through word-formation processes, creating a different or slightly different meaning from the original word from the dictionary. In conclusion, there are six types of word-formation processes from the gaming terms that were used by the official page of Call Of Duty on twitter from January 1 st 2020 until April 30 th 2020 and those word-formation processes were one of many elements that strengthen the gaming community to this day.

Building a corpus has been a necessary task for NLP and other research fields like linguistics, language teaching, and translation. Only a few Thai corpora have been created and released. Most of them are static and small in size. They are not designed to be a monitor corpus, which can grow over time. The concept of a monitor corpus bears similarity to the new research area named Big Data, which has gained more interests in the past few years because of the extensive growth of data available online. In this paper, the differences between monitor corpus and Big Data will be first discussed. Then, the design and the framework for developing a Thai monitor corpus will be outlined. To carry out this task, techniques and methods used in Big Data research that are suitable for storing texts will be selected and summarized. The progress of this work will be reported in section 3, and the plan for further development and the use of TMC will be sketched. The paper is concluded by pointing ou...

This paper contends that the morphology of English is rather complex and has multivariate dimensions. Morphological studies should begin at the typologization of the language as analytic (isolating) or synthetic (inflectional) or agglutinating (affixing). There is need too to try and marry the various theories propounded by linguists on morphology. For example some authors maintain that single morphemes, their meanings and grammatical functions are put together and stored in the lexicon of that language while others are of the opinion that morphological units evolve through the process of affixation. Since no theory is sacrosanct, a grammatical morphology in which the morpheme synergizes with the other aspects of grammar including the lexicon, phonology, syntax and semantics is advocated. The word as the basic unit of morphology especially in its phonology, orthographic system and syllabic structure is recognised. Morphemic alternant including allophonic and allomorphic variants as aspects of the phonological morpheme are identified. There is an attempt to distinguish between the morph and the morpheme in our discussion of morphology as a process in the systemic and systematic processes of language. This broadening of the study of morphology corroborates the fact of grammar as an interrelationship of parts in the language system. The study made use of relevant texts, journals and the internet sources to collect data for the review.

Newly coined words can be a powerful tool in the competitive domain of journalistic discourse, where various linguistic and paralinguistic means are utilised to attract the reader’s attention. Many are coined by creative, i.e. non-rule-governed processes and are characterised by a high degree of ludicity, which they achieve through wordplay, allusion and intertextuality. The goal of this paper is to explore how analogy is exploited in news media headlines in English to produce these pragmatico-stylistic effects. For this purpose, we have queried the NOW Corpus (Davies 2016-) for occurrences of words that contain -(ma)geddon, -pocalypse, -nado, -cane, -tastrophe and -zilla. These bound elements originate as splinters from recurrent instances of lexical blending and have been formed whole series of neologisms (e.g. rainmageddon, Trumpocalypse, snownado, blizzicane, disastrophe, stormzilla, etc.). Our findings show that these analogical formations are used in news media headlines because their ludicity makes them effective as attention-seeking devices.

Keywords: linguistic ludicity, analogy, neologisms, news media headlines, journalistic discourse

This paper sought to establish teachers’ perceptions on the use of the mother tongue as a medium of instruction in the lower grade levels of primary school, grade 1-4. The paper adopted a qualitative approach where a case study research design was utilized. Data were collected from eight (8) grade 1-4 teachers in one primary school in the Manzini region of the Kingdom of Eswatini. The school was randomly selected and purposive sampling was used to select the teachers who participated. One on one interviews and questionnaires containing open- ended questions were used to collect data from the sampled teachers. The paper was based on the following research questions: what are teachers’ perceptions of using the mother tongue as a medium of instruction in the lower grade levels of primary school? How is teaching and learning affected by the use of the mother tongue as a medium of instruction in the lower grade levels of primary school? Data were analysed using thematic content analysis....

Language creativity is a complex topic involving many different and mutually intertwined aspects. In this paper we deal with lexical creativity in English and discuss several key issues relevant to it: the relationship between productivity and creativity, the concepts of ludicity and wordplay, the attention-seeking function of lexical creativity, and the importance of extralinguistic factors in lexical creativity. To illustrate how these issues pertaining to lexical creativity are reflected in the actual process of forming creative coinages, we focus specifically on the attention-grabbing and the naming functions of lexical blending as one of the most creative and most playful word formation processes in English, using as an example the blend Barbenheimer, recently coined for a particular purpose of a double feature of the two different films premiering on the same date. We discuss the formal structure of this blend, its semantic features, as well as its iconicity and the degree of predictability exhibited in the way the names of two blockbusters were amalgamated to form a blend.

The term available is used in word-formation studies in reference to those morphological processes which can be employed for productive coinage at a given time. Availability is often depicted alongside profitability (the number of lexemes that a process can coin), and together they conform the hypernym morphological productivity. Availability is in this context the qualitative side of productivity, with profitability representing its quantitative side. The division of productivity into availability and profitability was not made explicit until Corbin (1987), and the former concept still stands as a slippery one (Bauer 2001, Palmer 2015). The notion of availability gets particularly problematic when we turn to language change because the fact that a morphological process is available at a given time in the history of the language does not guarantee that it will be available at a later stage. This involves not only that “statements of availability are temporally limited” (Bauer 2001: 205; see Bauer et al. 2013: 32), but also that there must exist a locus for the transition from availability to unavailability, and vice versa. If, as is widely agreed, availability is a non-gradable concept, research on word-formation should be able to detect that transitional point and describe its nature. This need is perceived as growing in the light of accounts like Bauer et al.’s (2013: 198-201), who discuss morphological processes that allegedly stopped being productive in the past but where lexical activity seems to have revived. A case in point is that of -ment, a nominalizing suffix whose productive capacity peaked during the 18th and 19th centuries and which has been in progressive decline since (see Bauer 2001, Lieber 2005, Palmer 2015: 126). The status of -ment today is ambiguous between available and unavailable, given recent reports on occasional creations that make it impossible to label -ment as obsolete (Kawaletz and Plag 2015, Lapesa et al. 2018). The aim of this paper is to delve into -ment derivation in order to account for the factors which may have reduced its productive potential in the recent past, e.g. variability in access to lexical bases or competition with other word-formation processes. To do so, The Corpus of Historical American English (Davis 2010) is scanned for -ment coinages from the 1820s-2010s time frame, each complemented with information from the Oxford English Dictionary (Proffitt 2019). This makes it possible to observe changes in the process’s historical behavior, and it also evidences that results of low productivity differ depending on the perspective and method adopted. Likewise, the comparison of dictionary and corpus data allows describing and contrasting the fluctuations in the lexical efficiency of a process whose productive status has been described as uncertain.

Morphological productivity represents an essential property for human
language and, as such, it lies at the core of any thorough word-formation theory. Studies in productivity have traditionally focused on areas of high profitability, that is, on the quantification and ranking of processes which show the capacity for lexical creation (e. g. ‑able, ‑ness, ‑ity). In other cases, however, morphological processes can no longer be used productively, or they can be used minimally (e. g. ‑th, ‑hood). These processes have received considerably less attention in the literature, partly due to their complex theoretical definition, partly due to their difficult practical assessment. In view of the shortage of specific research, this paper revolves around
the current status of the nominalizing suffix ‑ment, which enjoyed a high profitability index between the 12th and 17th centuries, and is today taken to embody marginal productivity in synchronic terms. The suffix is explored in the light of lexicographic and corpus data for an inspection of its role in nominalizations with the meaning ACTION/PROCESS, specifically concerning recent coinages that suggest some degree of morphological activity. This up-to-date picture of ‑ment shows that it is risky to present it as unproductive, and it leads to the consideration of related notions like the availability-unavailability divide or the measurement of low productivity.

The suffix ‐ment is a nominalizer which has been portrayed as practically “defunct” (Anshen & Aronoff 1999:24), although recent coinages cast doubts on conclusive statements (Bauer et al. 2013). This investigation is based on nonce formations from the BNC and COCA and aims at exploring nominalizations which compete for the meaning action in order to understand the current degree of productivity of the processes involved. This is done through a corpus-based quantitative approach which considers ‐ment in the light of its relationship to other competitors, e.g. ‐ing or conversion. The results reveal that ‐ment is normally surpassed by other processes, but also that it has found a niche of application which secures a minimal productive status.

The Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) is an established goodness-of-fit measure for selecting models in the analysis of empirical data. However, AIC is sensitive to sample size. Author’s previous research has shown that Scaled AIC, i.e. AIC divided by sample size, is an effective tool for assessing model fit and hierarchizing regression models. The present study explores further properties of this variable. The object of investigation are 66 multiple regression models referring to the processing of closed (concatenated) English compounds taken from Gagné et al.’s (2019) Large Database of English Compounds (LADEC). In particular, Scaled AIC is juxtaposed to the English Lexicon Project (ELP) and British Lexicon Project (BLP) as sources of response times, the lexical decision and naming tasks, compound length, and transparency norms. One-way ANOVA, main effects analysis, and non-parametric tests are used as methods. The findings suggest that Scaled AIC is responsive to experimental design, the source of response times, and the lexical decision and naming tasks. At the same time, the results of this study offer empirical support for the validation of methods employed by Gagné et al. (2019).

This chapter provides an overview of the study of competition in word-formation theories, drawing on the findings of the ten chapters collected in this volume and other recent contributions. It explores recurrent issues regarding (i) the triggers and outcomes of competition, (ii) the variety of competing forms, and (iii) the synonymy condition for competition. With respect to the first set of research questions, a binary typology of form-based and meaning-based resolutions is identified, with each pole providing multiple ways to resolve competition. Next, for the form-related research questions, the distinction between macro- and micro-level competition is significant. Finally, the synonymy condition is reassessed through a careful comparison between morphologically simplex and complex lexemes, leading to a definition of competing rivals in word-formation as a set of formally suppletive morphological processes that produce propositional, near, or sense synonyms.

Electronic reference Manon Philippe and Élise Mignot, "How proper names enter the lexicon-From the Central Intelligence Agency to CIA: the reduction of full denominative expressions interpreted as a means to achieve (greater) lexicalization",

This study aimed to investigate the neologisms used on selected CNN TV programs during the coronavirus epidemic. Adopting a descriptive method in analyzing the corpus of the study, we collected (286) neologisms. We analyzed them according to the types of word classes, their topics, and the morphological processes involved in forming these neologisms. The study revealed that 88 percent of the neologisms were nouns and the most prevalent morphological processes were compounding, affixation, and blending, respectively. The study also pointed out that 46 percent of the new words were medical neologisms. Findings revealed that the types of word classes and morphological processes abided by English word formation rules. Besides, all neologisms belonged to English open classes of words.

This paper analyses 19 nonce-formations taken from sitcoms, drama series and Netflix movies that refer to elements of popular culture, i.e. movies, reality shows, music, books and fairy tales. We discuss the role of both extra-linguistic knowledge and context in interpreting their meaning, and the function of these nonce-formations in discourse. The aim of this analysis is to consider whether it is at all possible for these coinages to become lexically listed. Since these nonce-formations are created in a specialized domain (the media) and communicated to a larger speech community, we conclude that in the case of nonce word-formation there is a degree of lexicalizability.

Ecological models of competition have provided great explanatory power regarding synonymy in derivational morphology. Competition models of this type have certainly shown their utility, as they have demonstrated, among other things, the relevance of frequency measures, productivity, compositionality and analyzability when comparing the development of morphological constructions. There has been less consideration of alternative models that could be used to describe the historical co-development of suffixes that produce words with sometimes similar forms or meanings but are not inevitably or solely in competition. The symbiotic model proposed in this article may help answer larger questions in linguistics, such as how best to analyze certain multilingual morphological phenomena, including the emergence of semantically similar forms within the same language. The present study demonstrates the importance of a diachronic approach in situations of near-synonymy, as an understanding of semantic similarity necessitates a review of the available historical record. In particular, our study focuses on the case of the suffix -eer (e.g., marketeer) in English, analyzing its origins, semantics, compositionality, and historical development, including its symbiotic relationship to the similar suffix -er (e.g., marketer).

This study aims at clarifying the construction of Arabic cognate Accusative and its realization in English in order to be clearer for the learners who try to understand the structure of Arabic clause. The study attempts to investigate the verbs that take cognate accusative. It is hypothesized that Arabic learners are not aware of this phenomenon, thus they face difficulties in translating them into English because of the complexity forms of cognate accusative. To investigate the hypothesis of this research, different Arabic examples were taken from the authentic books and compare these data with their counterpart in English in order to show the differences and similarities between the two different languages and analyse these data from syntactic point of view which adopts Langacker's (1991) framework of cognitive grammar. The study is to be empirical, analytical, and comparative. The researchers use Arabic data from different books and look for the equivalent structures of English so that they give a clear idea about this syntactic phenomenon. The results of the study show that Arabic construction has more uses of cognitive Accusative than English.

Languages behave like living organisms, they are created, they live through their own use, and moreover they grow. The growth of a language is indicated by way of numerous processes that occur in it, one of which is word formation. People influence the lexicon of their language in various ways. Sometimes it is the bare necessity that compels us to form new words, other times it is purely accidental. Even though words appear and disappear, the English lexicon retained its present size, in part, due to the creation of new words on the basis of the ones that already exist. Presently, the development of science and technology, and consequently, the Internet brings about a high rate of lexical expansion. This phenomenon is reflected in the changes of vocabulary through creation of new specialized terminology. In any case, newly coined words help people successfully conduct their every day responsibilities as well as leisure time. One manner in which new words are created, chiefly popularised by Lewis Carroll in the 19 th century, is blending two words to form a new one, also known as portmanteau. Portmanteau is a word that is familiar to luggage enthusiasts; moreover, it is a word familiar to language enthusiasts as well. Innovative and entertaining, these portmanteau words are ubiquitous in advertising, newspapers, or media. Some, like smog, brunch, or motel, express such unique concepts that they made their permanent place in the English vocabulary. This paper discusses the origin, process and use of portmanteau words denoting that they, indeed, have a special place in the English language.

The current paper focuses on an empirical study of one of the most prominent morphological word-formation processes in the English language in animated films, the process of lexical blending. The aims of the study are to explore lexical blends in the English of animated films, and to determine to what extent, if at all, they are used in different corpora. The change within the language is the result of morphological rule-governed creativity, and thus it lends itself to both quantitative and qualitative linguistic analyses. The research presents the identification of blends in animated films and their morpho-semantic analysis. The linguistic items identified in animated films are cross-checked against two sources - the technology-based language tool (COCA) and selected dictionaries of contemporary English. The study reveals that the language of animated films contains lexical blends, and that they are used in corpora to some degree.

Teknologi Nasional, https://www.itenas.ac.id/ WORD FORMATION: An introduction to the study of syntax in English Phonological Level and Morphological Process The existence of words is distributed in series or structures consisting of various levels in linguistics 2. Identifying words in terms of phonological unit, such as syllables that are formed systemically from the smallest element of the secondary articulation 3 , for example, [collect] is phonetically concrete, consisting of the syllables /kə/ and /ˈlekt/, and the smallest elements of the first independent syllable are /k/ and /ə/ and so on. Bloomfield (1933:178) stated that words are free forms, which consist entirely of (two or more) smaller free forms. In short, a word is the smallest free form. A number of words in English are monosyllabic or have only one syllable, such as |bar|, |both|, |since|, |strengthted|, and also the definite article or definite article |a| or |an|. Morphologically, a word is a unit of language, in the form of a single or combined morpheme, or independent (free morpheme). Even at the morphology, words are the largest units and the smallest units are morphemes. Observing words also includes terms of word form and lexemes, for example, |collect| is a form or appearance of a word, it is a verb element that fills the predicate function in morphosyntactic studies (see also Mathews 1974:20). Kridalaksana (2008:110) defined a word as the smallest unit in syntax, it arises from a lexeme through a morphological process. Gramatical Relationships Observing words in syntactic diagrams (grammatical units) is abstract. At the syntactics, words are the smallest units, hierarchically become components or elements that form larger syntactic units, they are phrases, clauses and sentences. As the smallest unit in syntax, words act as fillers for syntactic functions, and as markers of syntactic categories, as well as as connectors in units or parts of syntactic units. In a conversation, words act as fillers for syntactic units in the form of full words or function words. Full words are words that lexically have meaning and have the possibility of undergoing morphological processes. They are an open class, and can be independent as a unit of speech, for example, |house|, |wind|, |man|. Function words are words and lexically have no meaning, do not undergo morphological processes. They are a closed class and cannot be independent in speech, including prepositions, conjunctions, articles and pronouns.

The present paper seeks to further develop an interdisciplinary research into language variation and contact studies. Integrating cognitive-onomasiological and ecolinguistic approaches, it addresses lexical diversity in the Caribbean English. The permanent contacts between English and other local and transported languages have caused a wide range of modifications in the Caribbean English lexicon, including allonymy. Allonymy is treated as a contact-induced type of lexical variation leading to the formation of alternative names for the same referents. By tracing the sources of allonyms and disclosing cognitive mechanisms involved in their formation, this study explains the vitality of allonymic lexical items in the complex language ecology of the Caribbean region. It is argued that variation in naming processes is determined by speakers’ cognitive preferences as well as their cultural vigour that manifest in multilingual and multicultural ecology.

Current systems for automatic chromosome classification are interactive and require human intervention for correct separation between touching and overlapping chromosomes. Special separation methods are required to segregate chromosomes because they are non-rigid objects. This study develops a new technique to separate overlapping chromosomes based on computational geometry. This technique requires the identification of all possible cut points from the contour line of overlapping chromosomes, using Voronoi diagrams and Delaunay triangulations to select the four target cut points and cut overlapping chromosomes into two chromosomes. We test our algorithm on 35 overlapping chromosome images and find that 28 out of 35 overlapping chromosomes images can be separated correctly (i.e. 80.0 %). Three out of the 35 images are separate incorrectly (i.e. 8.6 %) and four out of 35 images are not separable by our algorithm (i.e. 11.4 %).

Effective communication is one of the most important factors bringing about people’s confidence in the information and its source. Most charismatic leaders employ some particular rhetorical devices to gain people’s trust with the ultimate goal of bringing peace and prosperity to the nation. The present study aimed at extracting some linguistic devices and attributes in relation to roles of leaders from speeches delivered by King Rama IX—one of the most significant and respectful leaders of Thailand. Data were speeches of HM the King given from 1974 to 1999 on the occasion of the royal birthday anniversaries. Qualitatively, types of attributes and linguistic devices were proposed while frequencies of occurrences of devices, together with frequencies per 1,000-word text, were quantitatively reported. Results found that King Rama IX’s studied speeches comprised three attributes—[HUMBLENESS], [PERSUASIVENESS] AND [SOLIDARITY]—with eight major types of linguistic devices. The proposed at...

The aims of this study were to identify the processes of word formation in English new words and to know which word formation processes were the most productive one(s). The researcher used qualitative research design in order to obtain the data from the document of OED online. OED online is the online dictionary which consists of list of English new words. Therefore, the research object was the lists of English new words from year 2012-2016. Document analysis was used as the instrument to collect the data. The data were presented in the form of table. The findings of this study showed that there are some processes in creating English new words, such as a) affixation, b) folk etymology, c) compounding, d) abbreviation, e) acronyms, f) borrowing, g) blending, h) clipping, i) back-formation. Besides, there are also found the double word formation processes, such as j) folk etymology + compounding, k) compounding + affixation, m) blending + affixation, n) clipping + blending. The result...

Despite their increasing use, little is known about the purpose of word blends, e.g. chillax, which have near-synonymous composite words (relax and chill). Potential explanations for their existence and persistence include: use in different sentence constructions, to provide unique meaning, and to create interest/identity. Th e current study used a vignette methodology with two-hundred and forty-one students to explore the relevance of such hypotheses for ‘guesstimate’, ‘chillax’, ‘ginormous’, and ‘confuzzled’. Our inconsistent results suggest that the semantics of the word blends may diff er from their composites in very subtle ways. However further work is needed to acknowledge and determine the impact of context upon the use and consequences of these word blends.

The objectives of this research were to design and develop the lexicon for the transformation of the transliterated words of Thai Noi characters into Isan language pronunciations by computer and to evaluate the efficiency of the lexicon being developed. The research methodology was separated into 3 steps: 1) the study of the characteristics of Isan lexicons totally from 7 books, and one standard Thai lexicon, 2) the design and development of the lexicon and 3) the evaluation of the efficiency of the lexicon for transformation of the 7,929 transliterated words as a testing data into Isan language pronunciation and the evaluation of the efficacy of the design and development of the lexicon by 12 ancient linguists and 27 users of the ancient Isan medicine textbooks. The results of the research revealed that the Isan lexicons were limited for the transformation of the transliterated words of Thai Noi characters into Isan language pronunciations by computer. This is because main vocabularies were not the transliterated words of Thai Noi characters and had a variety of spelling criteria. And Thai Noi font that will be used as main words do not have a Unicode code. The designed and developed lexicon contained 4,645 main vocabularies, 36 parts of speech, 10 spelling criterias of Isan language pronunciation. The result of the accuracy of transformation of the transliterated ancient Isan medicine recipes into Isan language pronunciation was 71.02 percent and the overall mean of the design and development of the lexicon efficacy was in a good level for all items (x ̅ = 4.08, SD = 0.73). Using the main vocabulary as a transliteration reduces the need to build a unique vocabulary for each ancient script.

Lexical blending has been a puzzle for linguists, especially because word formation processes are somehow predictable, whereas lexical blending is not. Romanian lexical blending has been barely discussed in the literature, just a few articles citing a small number of ephemeral creations (see below) based on scarce data, and having little theoretical implications. Our study is the first to present a fullyfledged corpus-based analysis of nonce and wider-accepted Romanian lexical blends, exploring the etymological, structural, phonological, semantic and stylistic patterns of present-day Romanian lexical blends, thus offering some insights into how these unusual lexical items are formed and used by Romanian native speakers.

Productivity covers a wide range of linguistic phenomena. Productivity is as much about syntactic phenomena; it can be related to morphological phenomena. The various definitions of productivity are reflected in the presentation of the approach and the method of productivity measurement. Studies on what and how to measure morphological productivity have been conducted since 1899.
It can be said, in 1976, Aronoff proposed the first method for quantitative measuring of morphological productivity in English. Baayen (2009), in productivity measurement, considered the possibility of finding new words made by derivational suffixes. Thus, he has developed quantitative morphological productivity measurement methods. Anshen and Aronoff (1998), describe productivity of how new words are made with a certain suffix. With this view, the productivity rate of each suffix is obtained. It means productivity becomes a probable continuum and it can be used to predict the rate of possible word construction. At both ends of this continuum, there are patterns that are "full-productive" and “non-productive”.
Of course, Palg (2006), also discusses the use of suffixes as overall “possibility" of language for constructing new words. The logical consequence of all morphological productivity analyzes is the presentation of various methods for quantitative measuring of the productivity of suffixes. Most studies on this field focus on the measurement and reliability and validity of each measurement. Despite more than thirty years of quantitative studies, Bauer (2004) argues that one of the empirical problems with these measurements is that "we do not yet have a reliable measure for productivity”. In Iran, Abbasi (2005), Rafiei (2008), Badakhshan (2010), Hemmasian (2010), Kheirabadi et al. (2010), Erfanian Qonsuli (2011), Mavvaji (2012), Amirarjmandi et al. (2013) and Farzaneh (2016) have studied on morphological productivity in Persian.
The main purpose of this study is to quantify the current productivity of non-verbal Persian derivational suffixes using different methods so that the probable productivity continuum of these suffixes is given.  This article also introduced and analyzed different methods for quantitative measurement of productivity in researchers' studies over the last thirty years. In this study, morphological productivity is assessed using a corpus-based approach. Additionally, according to Bauer (2004) and Baayen (2009) quantitative measurement framework, four frequency methods and two probability estimation methods have been used to measure morphological productivity.

Введение. Рассматриваются заимствования из языка идиш в американском варианте английского языка. Данный пласт заимствований представляет особый интерес, так как вопрос о систематизации заимствованных идишизмов и их комплексном описании является до сих пор нерешенным. Цель – описать структурные и функциональные особенности заимствований из языка идиш в американском варианте английского языка. Материал и методы. Материалом исследования послужили заимствованные глаголы kibitz и schmooze из языка идиш, которые относятся к разговорной лексике. Основные методы исследования – метод лексикографического и контекстуального анализа, а также описательный и сопоставительный метод. Результаты и обсуждение. Заимствованные лексемы schmooze и kibitz, являющиеся элементами лексико-семантического поля «Вербальная коммуникация», в современном английском языке обладают отрицательной коннотацией. Анализ словарных дефиниций и этимологии показал, что значение заимствованного глагола в английском языке не с...

Slang, either the form or the meaning is flexible and temporary, which canchange anytime depending on the user. This phenomenon also occurs in the trendy slang used by Gen Z. Therefore, this study aims to find out the types of word formation process in Gen Z slang. It focuses only on Gen Z slang that is in Callahan's Generation Z Dictionary. Further, this study is corpus-based, using qualitative analysis in investigating the types of word formation process in Gen Z slang. To analyze the corpus, there are two steps used that are classifying and interpreting. The finding reveals that there are eight types of word formation process, which influence in forming the Gen Z slang. Those types are fanciful formation, compounding, blending, clipping, conversion, suffixation, multiple process, and reduplicatives. Among those types, compounding is the most used. There are ten slang terms come through this types of process and this study presents all types of compounding. Those types are com...

Natural language use is full of choices among multiple possible alternatives, whether phones, words, or constructions, which are influenced by a large number of contextual factors, and which rather exhibit asymptotic, imperfect tendencies favoring one or more of the alternatives, instead of single, categorical, perfect choices. This contrasts with item-by-item learning in simple controlled experiments which typically have been modelled by the RescorlaWagner equations [14]. We find the former “messy” types of problems to be a key area of interest in modelling and understanding language use, and consequently consider the application of the Rescorla-Wagner equations – in the form of a Näıve Discriminative Learning classifier – to such complex phenomena of considerable utility in linguistic research. Näıve Discrimative Learning (NDL) [6], [5], as implemented by Arppe et al. [4], performs linguistic classification on the basis of direct associations between cues and outcomes, which are l...

This paper investigates neologisms in data retrieved from stand-up comedies. It postulates social media interaction as a main source of new words, and analyses coined words as specific wordforms in the stand-up comedy routines that mirror current society events. Preconditions, formation of coined words in the stand-up comedy discourse, and their perception by non-native speakers are considered. The article touches the derivational potential of new coinages, discusses the most productive word-building techniques, and describes respondents' reactions to coinages in order to understand whether they can adequately interpret the words' meanings. Obtained results demonstrate the relevance of digitally coined words in modern English. They prove the hypothesis that satirical work across the world has a strong impact on our society and the language we use. Potential future research in the field of social mass media neology on the basis of other non-related languages is suggested.

Words are composed of morphemes. The notion that morphemes are words is not necessarily true. While some single morphemes can function as words, some words have two or more morphemes. Furthermore, it is wrong to consider morphemes to be syllables. In contrast, many words only have one syllable and two morphemes; examples are "cats," "runs," and "barked." Morpheme can be classified as either Free or Bound Morpheme. It applies the Bound Morpheme's restriction, which included eight inflectional affixes. The goal is to determine how pupils use bound morphemes. This study's research tool was acquired through testing. Knowing the sort of error and where it happens helps with testing. The procedures for data analysis were applied by the data analysis methodologies. Counted the Bound Morpheme first. Second, they were divided into groups. Thirdly, the number of frequently occurring terms was counted. Fourthly, determined which word should be chosen and w...

Metonymic extensions in noun-to-verb conversion on the importance of constructions The article is going to look at noun-verb conversion (zero derivation), seeing it, after Dirven (1999) as implying a metonymic extension in which one element in the noun entity stands for the whole event described by the verb. That such extension makes the derivation pattern quite productive is beyond discussion. It is also clear that, for each innovation, the extension in question follows one of the existing patterns highlighting the profiled element; such patterns include the place the event takes place for the event (a bank/to bank); the instrument used in the event for the event (shampoo/to shampoo); the destination of the event for the event (the beach/to beach [a boat]), etc. The knowledge of these patterns is what makes it possible to createand, even more importantly, to understandinnovative noun-toverb conversions. What, however, seems to need further investigation is the problem of constraints on this derivation process. In other words, the question to be answered is: What lies behind the decision of which extension pattern should be followed for every new noun-toverb conversion? And, consequently, what makes the meaning of each innovation transparent to the recipient of the message? It will be argued here that the above question, in order to be answered, has to be taken from the word level to the level of the construction in which the noun-to-verb "convert" is placed. In this way, the present article will subscribe to the view expressed in Goldberg (2006) that the implications of certain event schemata are not "an independent fact about the words involved" (2006: 9), as the implication may rather come from the construction itself. To prove this point, the present paper will present the results of research carried out among 20 advanced users of English (3-year English philology students). In the study the informants were asked to present their understanding of the metonymic extension in noun-to-verb conversions that follow such prototypical patterns as container-to-putting x in container (bottle/to bottle [wine]) together with less predictable cases (some of them invented for the sake of the research, like bottle/to bottle smb to death[=to bludgeon smb to death with a bottle]). The aim of the two tests, particularly the second one, was to check if the metonymic extensions presented, unpredictable as they were, were possible to decipher on the basis of the constructions that contain them, in spite of the limited context of skeletal sentences like X bottled Y. For the clarity of the argument, the article will start with a short introduction to metonymy, with special regard to metonymy in conversion. It will then go on to discuss the main assumptions of construction grammar and a hypothesis concerning the role of constructions in understanding innovative noun-to-verb conversion to finally present the study carried out to check the hypothesis, its results and conclusions.

The paper deals with modern trends in word formation connected with the development of virtual communication, social networks distribution and the possibility to be present in cyberspace on a permanent basis. The research concentrates on social media interaction as the main source of neologisms that reflect and describe digital portraits Internet users make and post on the web. Preconditions for newly coined words to continue their existence and become common are considered. Digitalization provides a large spectrum of opportunities for neologisms to be noticed by a wider audience and creates a demand for new coinages. At the same time, a new word should be similar to those existing in a given language in order to arouse interest of potential users. For this reason, the article considers different mechanisms of neological word formation that proved to be efficient. The methods used allow to assess the derivational potential of new coinages, define the most productive word building te...

This study aims at clarifying the construction of Arabic cognate Accusative and its realization in English in order to be clearer for the learners who try to understand the structure of Arabic clause. The study attempts to investigate the verbs that take cognate accusative. It is hypothesized that Arabic learners are not aware of this phenomenon, thus they face difficulties in translating them into English because of the complexity forms of cognate accusative. To investigate the hypothesis of this research, different Arabic examples were taken from the authentic books and compare these data with their counterpart in English in order to show the differences and similarities between the two different languages and analyse these data from syntactic point of view which adopts Langacker's (1991) framework of cognitive grammar. The study is to be empirical, analytical, and comparative. The researchers use Arabic data from different books and look for the equivalent structures of English so that they give a clear idea about this syntactic phenomenon. The results of the study show that Arabic construction has more uses of cognitive Accusative than English.

The usages discussed above are then not unrelated exceptions defying the standard claim that water is profiled by a singular uncountable noun, but a network of meanings related by well known cognitive processes attested in many other areas of language and motivated by common experience shared by millions of speakers

This thesis is especially dedicated to: My beloved parents Mama and Bapak My beloved sister and brothers vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT All praises to the Almighty Allah SWT, God of this universe. He gave me strength and health to make this thesis complete. Sholawat and salam to the Prophet Muhammad SAW, the best figure for people in the world and who has brought Islam as rahmatan lil 'alamin religion. This thesis would not be possible if there is no prayer from all beloved people. Firstly, my sincere gratitude goes to my advisor, Dr. Hj. Syafiyah, M.A. and my college advisor, Dr. Hj. Galuh Nur Rohmah, M.Pd, M.Ed. who have been guiding me, understanding me, giving me advice in accomplishing this thesis. Thank you for the patient, guidance, and encouragement that made me completed this thesis on time. Also, I have to thank to all lecturers that have taught me and helped me passing the entire semesters in Engligh Literature Department. Secondly, special thanks to my beloved mother (Mugi Rahayu Rochayati), my beloved father (Rachman), my old brother (Roni), my young sister (Nilam), and my young brother (Fathoni). Without their supports and prayers, I am sure I cannot complete this thesis on time. Although, I am far from my family, but they are always in my heart. Thirdly, I want to say thank you to all my closed-friends, my boarding house friends, all members of Online Discussion, all members of BNQ, Sasing' 16 and others who always support me and pray for me. Fourthly, I want to say thank you so much to myself who always keep fighting when I am low, always keep climbing when I fall, and always cheer up when I am down. I cannot be who I am without the hard works, and the prayers. Finally, I aware of the weaknesses of this research I conducted. Corrections and suggestion are expected to the researchers for the improvement of this thesis and next researches.

Lexical blending is a highly productive and frequent process by which new words enter a language. A blend is formed when two or more source words are combined, with at least one them shortened, as in brunch (breakfast+lunch). We use linguistic and cognitive aspects of this process to motivate a computational treatment of neologisms formed by blending. We propose statistical features that can indicate the source words of a blend, and whether an unknown word was formed by blending. We present computational experiments that show the usefulness in these tasks of features tapping into the recognizability of the source words in the blend, in combination with their semantic properties.

The article considers the origin of the word-building formant -gate and the change of its morphological status from a splinter into an affix (a suffix). The article describes the dynamics of its conceptual senses and the actual language content in the 70s, 80s, 90s of the last century and at the beginning of the XXI century and shows its cultural conditionality upon the events of the corresponding periods. Particular attention is paid to the differences in the conceptual component of this sign in the American and British linguistic cultures. The predominance of the ludic function of the suffix over its informative function in recent years in the mass media is emphasized.

From the first published English Dictionary till today, words formation and inclusion into the dictionary subsequently follows a pattern that new words has to be socially accepted within a system and its meaning cut across significant numbers of users. Apart from native English speakers, English words also emanate from second Language speaking countries like the America and Nigeria. This study examines to what extent are words invented from Nigeria get acceptable into the English lexicon and  global English linguistic copra as it's happens to American invented words? Using The Politics of Grammar column in Daily Trust newspaper in Nigeria, the study found that there are newly invented words by Nigerians which expand the semantic boundaries of conventional and phone communication in Nigeria. As newly invented words like unfriend, sexting, funemployed deleb found their ways into the American linguistic copra, so also Nigerians expects words like flash, sequeal, co-wife or co-wives...