Early Copper Metallurgy

Connus de longue date, les dépôts intentionnels d'objets métalliques
continuent d'interpeller les archéologues. Si les raisons de ces
enfouissements restent énigmatiques, leur localisation enrichit
nos connaissances de l’occupation du territoire à cette période.

The presented article deals with the revision of the circumstances of the discovery of a problematic assemblage of copper artefacts from Hradec, part of the town of Prievidza (Prievidza District), introduced into the literature in 1955. Attention is also paid to the chronological classification and elemental analysis (XRF) of individual copper objects from the site of interest. A separate problem area is related to the existence of alleged two copper cakes in the contents of the hoard. The aim of the study is to reinterpret the artefacts from Hradec, considered to be an Early Eneolithic hoard, based on new knowledge.

Archaeometallurgy has long been a rather loosely-defined field of study with few central tenets of a theoretical or scientific nature. Over the past few decades, calls for an integrated approach to ancient metallurgical practices have arisen, and certain ‘schools’ of archaeometallurgical
thought have coalesced in different parts of the world. Using Kuhn’s conception of “paradigms”, this paper seeks to highlight some of these ‘schools’ as a step towards formulating a new archaeometallurgical paradigm – one that combines scientific practice with theoretical understanding.

Mineral soda alumina (m-Na-Al) glass is a common glass production group found around the Indo-Pacific region. In Iron Age Taiwan, its presence dates back to the early 1st millennium AD. This research discusses m-Na-Al glass beads excavated from Iron Age sites in Taiwan. No production sites for m-Na-Al have been found, but microstructural analysis suggests m-Na-Al glass appears to originate around South Asia and is exchanged widely. SEM-EDS and EPMA were used to analyse red, orange, yellow, green and blue m-Na-Al glass. The microstructure of the glass shows the presence of plagioclase and alkali feldspar relics in the glass, suggesting a low manufacturing temperature. Copper-based colourants are identified in red, orange, blue and green glass, while lead tin oxide is used in yellow and green glass. It appears that various types of copper-containing raw materials were procured by craftspeople, and a self-reduction process for producing red and orange glass is tentatively proposed. Add...

Arrived as an historian in Nouakchott in 1974, the author quickly became a prehistorian. He was asked to organise the History Department of the École Normale Supérieure, which was at that time one of the two higher education institutions in Mauritania. With the unconditional support of the IMRS (Mauritanian Institute for Scientific Research), he achieved a Ph.D. dissertation on Mauritanian prehistory, which was the first synthesis on this topic (1983). Forty years later, this work is largely outdated. However most of the white spaces on the map have been filled up thanks to European research fieldworks, dissertations by Mauritanian students and fieldwork carried out by the author. This contribution proposes a reflection on the successes and failures of research in prehistory in Mauritania, with its numerous scientific, human, material, bureaucratic and geopolitical aspects.

La presente investigación formó parte de la primera etapa de
investigación del proyecto denominado “Preindustrial Mining and
Metallurgy in Mexico: Research on Copper Smelting in
Michoacán”. Este trabajo tuvo como objetivo el análisis científico
de 18 muestras de escoria provenientes del sitio prehispánico y
colonial de Jicalán Viejo, Michoacán; y que fueron recolectadas
en un contexto de superficie, denominado Transectos. Este
contexto está situado al sureste del sitio y en su zona más alta,
así como de colindar al oeste con un montículo de
aproximadamente 5 mts. de altura. El estudio de las 18 escorias
se llevó a cabo a través de análisis arqueométricos, usando
Fluorescencia de Rayos X (XRF), Microscopio Electrónico de
Barrido con Espectroscopia de Rayos X de Energía Dispersiva
(SEM/EDS) y Microscopio Óptico (MO).

In order to assess the fractionation of copper isotopes during smelting under reconstructed conditions, smelting experiments with chalcopyrite ore were conducted in built furnaces based on archaeometallurgical evidence from the Bronze Age Eastern Alps and ethnographic examples from Nepal. Two experimental series, S2 and S4 were chosen for analysis. Each series consisted of a number of roasting and smelting experiments with different experimental parameters, and both series yielded metallic copper. Each type of experiment, their outcomes, and observations made during them are described in detail to facilitate future experimental work. Both series differ significantly in their outcome. XRD analyses and chemical analyses were carried out to reveal the reasons for the observed differences.  The chemistry of the obtained matte shows that roasting is pivotal for a successful smelting process and that two cycles of matte roasting and subsequent smelting can be sufficient to remove most of ...

Archäometrische Isotopenuntersuchungen an archäologischen Objekten sind mittlerweile als eine Routineanwendung in der Archäologie zu betrachten. Die in diesem Zusammenhang bekannteste ist die Blei isotopenmethode, die mithi lfe der Geochronologie, also der Bestimmung des geologischen Alters von Gesteinen und Erzmineralen, erlaubt, einen direkten Zusammenhang zwischen Metal lobjekten und deren Erzvorkommen herzustel len. Dies dient in der Archäologie dazu, fundierte Argumente für archäologische Strukturen wie politische oder wirtschaftl iche (Handels)beziehungen, technische Innovationen und deren regionale oder überregionale Verbreitung, die Zirkulation von Material sowie die Unterscheidung von regional kleinräumiger Abtrennung gegen interkulturel le Öffnung von Gesellschaften zu definieren. Das Gelingen der Isotopenmethode hängt von einigen wichtigen Voraussetzungen ab: (1 ) Die Isotopie des Erzes darf sich unter Experimentel le Archäologie in Europa 1 8 – Jahrbuch 201 9, S. 47-60 K...

The presented paper shows the preliminary results of an archaeological and geophysical survey carried out in Horná Mičiná – Hájny diel (Central Slovakia). The site documents prehistoric settlement and is located outside the primarily agricultural area of the Zvolen basin. The magnetometric survey showed the existence of positive anomalies, suggesting the presence of settlement structures. The archaeological research revealed the existence of a settlement feature and a furnace pit. Elemental and mineralogical analyses witness the exploitation of local copper ores. On the basis of 14C analysis, the settlement can be dated to early Eneolithic period. Further knowledge about the settlement are provided by archaeobotanical and osteological analyses.

El trabajo analiza las novedades que se han producido en el estudio de los rituales funerarios campaniformes al introducir, de manera sistemática, análisis arqueométricos que nos permiten identificar la presencia de cinabrio en numerosas tumbas. La gran variedad de
pigmentos rojos empleados por las comunidades prehistóricas requiere de exhaustivos estudios analíticos para la caracterización e identificación de su procedencia. Presentamos los resultados de una veintena de muestras obtenidas de doce contextos funerarios campaniformes procedentes de cinco yacimientos madrileños a partir del análisis de restos de pigmentos adheridos sobre ajuares de marfil, cerámica o metal y en sedimentos o restos esqueléticos con
técnicas de SEM-EDX, DRX, LIBS e ICP-MS.
Esta nueva realidad pone de manifiesto, no sólo aspectos sobre la problemática de su detección
y análisis, sino también sobre la personalidad de los destinatarios y su incidencia en los rituales funerarios. Se hace patente la correlación entre la presencia de cinabrio y una mayor riqueza de ajuares acumulados en tumbas relevantes por sus contenidos y dimensiones, frente a otros enterramientos campaniformes sin cinabrio y con menor significación de sus tumbas y ajuares. Con ello se revela la capacidad de ciertos personajes para controlar o acceder a unas redes de intercambio que les permite la adquisición del cinabrio que se suma a otras materias documentadas previamente. En efecto, a pesar del escaso interés que ha habido hasta la fecha en estudiarlo y analizarlo, nuestras investigaciones apuntan a que el cinabrio acompaña en
varios contextos funerarios a otras materias primas de alto coste por su rareza y lejanía como son el oro y el marfil. No obstante queda por conocer si se trata de un fenómeno regional o adquiere una dimensión geográficamente mucho más amplia.

The presented paper shows the preliminary results of an archaeological and geophysical survey carried out in Horná Miciná – Hájny diel (Central Slovakia). The site documents prehistoric settlement and is located outside the primarily agricultural area of the Zvolen basin. The magnetometric survey showed the existence of positive anomalies,
suggesting the presence of settlement structures. The archaeological research revealed the existence of a settlement feature and a furnace pit. Elemental and mineralogical analyses witness the exploitation of local copper ores. On the basis of 14C analysis, the settlement can be dated to early Eneolithic period. Further knowledge about the settlement are provided by archaeobotanical and osteological analyses.

The 2001 excavation report in the ancient copper mining area (VII-IV cent. BC) in the territory of Bienno (Brescia, Northern Italy) is here published. During this year the ore treatment area in front of the mine was fully explored and the Authors suggest a reconstruction of its structure. The large dump above the main mine entrance was surveyed and a trench dug into it to study its stratigraphy.

The results of a preliminary study on three bronze archaeological objects from different sites on the North Sinai Coast and the Nile Delta region are presented. This area, and in particular the North Sinai, which was the most important landbridge linking Egypt and Ancient Israel, is of considerable interest in the study of bronze technology in ancient times. The investigation made use of metallography, microhardness testing, and SEM analysis. The three artifacts were found to be of different chemical composition, microstructure, and manufacturing process. Preliminary results support archaeological evidence that this region enjoyed a high level of bronze technology.

1 Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken, Universiteitsplein 1 • 2610 Antwerp • Belgium 2 CCLRC, Daresbury Laboratory • Warrington • UK WA4 4AD 3 Department of Analytical Chemistry, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281-S12 • 9000 Ghent • Belgium, ...

1 Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken, Universiteitsplein 1 • 2610 Antwerp • Belgium 2 CCLRC, Daresbury Laboratory • Warrington • UK WA4 4AD 3 Department of Analytical Chemistry, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281-S12 • 9000 Ghent • Belgium, ...

A Copper Age settlement and cemetery was fully excavated at Rákóczifalva-Bivaly-tó Site 1/C in 2005-2007, making it possible to compare the use of its material culture in closely related, coeval, but different archaeological contexts. Such a rare set of circumstances allows the authors to highlight methodological issues associated with the distorting effect of archaeological finds made on sites where only settlement or burial data are available, and on the importance of choosing appropriate analytical units.

In order to assess the fractionation of copper isotopes during smelting under reconstructed conditions, smelting experiments with chalcopyrite ore were conducted in built furnaces based on archaeometallurgical evidence from the Bronze Age Eastern Alps and ethnographic examples from Nepal. Two experimental series, S2 and S4 were chosen for analysis. Each series consisted of a number of roasting and smelting experiments with different experimental parameters, and both series yielded metallic copper. Each type of experiment, their outcomes, and observations made during them are described in detail to facilitate future experimental work. Both series differ significantly in their outcome. XRD analyses and chemical analyses were carried out to reveal the reasons for the observed differences.  The chemistry of the obtained matte shows that roasting is pivotal for a successful smelting process and that two cycles of matte roasting and subsequent smelting can be sufficient to remove most of ...

Murat Höyük lies on the bank of the Murat River in Solhan district of Bingöl province in Eastern Anatolia. This study presents archaeometrical analyses of a unique metal figurine and a metal tool recovered in situ during the 2019 Murat Höyük Excavations, the first systematic archaeological excavation project in Bingöl. Four cultural layers (Medieval, Middle Iron, Early Iron, and Early Bronze Age) were documented at the site, where the earliest settlement is dated to the EBA III (2500-2200 BC). The metal figurine and tool were found in this earliest phase (IV), where stone mould fragments and a crucible were also found in associated contexts. Portable XRF (p-XRF) analyses performed on the figurine, and p-XRF and metallography analyses conducted on the copper tool revealed that metals used in the manufacture of these artefacts were smelted from different polymetallic copper ores. Additionally, production process of the objects was examined in this study. A holistic evaluation of finds related with metallurgy at Murat Höyük reflects cultural affiliation with the Upper Euphrates Basin in terms of material choice and production technology. The present study on Murat Höyük metal finds provide new insight into Early Bronze Age metallurgy, belief systems, and art in Eastern Anatolia.

A Copper Age settlement and cemetery was fully excavated at Rákóczifalva-Bivaly-tó Site 1/C in 2005-2007, making it possible to compare the use of its material culture in closely related, coeval, but different archaeological contexts. Such a rare set of circumstances allows the authors to highlight methodological issues associated with the distorting effect of archaeological finds made on sites where only settlement or burial data are available, and on the importance of choosing appropriate analytical units.

In order to assess the fractionation of copper isotopes during smelting under reconstructed conditions, smelting experiments with chalcopyrite ore were conducted in built furnaces based on archaeometallurgical evidence from the Bronze Age Eastern Alps and ethnographic examples from Nepal. Two experimental series, S2 and S4 were chosen for analysis. Each series consisted of a number of roasting and smelting experiments with different experimental parameters, and both series yielded metallic copper. Each type of experiment, their outcomes, and observations made during them are described in detail to facilitate future experimental work. Both series differ significantly in their outcome. XRD analyses and chemical analyses were carried out to reveal the reasons for the observed differences.  The chemistry of the obtained matte shows that roasting is pivotal for a successful smelting process and that two cycles of matte roasting and subsequent smelting can be sufficient to remove most of ...

Mechanical activation in processes of gold and silver extraction from sulphide minerals This paper deals with mechanical activation of gold-and silver bearing sulphide minerals. Mechanical activation belongs to methods of physical pretreatment and was applied in Russia, South Africa and Australia for ultrafine grinding of gold and silver bearing arsenopyrite and pyrite concentrates. The new method of mechanochemical leaching has been developed at the Institute of Geotechnics of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Košice. The method proved to be succesful as pretreatment step for silver leaching from the tetrahedrite concentrate. Úvod Jestvujúce technológie nie sú schopné spracovávať komplexné sulfidické rudy s obsahom antimónu, za účelom extrakcie zlata a striebra ekonomickým spôsobom, pri ich dostatočnej výťažnosti. Jedným z problémov je forma, v ktorej sa uvedené drahé kovy nachádzajú v minerálnej matrici. Zlato sa napr. často vyskytuje fyzikálne uzavreté vo forme jemne rozptýlených...

Semantics: Within the project "Open Research Data for Prehistoric Mining Archeology" funded by the FWF (Austrian Science Funds) in the course of the Open Research Data Pilot Program an approach is developed how data from the three institutions can be integrated. On a conceptual level the integration is realised through the use of the CIDOC CRM ontology, an ISO standard for Cultural Heritage Information and an upper level thesaurus implemented in SKOS, a standard for thesauri, classification schemes and taxonomies. The CIDOC CRM extensions CRMarchaeo and CRMsci represent archaeological structures and the observation or measurement of the same while their interpretation is mapped via CRMinf. This makes it possible to represent and interpret different interpretations of the archaeological structures.

Der Artikel resümmiert die Ergebnisse der Forschungen im Rahmen des PhD an der Universität Trento mit dem Fokus auf die archäometallurgischen Untersuchungen (EDXRF, EMPA, LIA) zur chemischen Zusammensetzung und zum räumlichen Ursprung der Kupferobjekte, die am kupferzeitlichen Felsenheiligtum Pigloner Kopf (Pfatten, Südtirol, Italien) deponiert wurden. Es zeichnet sich sowohl die lokale Produktion von Miniatur-Lochäxten, aus Kupfer ab, die nach Österreich exportiert wurden, aus dem frühesten lokalen süd-ost-alpinem Kupfer wurden auch Ahlen und eine Rollkopfnadel hergestellt. Andere Kupferobjekte sind dagegen importiert (Dolch, Sprialschmuck). Es gelang der Nachweis sekundärer Metallurgie durch Schmelztiegelfragmente.

Il processo siderurgico: evoluzione storica e indizi archeometrici (P Fluzin) 6.1-Introduzione: alcune nozioni generali 6.2-Il ferro, la ghisa e l'acciaio 6.3-I procedimenti d'elaborazione del metallo 6.4-Ricostruzione della catena operativa a partire dai resti archeologici Pag. 9 15 >) 22 29 47 47 48 49 49 49 54 55 Ceprrolo VI Cepnolo VII Ponte di Vat Gabbia III: Ia forgia e i bassofuochi tra Thrdoantico e alto Medioevo (C. Cucini Tizzoni) 7.1-Il sito 7.2-Lo scavo 7.3-I forni 7.4-La forgia .: 7 .5-I prodotti dei bassofuochi e della forgia 7.6-Scorie e scarti di produzione 7 .7-La resa dei bassofuochi 7.8-I materiali 7.9-L'evoluzione costruttiva: dalle capanne semisotterranee all'edilizia in pietra Ceptrolo VIII Ponte di Vat Gabbia I e II: i bassofuochi di età longobar da (C. Cucini Tizzoni) 8.1-I siti 8.2-Lo scavo 8.3-I forni 8.4-Gli annessi dei forni 8.5-Scorie e scarti di riduzione 8 .6-Laresa dei bassofuochi 8.7-I materiali 8.8-Inquadramento storico dei siti della val Gabbia Ceprrolo IX Ricostruzione dell'antica vegetazione della Val Gabbia: dal carbone di legna alla foresta (G. Marziani, S. Citterio) 9.1-Introduzione 9.2-Analisi qualitativa 9.3-Analisi quantitativa 9.4-Conclusioni Cepnor-o X Ponte di val Gabbia lrr: i reperti metanici dalla forgia.

The celtic metal workers’ district of Mediolanum. This paper deals with the study of the layers with
remains of metallurgical activities from via Moneta. The development of the layout, of the chronology and of the
technology used in the metal workers’ district of Mediolanum are here discussed. Its development belongs to phase IB
(IV-III century BC), it reached its largest extension in phase II (II-I century BC) and it lasted till the end of the I
century AD. For at least four centuries there were continuous metallurgical activities in the area. The district was
located in the centre of the oppidum near the area where the Roman forum was to be built at a later stage and along
the future decumanus maximus, because of this in the Roman period the metallurgical workshops had to move to more
suburban areas of the town.
The remains of twenty-three metallurgical workshops belonging to the periods contemporary and previous to the
Romanization were partially reconstructed. They were built with perishable materials and according to the local
building techniques. In these workshops raw iron and copper alloys were worked in order to be transformed into
finished objects and accessories for furniture. The iron forges’ hearts and the smelting furnaces for the copper alloys
are described and reconstructed. These workshops can be compared to those discovered in the oppida and in the
villages of Transalpine Europe.
The metal production was highly specialized: various iron items and iron sheets were made, fluxes were used for
its soldering. Copper alloys were used for the production of nails, rivets, upholstery nails, thin bronze sheet was made
in order to cover the heads of iron nails and possibly also late La Tène fibulae of Nauheim type or of related types
were made. In many workshops both iron and copper alloys were worked in order to make pieces of furniture and
objects made with different metals. These metallurgists of Celtic tradition were highly specialized and had a superior
degree of know-how.

Le analisi e la datazione radiocarbonica effettuate sui campioni prelevati dalle torbiere di Campolungo - Moia Tonda e dai depositi archeologici hanno permesso di ricostruire la storia vegetale del sito e di conoscere l'impatto delle miniere sull'ambiente. Le analisi polliniche  suggeriscono un probabile inizio delle attività minerarie prima della data fornita dagli scavi archeologici, durante l'Età del Ferro. L'impatto maggiore sulla vegetazione si ebbe nell'età Romana e durante l'alto Medioevo, per alimentare i forni per la riduzione del minerale del ferro di Bienno.

Cytochrom-c-Oxidase [E.C. 1.9.3.11 katalysiert in der Atmungskette die Reduktion von molekularem Sauerstoff zu Wasser unter Umwandlung der Redoxenergie in ein elektrochemisches Protonenpotential an der Plasma-oder der Mitochondrienmembran. Wegen dieser wichtigen Funktion ist das Metalloenzym bereits Gegenstand zahlreicher Untersuchungen gewesen. Es ist ein Transmembranprotein, das aus 13 Untereinheiten besteht und neben zwei Ham-A-Gruppen (Fe, und Fe,,) zwei Kupferzentren (Cu, und Cu,) sowie ein Zink-und ein Magnesium-Ion enthalt. Dabei ist das Cu,-Zentrum der primare Elektronenacceptor, wahrend das zweikernige Zentrum Fe,,-Cu, die katalytische Reduktion des Sauerstoffs bewirkt[ll. Nach den Ergebnissen der homologen Zuordnung vieler Untereinheit-11-Sequenzen und molekularbiologischen Untersuchungen an der exprimierten loslichen Cu,-Domane aus Puracoccus denitrifi'cuns kommen zwei Histidin-, zwei Cystein-und ein Methioninrest als mogliche Aminosaureliganden fur das Cu,-Zentrum in Frage['. 3J. Uber den genauen Kupfergehalt herrscht erst seit kurzer Zeit Klarheit. Wahrend man bis vor wenigen Jahren der Auffassung war, da13 das native Enzym zwei Kupfer-Ionen enthalt, gelang Buse und Mitarbeitern kiirzlich der Nachweis eines dritten, spezifisch gebundenen Kupfer-Ions[41. Nach kurzer und zum Teil kontroverser Diskussion in der Literatur (vgl. z.B.f5l) wird die Existenz eines dritten Kupfer-Tons heute als gesichert angesehenk6], das nach ESR-spektroskopischen Untersuchungen ein integraler Bestandteil des Cu,-Zentrums istf', ' ' I. In einer aktuellen EXAFS-Untersuchung an der expriinierten loslichen Cu,-Domane aus der Untereinheit I1 der caa,-Cytochrom-c-Oxidase aus Bacillus subtilis sowie an einem zweikernigen gemischtvalenten Vergleichskomplex postulieren die Autoren ein zweikerniges Zentrum mit einer direkten Kupfer-Kupfer-Bindung ohne verbriickende Liganden[" ' I. Wir haben nun an intakten Enzympraparationen der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase aus Rinderherz-Mitochondrien, die nach prazisen Metallgehaltsanalysen (ICP-AES) drei Kupfer-und zwei Eisenatome sowie ein Zink-und ein Magnesiumatom enthalten, hochaufgeloste Rontgenabsorptionsspektren im Bereich der K-Kanten von Kupfer, Eisen und Zink gemessen und berichten hier iiber die Auswertung der EXAFS-Bereiche (EXAFS = Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure) der Kupfer-und Eisenkanten. Die experimentell bestimmten EXAFS-Funktionen sind in Abbildung 1 wiedergegeben.

In order to assess the fractionation of copper isotopes during smelting under reconstructed conditions, smelting experiments with chalcopyrite ore were conducted in built furnaces based on archaeometallurgical evidence from the Bronze Age Eastern Alps and ethnographic examples from Nepal. Two experimental series, S2 and S4 were chosen for analysis. Each series consisted of a number of roasting and smelting experiments with different experimental parameters, and both series yielded metallic copper. Each type of experiment, their outcomes, and observations made during them are described in detail to facilitate future experimental work. Both series differ significantly in their outcome. XRD analyses and chemical analyses were carried out to reveal the reasons for the observed differences.  The chemistry of the obtained matte shows that roasting is pivotal for a successful smelting process and that two cycles of matte roasting and subsequent smelting can be sufficient to remove most of ...

Archäometrische Isotopenuntersuchungen an archäologischen Objekten sind mittlerweile als eine Routineanwendung in der Archäologie zu betrachten. Die in diesem Zusammenhang bekannteste ist die Blei isotopenmethode, die mithi lfe der Geochronologie, also der Bestimmung des geologischen Alters von Gesteinen und Erzmineralen, erlaubt, einen direkten Zusammenhang zwischen Metal lobjekten und deren Erzvorkommen herzustel len. Dies dient in der Archäologie dazu, fundierte Argumente für archäologische Strukturen wie politische oder wirtschaftl iche (Handels)beziehungen, technische Innovationen und deren regionale oder überregionale Verbreitung, die Zirkulation von Material sowie die Unterscheidung von regional kleinräumiger Abtrennung gegen interkulturel le Öffnung von Gesellschaften zu definieren. Das Gelingen der Isotopenmethode hängt von einigen wichtigen Voraussetzungen ab: (1 ) Die Isotopie des Erzes darf sich unter Experimentel le Archäologie in Europa 1 8 – Jahrbuch 201 9, S. 47-60 K...

Mineral soda alumina (m-Na-Al) glass is a common glass production group found around the Indo-Pacific region. In Iron Age Taiwan, its presence dates back to the early 1st millennium AD. This research discusses m-Na-Al glass beads excavated from Iron Age sites in Taiwan. No production sites for m-Na-Al have been found, but microstructural analysis suggests m-Na-Al glass appears to originate around South Asia and is exchanged widely. SEM-EDS and EPMA were used to analyse red, orange, yellow, green and blue m-Na-Al glass. The microstructure of the glass shows the presence of plagioclase and alkali feldspar relics in the glass, suggesting a low manufacturing temperature. Copper-based colourants are identified in red, orange, blue and green glass, while lead tin oxide is used in yellow and green glass. It appears that various types of copper-containing raw materials were procured by craftspeople, and a self-reduction process for producing red and orange glass is tentatively proposed. Add...

A Copper Age settlement and cemetery was fully excavated at Rákóczifalva-Bivaly-tó Site 1/C in 2005-2007, making it possible to compare the use of its material culture in closely related, coeval, but different archaeological contexts. Such a rare set of circumstances allows the authors to highlight methodological issues associated with the distorting effect of archaeological finds made on sites where only settlement or burial data are available, and on the importance of choosing appropriate analytical units.

Mining of minerals such as gold, copper, and platinum has been one of several activities sustaining the economy of South Africa. However, the mining sector has contributed significantly to environmental contamination through the improper disposal of mine tailings which covers vast areas of land. Therefore, this study utilised a vitrification process to manufacture glass from gold mine tailings. X-ray fluorescence was used to determine the chemical composition of the tailings while X-ray diffraction was adopted for the mineralogy. The tailings were of granitic composition enriched in potentially toxic elements such as copper, cadmium, zinc, lead, arsenic, and chromium. A representative sample of gold mine wastes of sandy grain size was used in making the glass. Based on composition, the glass was formulated by adding an average 10.0 mass% of CaCO3 and 5.0 mass% of Na2CO3 to 35.0 mass% of SiO2, which resulted in the production of a green-coloured glass.

A Copper Age settlement and cemetery was fully excavated at Rákóczifalva-Bivaly-tó Site 1/C in 2005-2007, making it possible to compare the use of its material culture in closely related, coeval, but different archaeological contexts. Such a rare set of circumstances allows the authors to highlight methodological issues associated with the distorting effect of archaeological finds made on sites where only settlement or burial data are available, and on the importance of choosing appropriate analytical units.

Chapter 14 Belovode: technology of pottery production ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������186 Silvia Amicone Chapter 15 Figurines from Belovode ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 199 Julka Kuzmanović Cvetković Chapter 16 Ground and abrasive stone tools from Belovode ���������������������������������������������������������������������������205 Vidan Dimić and Dragana Antonović Chapter 17 Bone industry from Belovode ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������215 Selena Vitezović Chapter 18 Chipped stone industry at Belovode ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������221 Elmira Ibragimova Chapter 19 Chemical and technological analyses of obsidian from Belovode ������������������������������������������������233 Marina Milić Chapter 20 Archaeobotanical evidence of plant use at the site of Belovode���������������������������������������������������236 Dragana Filipović Chapter 21 Animal remains from Belovode ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������249