Biblical Ethics

This theme issue has the founding ambition of landscaping Data Ethics as a new branch of ethics that studies and evaluates moral problems related to data (including generation, recording, curation, processing, dissemination, sharing, and use), algorithms (including AI, artificial agents, machine learning, and robots), and corresponding practices (including responsible innovation, programming, hacking, and professional codes), in order to formulate and support morally good solutions (e.g. right conducts or right values). Data Ethics builds on the foundation provided by Computer and Information Ethics but, at the same time, it refines the approach endorsed so far in this research field, by shifting the Level of Abstraction of ethical enquiries, from being information-centric to being data-centric. This shift brings into focus the different moral dimensions of all kinds of data, even the data that never translate directly into information but can be used to support actions or generate behaviours, for example. It highlights the need for ethical analyses to concentrate on the content and nature of computational operations—the interactions among hardware, software, and data—rather than on the variety of digital technologies that enables them. And it emphasises the complexity of the ethical challenges posed by Data Science. Because of such complexity, Data Ethics should be developed from the start as a macroethics, that is, as an overall framework that avoids narrow, ad hoc approaches and addresses the ethical impact and implications of Data Science and its applications within a consistent, holistic, and inclusive framework. Only as a macroethics Data Ethics will provide the solutions that can maximise the value of Data Science for our societies, for all of us, and for our environments.

This chapter investigates Tom Wright’s portrayal of Paul’s ethics. As the ethical quality of faithfulness is such a central theme in PFG, I raise the question whether Wright also attributes a central role to divine faithfulness in shaping and enabling human faithfulness (i.e. ethical life). In the first part (“What Wright Thinks is Wrong”), I maintain that Wright’s thinking on what is wrong with this world is not wrong, but that the emphasis is in the wrong place. Paul’s personal focus is on the solution, not on the plight. And with regard to the plight, his emphasis is on human enslavement to the external powers of Sin, Flesh, etc., and less so on internal incapacities. In the second part (“From Wrong to [W]Right: How Change is Possible”), I argue that Wright’s model of cognitive change through the “renewal of the mind” presents only one of several aspects of moral transformation in Paul, and that it puts too little trust in the empowering dynamics of Spirit-shaped intimate relationships. In the third part, I largely agree with Wright’s presentation of Paul’s ethical aims and aspirations (focusing on reconciliation, virtues, and fulfilment of the Torah), but I criticize that when it comes to questions of practical morality, Wright’s highflying study fails to touch ground. I finally conclude that faithfulness plays a central role in Wright’s soteriology but only a marginal role in his ethics. I draw attention to the transforming experience of love as the link between divine and human faithfulness that any exposition of Paul’s theology-and-ethics that wants to be faithful to the apostle needs to appreciate.

This article demonstrates the overlooked contribution of the ancient Near East to the development of constitutional law. The legal corpus of Deuteronomy provides a utopian model for the organization of the state, one that enshrines separation of powers and their systematic subordination to a public legal text—the “Torah”—that delineates their jurisdiction while also ensuring their autonomy. This legislation establishes an independent judiciary while bringing even the monarch under the full authority of the law. Deuteronomy’s implicit model for a political constitution is unprecedented in legal history. Two of its cornerstones are fundamental to the modern idea of constitutional government: (1) the clear division of political powers into separate spheres of authority; and (2) the subordination of each branch to the authority of the law. This legislation was so utopian in its own time that it seems never to have been implemented; instead, idealism rapidly yielded to political pragmatism. Nonetheless, Deuteronomy’s draft constitution provides an important corrective to standard accounts of constitutional legal history.

Keywords:
Constitutional theory; rule of law; separation of powers; Deut 16:18-18:22; Laws of public officials; Law of the king; independence of the judiciary; Deut 17:14-20; Ämtergesetze; Verfassungstheorie; Torah monarchy; Sophocles Antigone law; Herodotus Demaratus; Greek kingship; Mishnah King; mishnah Aboth 1:1; American constitution; Josephus πολιτεία [politeia]; origin of judicial system; Hammurabi; founding myth; independent judiciary.

The Holy Spirit is the driving force of the life of Paul's churches. Paul's letters provide ample evidence for this thesis. In order to illustrate this perspective on Paul's pneumatology and ecclesiology, we could, for example, turn to 1 Thessalonians and find out about the work of the Spirit in initiating and sanctifying Christian life. Or we could walk through 1 Corinthians and study the vitalizing and community-building effects of the Spirit and spiritual gifts in Paul's assemblies. Or we could look at the epistle to the Galatians and explore the significant role of the Spirit in Paul's response to his opponents who insisted on the works of the law as essential for those who follow Jesus the Messiah. 1 This list could easily be continued, and most students of Paul's epistles will find this broad perspective on the intimate relationship between the work of the Spirit and the spirituality of Paul's congregations uncontroversial. 2 For this reason, I want to use this contribution to focus on one of the 1 On the role of the Spirit in these three epistles, see, e.g., V. RABENS, "1 Thessalonians," in

The temple incident has been a popular episode in Jesus’ ministry from which Christians since Augustine have drawn to justify Christian violence ranging from punishing schismatics and heretics to justifying war and the death penalty. However, another tradition of reading this passage nonviolently began well before Augustine. Whether contextualizing the passage in a narrative reading so that it would have spiritual meaning or seeing the Greek grammar as disallowing that Jesus hit people with the whip, these nonviolent strategies effectively undercut any notion that Jesus’ action could provide a model for Christian violence. A close reading of the Greek text, I believe, supports these nonviolent strategies for reading the text, which simply denies based on Greek grammar that Jesus used his whip on any person.

A collection of short, informative and accessible papers written by academics of the University of Nottingham on the significance of the Bible in theology, church, and society.  The essays encourage an informed grappling with the Bible, inviting readers to look again at this formative text not only for Western Christianity, and encounter its joys and challenges.

Genesis has been cited in support of both traditional monogamy and nontraditional views of marriage. The creation of the first humans as a male-female pair is commonly regarded by conservative Christians as paradigmatic for marriage. On the other hand, those who question the notion of a normative definition of marriage argue that the Genesis patriarchs legitimately took multiple wives. This paper examines this objection and defends the traditional view that the norm for marriage is monogamy.

This is the first book-length study to explore the Hebrew Bible, and specifically the Pentateuch, as a coherent book of political philosophy.

In Created Equal, Joshua Berman engages the text of the Hebrew Bible from a novel perspective, considering it as a document of social and political thought. He proposes that the Pentateuch can be read as the earliest prescription on record for the establishment of an egalitarian polity. What emerges is the blueprint for a society that would stand in stark contrast to the surrounding cultures of the ancient Near East -- Egypt, Mesopotamia, Ugarit, and the Hittite Empire - in which the hierarchical structure of the polity was centered on the figure of the king and his retinue. Berman shows that an egalitarian ideal is articulated in comprehensive fashion in the Pentateuch and is expressed in its theology, politics, economics, use of technologies of communication, and in its narrative literature. Throughout, he invokes parallels from the modern period as heuristic devices to illuminate ancient developments. Thus, for example, the constitutional principles in the Book of Deuteronomy are examined in the light of those espoused by Montesquieu, and the rise of the novel in 18th-century England serves to illuminate the advent of new modes of storytelling in biblical narrative.

Introduction Appended

If “x” then “y.” This simple formula of logic is often used metaphorically to demonstrate one of the most deeply rooted phenomena about human moral action, the principle of retribution, or retributive justice. Most religions, societies, and their corresponding systems of justice, and most personal relationships, seem governed by the simple rule that if one does evil, then he should reap punishment, while if one does good, she should reap reward. However, for those who hold to the authority of the biblical revelation, it raises the question, “How does the God of the Bible relate to this principle of justice?” Or from a more human perspective, “is there some other justice, outside of retribution, that applies to the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as He interacts with mankind?” This paper will endeavor to find answers to those two questions in three Old Testament Wisdom books: Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job.

The ascription of blame to an entire people for the infraction of a nondescript individual found in the account of the sin of Achan (Joshua 7) is without parallel in the Hebrew Bible and in the legal and treaty literature of the ancient Near East.  Attempts to explain the account through concepts such as "corporate personality" or the "contagion" to be found in devoted goods have rightly come under great scrutiny. This paper seeks to understand collective punishment in Joshua 7 by engaging in a close reading of the final form of the text and with recourse to notions found in contemporary ethical theory.  The paper introduces the rhetorical use of minor characters as markers of collective attitudes in biblical narrative. Central to the exposition of the Achan account, is the role of the spies' report (7:2-3) as such a marker of collective attitudes shared by the polity as a whole.

Key Questions: The aim of the conference is the recontextualization of biblical Hebrew poetry with the goal of moving beyond reconstructive historical work to constructive theological work. To this end, papers will address:
• How might we read Hebrew poetry as divine communication? What is the theological significance of this poetry within the context of a given community of faith?
• How do the biblical poets construct meaning? How do faithful readers of these poems creatively read biblical poetry to find meaning for today?
• How might poetry facilitate an encounter with God? How can we embody a proper responsiveness to what a particular poem is doing/saying?
• What can the genre of poetry do that another genre cannot do?

Speakers include:
John Goldingay,
Ellen Davis,
Katie Heffelfinger,
Benjamin Sommer,
Shai Held,
David Firth,
June Dickie, and
Yisca Zimran

Deuteronomy addresses social contexts of widespread displacement, an issue affecting 65 million people today. In this book Mark R. Glanville investigates how Deuteronomy fosters the integration of the stranger as kindred into the community of Yahweh. According to Deuteronomy, displaced people are to be enfolded within the household, within the clan, and within the nation. Glanville argues that Deuteronomy demonstrates the immense creativity that communities may invest in enfolding displaced and vulnerable people. Inclusivism is nourished through social law, the law of judicial procedure, communal feasting, and covenant renewal. Deuteronomy’s call to include the stranger as kindred presents contemporary nation-states with an opportunity and a responsibility to reimagine themselves and their disposition toward displaced strangers today.

This article intends to elucidate the aspect of “attraction” in the context of (religious) trade by investigating “Philo’s Attractive Ethics on the ‘Religious Market’ of Ancient Alexandria.” The article investigates the Jewish religious-ethical way of life as it is presented by the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria (ca. 15 b.c.e–45 c.e.) in a situation of religious destabilization in the Diaspora. Interaction between Judaism and Hellenism in the trade center of Alexandria was varied and included elements of assimilation, creative re-elaboration, and reaction. There was a strong element of reciprocity. Jews were attracted by the Hellenistic culture. It is also clear that non-Jews were attracted to Judaism and that its religious-ethical practice (which followed from Jewish teaching, e.g., on the Sabbath) played a key role in this process. Philo writes for Jews who may feel tempted to leave the Jewish faith and for non-Jews who may feel tempted to embrace the Jewish faith. In this context, he presents both the Jewish moral teaching and its practice as an attractor for “staying in” as well as “getting in.” This makes Philo an agent of religious formation and transformation, because he gives new emphasis to a number of “Jewish goods” in the context of the “market place” Alexandria. He puts weight on the law and on piety. Both of these are entities to which members of the Greco-Roman world could easily relate. Philo had precious “goods” to offer. A final comparison with the Apostle Paul shows that perhaps more people bought these goods on the religious “market places” of antiquity than is often assumed.

This paper investigates an ethic of inclusivism for gēr in Deuteronomy. The trend in the recent scholarship identifies the gēr in Deuteronomy as a foreigner. However, a fresh examination of the relevant texts, in light of ethnicity in the Hebrew Bible and anthropology, suggests that term gēr in Deuteronomy simply identifies a vulnerable person who is from outside of the core family. Further, recent scholarship discerns in Deuteronomy efforts to include the gēr within the community as well as limitations upon the inclusion of such people. This paper explores the social-scientific dynamics of inclusion, showing how Deuteronomy's ethical vision for the gēr has to do with kinship: displaced people needed to be incorporated into the clans. Deuteronomy not only stipulates a system of protection for the gēr, but the central impulse of Deuteronomy's vision, expressed in a multiplicity of ways, is to foster his/her incorporation as kindred, specifically within the household, within the clan, and within the nation. This vision is achieved via the interplay of the various subgroups of laws, namely social law, law of judicial procedure, and feasting texts. Also, in Deuteronomy's framework (chs 1-11, 27-34), as Israel was reconstituted , the incorporation into the 'nation' of those who had been separated from patrimony and from kindred was a primary goal.

The Book of Judith is relatively often discussed nowadays, mainly because of its interest for feminist studies. However, the subject of its ethical attitudes in this book is rarely mentioned, although this book raises important moral questions, even if indirectly. They concern the problem what is good or evil in war and public life. The moral teaching of Judith is communicated mainly by the narrative and personal examples, but also by some direct comments. The book condemns aggression and praises patriotism and piety of freedom fighters. It shows responsibility of kings and generals for the aggression and the difficult choices standing before the leaders of the defense. It seems moreover that for the author lies, illicit sex (which is clearly alluded to) and terrorist killing – things Judith is guilty of – are allowed if they serve good cause. In the context of the whole Bible it cannot be sustained, as in the case of extermination practices described in Joshua and 1-2 Maccabees. However, such acts committed in desperate situation deserve some understanding.

This article addresses the discrepancies within Biblical sources concerning the parentage of Queen Athaliah of Judah whether she is a daughter of Omri, king of Israel or Ahab, king of Israel. The article also discusses the three marriages recorded in Biblical and rabbinic texts between the royalty of the Kingdom of Judah and the Kingdom of Israel as well as answers questions regarding the apparent incestual nature of one of those marriages.

Die Fragen ach dem guten und richtigen Leben ist in alttestamentlichen Texten verwoben mit der Bestimmung des Menschen durch seineGeschöpflichkeit.Dies heißt menschlichesL eben verdankt sich des Gegebenseins und impliziert Körperlichkeit und Zeitlichkeit.L autd em ersten Schöpfungsbericht in Gen1b einhaltet dies auch die Gottebenbildlichkeit der Menschen. Entsprechend sollen Menschendafür Verantwortungübernehmen, im Vollzugdes (guten) Lebens.Die Vollzugsgestalt der Körperlichkeit ist dabei aufd ie Sozialitätd es Menschen bezogen; in diesen Kontexten wird vonL eiblichkeit gesprochen. Der Begriff "Körperlichkeit" betont die Materialität und ist aufd ie Geschlechtlichkeit bezogen. Demgegenüber drückt die Leiblichkeit eher ein synthetisches Konzepta us, das Handeln, Reflektierenu nd Wahrnehmen durch die Sinne zusammenzudenken versucht.Die leibliche Existenz ermöglicht und begrenzt das Weltverhältnis und die (ethische)Erkenntnis.

David J. Reimer, “The Apocrypha and Biblical Theology: The Case of Interpersonal Forgiveness,” in After the Exile: Essays in Honour of Rex Mason. Edited by John Barton and David J. Reimer (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1996), pp. 259-282.

This paper traces the roots of a Christian ethic of forgiveness found in the New Testament into the Hebrew Bible via an intepretative tradition discernible in the literature of Second Temple Judaism. In doing so, it also makes suggestions about the trajectory of this tradition not only in Christianity, but into nascent Judaism as well. In more general terms, this study suggests an approach to biblical theology which makes a place for non-canonical writing to have a role.

In the discipline of Biblical Ethics (Hebrew Bible) the concern lies with descriptive and normative ethics whereas questions pertaining to metaethics are frequently bracketed. As a result, very little attention has been paid to the semantic, epistemological and metaphysical assumptions underlying in the Hebrew Bible's moral discourse. In response to this state of affairs, this paper seeks to make a plea for the introduction of metaethics within the field of Biblical Ethics by demonstrating how this line of inquiry can be simultaneously philosophical and hermeneutically valid in terms of research problems, objectives and methodology. The study concludes with a cursive introduction to three interesting metaethical problems in connection with biblical assumptions regarding the divinity-morality relation when viewed from the perspective of the Euthyphro Dilemma, the Principle of Sufficient Reason and the question of morality and meaning in the divine condition.

The book of Ecclesiastes (here 'Qohelet'), like many other books of the Hebrew Bible, is often discussed with reference to its supposed 'ethics'. Within biblical scholarship, such research is often characterized by a metalanguage filled with philosophically vague and fuzzy descriptive jargon, largely bereft of technical distinctions and nuance. One possible reason for this state of affairs may be the fact that Qohelet's assumptions about the nature of morality have never been studied against the backdrop of issues and theories in contemporary analytic meta-ethics. In response to this gap in the research, and with proposals for conceptual refinement in mind, this article offers the first ever meta-theoretical introduction to some of the semantic, ontological, epistemological and other related meta-ethical concerns and categories which may be of use in future analyses of the foundations of Qohelet's 'ethics'.

The Revelation of John implies and proclaims moral judgments, which is frequently overlooked. This subject has been studied recently, but we do not possess a satisfying synthesis. In the Revelation we can find some metaethical assumptions. The Revelation presents good and evil in a dualistic way, which implies the necessity of choice and of an adequate behavior ("works"), and further of the divine judgment. God and Christ are to be followed and our salvation depends on our actions, even if the perspective of punishment is not seen as a major motive of human deeds. There are also some ethical admonishments. The Law is not mentioned as authority, but some commandments of the Decalogue are indirectly quoted and keeping the commandments is praised. Ethical principles are frequently presented in the language of virtues and vices, as if under a Hellenistic influence; we also encounter good and bad examples of conduct. Social and political ethics of the Revelation is highly critical, condemning the empire stronger than any other biblical book. Some readers of the Revelation are disturbed by its violent images, but this can be explained by the use of the symbolic language of the apocalyptic genre and can be seen as an expression of necessity of justice and conversion.
Streszczenie. Apokalipsa Janowa zawiera w sobie i głosi sądy moralne, co jest często pomijane w badaniach naukowych. Ostatnio temat ten był przedmiotem rozważań, ale nie posiadamy jeszcze satysfakcjonującej syntezy tych badań. W Apokalipsie możemy znaleźć pewne założenia metaetyczne, a dobro i zło przedstawione są w sposób du-alistyczny, co implikuje konieczność wyboru i odpowiedniego zachowania ("uczyn-ków"), a następnie Boskiego sądu. Należy naśladować Boga i Chrystusa, gdyż nasze zbawienie zależy od naszych działań, nawet jeśli perspektywa kary nie jest postrzegana jako główny motyw ludzkich czynów. Są też pewne upomnienia etyczne. Prawo nie jest wymieniane jako autorytet, ale niektóre przykazania Dekalogu są pośrednio cytowane i przestrzeganie przykazań jest chwalone. Zasady etyczne są częściej przedstawiane za pomocą języka cnót i wad, jakby pod wpływem hellenistycznym; napotykamy również dobre i złe przykłady postępowania. Etyka społeczna i polityczna Apokalipsy jest bar-dzo krytyczna, gdyż potępia imperium silniej niż jakakolwiek inna księga biblijna. Nie-którzy czytelnicy Apokalipsy są zaniepokojeni jej gwałtownymi obrazami, ale można to

The way we Christians talk about our responsibility for creation and to our neighbors should not be entirely controlled by the scientific and ideological arguments coming either from the right or from the left. The great biblical narrative of creation, fall, redemption, and final restoration provides the larger story within which we should deliberate. There are also particular texts and themes in the Bible that provide crucial components of a biblically informed humane environmental ethic, such as the way in which Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were historically famous for digging wells, or the way in which the ancient Israelites talked about developments in agricultural technology. And biblically informed Christians will never want to forget the development mandate given to Adam and Eve or the way in which God has long been active in his world as both Creator and Redeemer.

Johnson and Schirrmacher have teamed up to present essays which attempt to articulate and address selected themes in environmental ethics that unite a proper concern for creation care with loving our neighbors. Read, and then try to think farther along the paths they suggest.

The last commandment of the Decalogue and other biblical laws and sayings presuppose that wife belongs to her husband, who is in care of his “property”. For this reason, she could not divorce, and divorcing by husbands equaled to renouncing property and was not current. In these cases ownership had a wide meaning, referring to things and persons from the household. However, this idea, although not accepted today, could be seen in a positive way (as in Tob 7:12). This ownership could be idealized and mutual (Song 6:3; 8:6). The marital covenant from Mal 2:14 has similar meaning.
The obligations of married people mentioned in 1 Cor 7:2-5 are to be explained by the metaphor of mutual ownership. The same background can be traced in the prohibition of divorce in Mark 10:11 par. and in 1 Cor 7:10-11: mutual ownership excludes divorce initiative. It defines also to some extent the situation in marriage (common yoke in Matt 19:6: synezeuxen). Prostitution demolishes this ownership relation, hence the porneia clauses in Matt 5:32; 19:9 (cf. Hos 1:2; 2:2). Next, renouncing marriage is similar to renouncing  possessions. The idea of mutual ownership can be traced also in Col 3:18-19 and Eph 5:21-22,28-29,33; cf. 1 P 3:6. This metaphor contributes to the understanding of Christian marriage as a mutual gift (cf. also Acts 20:35). Preserving individual freedom after getting married is contradictory to it.
In Polish: Małżeństwo jako wzajemne posiadanie. Tło myślowe biblijnych stwierdzeń o małżeństwie i przeciw rozwodom. W: Nie wstydzę się Ewangelii, Fs. Z. Kiernikowski, red. W. Chrostowski, Warszawa 2011, s. 443-452

This is one of my recent forays into connecting biblical theology with current issues. In this essay I am linking a serious engagement with Acts 10-15 to recent claims that current understandings of an "inclusive" church are funded by this narrative. I have also written it to respond to Nigel Biggar and others who have used the example of Cornelius in this narrative to indicate that Richard Hays and others are wrong to say that a commitment to nonviolence is not inherent in the identity of the earliest followers of Jesus.

This paper investigates the apparent tension in Deuteronomy between, on the one hand, expressions of election and exclusivism, and, on the other hand, an ethic of incorporating the stranger, in an attempt to find theological coherence between these twin poles. It then relates this dialectic to tensions in contemporary Western discourse between, on the one hand, national citizenship and security, and, on the other hand, granting admission to ‘outsiders’. The broader aim of this paper is to contribute to an exploration of the tension and coherence between political identity and Christian identity in the biblical story.

Present the case for and against the assertion that cohabitation is
appropriate for Christians in the 21st century, and give your reasoned conclusion.


The essay seeks to present the case for and against cohabitation being appropriate for Christians in the 21 st century. It looks at three main views for cohabitation being that cohabitation is part of the marriage process, that it is an alternative to marriage and that it is like marriage. Each of the views are presented with cases for and against. Out of these views arises the idea of cohabitation as being part of the betrothal system, and also the view that cohabitation is the same as marriage. The essay concludes by saying that in the strictest of senses cohabitation could be appropriate for Christians, however, given that the practice of cohabitation as we currently know it, is usually without commitment, it is therefore usually not appropriate for Christians.

Many biblical texts throw an indirect light on the moral principles of economy. The Bible confirms the right to land property and private ownership, forbidding theft (Exod 20.15; Deut 5.19; cf. Matt 20.15; Acts 5.4). Humans obtain material goods through their work, which seems to be the main source of goods (Prov 10.4; 2 Thess 3.10-12 etc.). The interests are rejected, but in the case of loans to the brethren and to the poor; later, bank interests has been accepted by Jesus (Matt 25.27). The goal of economic activity is to give means of subsistence in sufficient quantity. Some further texts pertain directly to the business and businessmen. In 1 Kings 9.26-28 and 10.28-29 the international merchant enterprise of Solomon is praised. Prov 31.10-31 contains an idealized portrait of an exemplary businesswoman; she runs an enterprise, sells products, buys at good price, invest in an estate, gains a handsome income and spends it on herself, family and the needy. Sir 42.1,3-5, often mistranslated, lists some sources of income of the merchants as honorable things, even if trading involves moral risks (Sir 27.1-2 cf. Tit 1.7,11; Jas 4.13; Zech 14.21). The Parable of the Talents (Matt 25.14-30) shows investing millions and obtaining the double as an example to follow and a model for the religious life. In spite of serious moral dangers related to wealth, obtaining material goods through legal ownership, work and effective business has to be judged positively.

For a long time, Qoh. 2:26 was regarded as a crux interpretum. First it was seen an addition by a pious redactor and later the words טוב “good” and חוטא “sinner” were supposed to have a non-moral sense. However, these interpretations are inconvincing. A related passage in the Babylonian composition Ludlul Bēl Nēmeqi suggests that in Qoh. 2:26 God’s assessment of human behaviour is supposed to differ from the assessment by humans themselves. God may see as wrong what humans regard as right and vice versa. In the Ugaritic legend of Aqhat, the goddess ʽAnat regards the rebellion of the prince Aqhat as sinful, although his conduct is beyond reproach. She reacts impulsively and kills him. Although this parallel casts some light on the interpretation of Qoh. 2:26, the idea that God’s judgment is arbitrary does not suit the theology of Qohelet. Qohelet cannot embrace God’s rule, but he cannot reject it either.

The author builds on his 2018 monograph on the Literary Growth of the Song of Songs in the Hasmonean and Early-Herodian periods and a thorough analysis of the Qumran Canticles scrolls. He proposes a detailed outline of subsequent editorial stages in the growing collection of songs throughout the first century BCE. While 4QCant b may be interpreted as a dramatic text on earthly love for a wedding recital, the slightly later 4QCant a displays a deliberate theology of creation and love. Three new readings of the Qumran scrolls are presented, one of which may solve an ancient textual crux in Cant 1:3.

1] Poverty entraps people by ensnaring and entangling them in intricate and inescapable webs of slavery. I use "slavery" not as a metaphor, but as an apt description of what life is like for between twelve and twenty-seven million people today.

This article presents a novel Biblical ethical hermeneutic approach that emerges from an understanding of the presence of the kingdom of God in the Biblical text. The approach is predicated upon the use of speech act theory (abbreviated as SAT) in relation to 'kingdom language' in the Biblical text. The approach shows how the notion of kingdom language, as God's divine activity, is elicited in the contemporary Christian's life by allowing it to operate beyond the world of the Biblical text. In other words, this approach establishes a Biblical-ethical hermeneutic bridge between the text (and its context) and the context of contemporary readers of the text. The alternative linguistic epistemology in SAT considers the principle of the kingdom of God in the past (locution level), the present (illocutionary level) and the future (perlocutionary level). The dynamic equivalences of the past, present and future of the kingdom of God based on an SAT approach to the Biblical text can inform Christian ethical theory and moral action in the present world. It can also provide a new moral sensibility in relation to God's sovereignty and the responsibility of Christians in contemporary society.