Atmospheric pollution and cultural heritage

The general objective of this study is to identify the presence of hazardous elements in the soils of five urban cemeteries in the city of Passo Fundo, in southern Brazil, and to design solutions (architecturally) for future cemeteries to be more sustainable by mitigating toxicological risks to the population residing in the area. A total of 250 soil samples were obtained from points within the cemeteries and in areas surrounding the two oldest cemeteries at a distance of up to 400 m. Twelve architects who design cemeteries primarily focused on sustainability were interviewed, and presented their suggestions for sustainable urban cemetery design. The Building Information Modeling (BIM) computer modeling system was utilized to present a visual representation of suggested architectural features by these architects. The concentration of Pb in the vicinity of cemeteries deserves special attention, as concentrations of this neurotoxin exceed the federal limits set by Brazil. Soil Pb values were found to exceed the limit of 72 mg kg −1 up to a distance of 400 m from the walls of cemeteries A and B, indicating the presence of a danger to human health even at greater distances. This manuscript highlights construction features that enable future burial structures to adequately mitigate the very real problem of contaminants entering the environment from current cemetery design. Two-thirds of the technicians interviewed for this manuscript, each of whom specialize in Brazilian cemetery design, highlighted the importance of revitalizing urban vegetation both when constructing and revitalizing urban vertical cemeteries.

The general objective of this study is to identify the presence of hazardous elements in the soils of five urban cemeteries in the city of Passo Fundo, in southern Brazil, and to design solutions (architecturally) for future cemeteries to be more sustainable by mitigating toxicological risks to the population residing in the area. A total of 250 soil samples were obtained from points within the cemeteries and in areas surrounding the two oldest cemeteries at a distance of up to 400 m. Twelve architects who design cemeteries primarily focused on sustainability were interviewed, and presented their suggestions for sustainable urban cemetery design. The Building Information Modeling (BIM) computer modeling system was utilized to present a visual representation of suggested architectural features by these architects. The concentration of Pb in the vicinity of cemeteries deserves special attention, as concentrations of this neurotoxin exceed the federal limits set by Brazil. Soil Pb values were found to exceed the limit of 72 mg kg −1 up to a distance of 400 m from the walls of cemeteries A and B, indicating the presence of a danger to human health even at greater distances. This manuscript highlights construction features that enable future burial structures to adequately mitigate the very real problem of contaminants entering the environment from current cemetery design. Two-thirds of the technicians interviewed for this manuscript, each of whom specialize in Brazilian cemetery design, highlighted the importance of revitalizing urban vegetation both when constructing and revitalizing urban vertical cemeteries.

The general objective of this study is to identify the presence of hazardous elements in the soils of five urban cemeteries in the city of Passo Fundo, in southern Brazil, and to design solutions (architecturally) for future cemeteries to be more sustainable by mitigating toxicological risks to the population residing in the area. A total of 250 soil samples were obtained from points within the cemeteries and in areas surrounding the two oldest cemeteries at a distance of up to 400 m. Twelve architects who design cemeteries primarily focused on sustainability were interviewed, and presented their suggestions for sustainable urban cemetery design. The Building Information Modeling (BIM) computer modeling system was utilized to present a visual representation of suggested architectural features by these architects. The concentration of Pb in the vicinity of cemeteries deserves special attention, as concentrations of this neurotoxin exceed the federal limits set by Brazil. Soil Pb values were found to exceed the limit of 72 mg kg −1 up to a distance of 400 m from the walls of cemeteries A and B, indicating the presence of a danger to human health even at greater distances. This manuscript highlights construction features that enable future burial structures to adequately mitigate the very real problem of contaminants entering the environment from current cemetery design. Two-thirds of the technicians interviewed for this manuscript, each of whom specialize in Brazilian cemetery design, highlighted the importance of revitalizing urban vegetation both when constructing and revitalizing urban vertical cemeteries.

The use of images from the Sentinel-3B SYN satellite (surface reflectance and aerosol parameters over land) is currently one of the most advanced technologies utilized to identify atmospheric aerosol concentrations on a global scale. The general aim of this study is to analyze the evolution of aerosols in the atmosphere of the Kiev region in northern Ukraine during 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022. Due to this study’s timing, both prior to and during the current military incursion into Ukraine, this study also evaluates the consequences of the invasion of the Russian army on the territory of Ukraine, in relation to the quantitative levels of aerosols present in the atmosphere. Satellite image data were modelled in SNAP software (Sentinel Application Platform). Using the JASP software (version 0.14.1.0), clusters with variations of T550 (Aerosol Optical Thickness) were generated. The Sentinel-3B SYN satellite images were made available by the European Space Agency (ESA), with moderate spati...

The use of images from the Sentinel-3B SYN satellite (surface reflectance and aerosol parameters over land) is currently one of the most advanced technologies utilized to identify atmospheric aerosol concentrations on a global scale. The general aim of this study is to analyze the evolution of aerosols in the atmosphere of the Kiev region in northern Ukraine during 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022. Due to this study’s timing, both prior to and during the current military incursion into Ukraine, this study also evaluates the consequences of the invasion of the Russian army on the territory of Ukraine, in relation to the quantitative levels of aerosols present in the atmosphere. Satellite image data were modelled in SNAP software (Sentinel Application Platform). Using the JASP software (version 0.14.1.0), clusters with variations of T550 (Aerosol Optical Thickness) were generated. The Sentinel-3B SYN satellite images were made available by the European Space Agency (ESA), with moderate spati...

Air pollution by particulate matter (PM) is one of the main threats to human health, particularly in large cities where pollution levels are continually exceeded. According to their source of emission, geography, and local meteorology, the pollutant particles vary in size and composition. These particles are conditioned to the aerodynamic diameter and thus classified as coarse (2.5-10 μm), fine (0.1-2.5 μm), and ultrafine (<0.1 μm), where the degree of toxicity becomes greater for smaller particles. These particles can get into the lungs and translocate into vital organs due to their size, causing significant human health consequences. Besides, PM pollutants have been linked to respiratory conditions, genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic activity in human beings. This paper presents an overview of emission sources, physicochemical characteristics, collection and measurement methodologies, toxicity, and existing control mechanisms for ultrafine particles (UFPs) in the last fifteen years.

Air pollution by particulate matter (PM) is one of the main threats to human health, particularly in large cities where pollution levels are continually exceeded. According to their source of emission, geography, and local meteorology, the pollutant particles vary in size and composition. These particles are conditioned to the aerodynamic diameter and thus classified as coarse (2.5-10 μm), fine (0.1-2.5 μm), and ultrafine (<0.1 μm), where the degree of toxicity becomes greater for smaller particles. These particles can get into the lungs and translocate into vital organs due to their size, causing significant human health consequences. Besides, PM pollutants have been linked to respiratory conditions, genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic activity in human beings. This paper presents an overview of emission sources, physicochemical characteristics, collection and measurement methodologies, toxicity, and existing control mechanisms for ultrafine particles (UFPs) in the last fifteen years.

Murujuga in Western Australia has the largest concentration of ancient rock engravings (petroglyphs) in the world. However, the Murujuga rock art is potentially threatened by local industrial air pollution, in particular by acid rain, but unambiguous scientific evidence is still missing. Here, we report on results of an accelerated weathering experiment, simulating Murujuga weather and climate conditions that was designed and performed to test whether the expected small changes in chemical, mineralogical, and physical characteristics of the rock surface can be detected and reliably quantified by various analytical means. Locally acquired Murujuga granophyre and gabbro samples with natural varnish were artificially weathered for up to four months in a climate chamber under conditions that simulated two years of natural weathering. Mineralogical, chemical, and physical changes were qualitatively monitored by X-ray diffraction and confocal Raman spectroscopy, and quantified by colorime...

Historic buildings that comprise the cultural heritage of humanity are in need of preservation on a worldwide scale in regard to degradation resultant from atmospheric pollutants. The Brazilian Public Market, located in the historic center of the mega city of Sao Paulo, is the object of this research, due to its representation of historical Brazilian architecture. The general objective of this manuscript is to analyze the influence of air pollutants on the degradation of the historic Sao Paulo Public Market in the city of Sao~ Paulo, Brazil. Methodologically, between May 2018 and April 2019, samples of sedimented dust were collected at five points on the side walls of the market's historic structure, for the analysis of accumulated ultrafine particles (UFPs) and nanoparticles (NPs). A total of 20 samples of particulate matter were collected using self-made passive samplers (SMPSs). Using SMPSs, 12 months of accumulation and deposition were used to sample the atmospheric PM1. The results demonstrate the presence of dangerous elements such as: As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Zn. Note that EDS coupled with microscopy techniques, points out the risks to human health, due to the presence of these dangerous elements that accumulate in the building's structure. The results show that 85% of the NPs sampled contained Pb, and 56% contained Pb and Ti, which are harmful to both historic buildings and human health. Air pollution enables the further deterioration of the Sao Paulo Public Market, which is in need of restoration.

Numerous researchers have described the correlation between the short-term contact of nano-particulate (NP) matter in diverse coal phases and amplified death or hospitalizations for breathing disorders in humans. However, few reports have examined the short-term consequences of source-specific nanoparticles (NPs) on coal mining areas. Advanced microscopic techniques can detect the ultra-fine particles (UFPs) and nanoparticles that contain potential hazardous elements (PHEs) generated in coal mining areas. Secondary aerosols that cause multiple and complex groups of particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5, PM1) can be collected on dry deposition. In this study, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) were employed to detect and define the magnitude of particulate matters on restaurants walls at coal mines due to weathering interactions. The low cost self-made passive sampler (SMPS) documented several minerals and amorphous phases. The ...

Historic buildings that comprise the cultural heritage of humanity are in need of preservation on a worldwide scale in regard to degradation resultant from atmospheric pollutants. The Brazilian Public Market, located in the historic center of the mega city of Sao Paulo, is the object of this research, due to its representation of historical Brazilian architecture. The general objective of this manuscript is to analyze the influence of air pollutants on the degradation of the historic Sao Paulo Public Market in the city of Sao~ Paulo, Brazil. Methodologically, between May 2018 and April 2019, samples of sedimented dust were collected at five points on the side walls of the market's historic structure, for the analysis of accumulated ultrafine particles (UFPs) and nanoparticles (NPs). A total of 20 samples of particulate matter were collected using self-made passive samplers (SMPSs). Using SMPSs, 12 months of accumulation and deposition were used to sample the atmospheric PM1. The results demonstrate the presence of dangerous elements such as: As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Zn. Note that EDS coupled with microscopy techniques, points out the risks to human health, due to the presence of these dangerous elements that accumulate in the building's structure. The results show that 85% of the NPs sampled contained Pb, and 56% contained Pb and Ti, which are harmful to both historic buildings and human health. Air pollution enables the further deterioration of the Sao Paulo Public Market, which is in need of restoration.

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Building activity is a significant source of atmospheric contamination by ultrafine dust. Cognizant of this fact, those active in the use and recycling of construction materials must be aware of the risks associated with exposure to nanoparticles (NPs) and ultra-fine particles (UFPs), as well as the associated health impacts. This work analyzed NPs and UFPs generated in a small building-material recycling company using high-resolution electron microscopes and X-ray Diffraction. A self-made passive sampler (LSPS) that can obtain particulate samples without physical and morphological changes, especially where there is a suspension of particulate material, was used in this study. A total of 96 particulate samples, using the LSPS for three months in four seasons, were collected during the study. Thus, the dry deposition of the particles, which are considered highly harmful to human health, was found in each of the four seasons of the year. It is suggested that for future research, the t...

Air pollution is a factor of concern on a global scale, accelerating the deterioration of historic medieval architecture and having harmful effects on human health. The general objective of this study is to understand the risks of atmospheric contamination that contribute to the degradation of the medieval historical heritage of (1) Bab El Bhar, (2) the Tunis Train Station and (3) the Bardo National Museum, in the City of Tunis, capital of Tunisia, located in North Africa. Sequentially, 64 samples were collected in SMPSs and 64 of dust particles in sites 1, 2 and 3, from 2015 to 2019. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM) was utilized together with High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HR-TEM) and the coupled with an Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDS), which allowed a better characterization and identification of NPs in images, using Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDS). The Bab El Bhar SMPS samples yielded a higher proportion of ultrafine and organic particles. Sedimented dusts showed high proportions of organometallic particles (Al,

h i g h l i g h t s Presence of nanoparticles that degrade the largest historic center in Latin America. Atmospheric contamination in the degradation of historic buildings. Exposure of nanoparticles liable to contaminate the population. Identification of nanoparticles for the elaboration of restoration plans in historic buildings.

The state of conservation of thè mosaics of thè Basilica of S.Maria Assunta of Torsello is not very good. A stethosco. pie survey pointed out that a widespread detachment of thè ino. saie is more frequently present in thè lower parts. This is probably due.to thè migration of soluble salts rising in thè walls, which during thè evaporation phase crystallize under thè surface.A thermovision survey showed thè presence of cold zones in thè lower parts (probably due to rising damp) where greater detachment of thè mosaics was observed. On these col der zones gaseous and particulate pollutants can be removed from thè atmosphere by thè condensation of water vapour and as they remain in contact with thè surface during thè whole con densation phase may react with thè lime mortar binding thè tes serae. Late winter periods are thè most dangerous because thè condensation processes are more frequent and are associated with thè higher sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid concentra tions.

Field measurements of sulphur dioxide and ammonia.concentrations were taken to point out thè formation of sulphates in thè presence of SO2 , NH3 and liquid water. Monthly average data showed two opposite seasonal trends; high winter levels for sulphur dioxide and bigia summer levels for ammonia. The amounts of SOL ~ calculated applying thè Junge and Ryan laboratory model are reliable especially if they are compared with SOLfield measurements observed in 1972, 1973 and 1974.

In questi ultimi anni l'inquinamento atmosferico in Venezia e nella zona lagunare è stato oggetto di nume rosi studi. Lo scopo principale di queste ricerche era di acquisire una conoscenza della qualità dell'aria in Venezia e in partico lare di stabilire l'influenza della vicina zona industriale, in cui sono presenti le più svariate industrie a carattere chimico e petrolchimico, e della estesa area urbana ad alta densità di popolazione costituita da Mestre e zone limi trofe. Fra i più importanti contributi ricordiamo in ordine cronologico quello di Dechigi e Vendramini ; Sordelli e ; Bianco, Cerquiglini e Bertolaccini (1975; . Tutti questi studi, per motivi diversi fra loro, erano basati sulla misura delI'SO? generalmente accettato, come indice di contaminazione atmosferica, e come tracciante per lo studio del trasporto e della diffusione delle masse d'aria nell'area veneziana. L'aspetto modellistico di previsione delle concentrazioni di SO2 al suolo è stato e continua ad essere ampiamente studiato particolarmente da Runca, Zannetti e Melli (1975. A queste indagini, in cui l'aspetto igienico-sanitario per la protezione della popolazione esposta all'inquinamento riveste un carattere prioritario, si devono aggiungere quelle condotte dall'Unesco fin dal 1972 (Bertolaccini, Cerquiglini, Fassina e Torraca 1975) e dalla Soprinten denza ai Beni Artistici e Storici di Venezia aventi lo scopo di individuare le cause di degrado dei materiali artistici esposti all'ambiente fortemente aggressivo dell'atmosfera veneziana. Nel quadro di questi ultimi studi si inserisce il presente lavoro che riguarda misure che hanno avuto inizio nel 1976. Come abbiamo già detto precedentemente FSO2 è stata ampiamente studiata soprattutto come tracciante. Per completare e per chiarire l'aspetto non ancora noto dei meccanismi di ossidazione della SO2 nell'aria e il succes sivo attacco sui materiali lapidei, il Laboratorio di S. Gregorio sta sviluppando un lavoro di ricerca sui metalli in tracce presenti nell'aria (Fassina, Lazzarini e Biscontin 1976) e contemporaneamente ha misurato e misura la concentrazione di ammoniaca presente nell'aria. Quest'ul timo composto sarà in particolar modo l'oggetto del presente lavoro.

The research project was kept within a narrow scope in order to reduce thè nurnber of variables to a manageable level. Furthermore this type of study vas well adapted to thè main aim of thè project, i.e. thè study of stone deterioration processes rather than that of pollution sources and atmospheric chemistry.

Si presentano le misure di concentrazione di SO2 effet tuate a Venezia nel 1972, discutendone l'affidabilità e il significato fisico. Vengono riportate e discusse le misure di SO2 ottenute nelle stazioni di prelevamento, e la distribuzione giorna liera della concentrazione massima. Si sono riscontrati un carattere stagionale e uno giornaliero della distribu zione dell'SO2, correiabili con la ventilazione naturale e le condizioni di stabilità atmosferica. Quest'ultima è stata osservata indirettamente con la statistica della distribu zione della durata delle concentrazioni e dei rapporti tra la concentrazione massima e le concentrazioni medie di SO2 misurate su diversi periodi. Molto stretta si è rivelata la correlazione della concentra zione di SO2 con la direzione del vento, in cui appaiono di primaria importanza i venti dei tre ottanti compresi tra N e SW.

L'inquinamento atmosferico, e i suoi effetti sui mate riali dei monumenti veneziani, sono stati oggetto di una indagine intrapresa dal Centro Internazionale di Stu di per la Conservazione e il Restauro dei Beni Culturali in collaborazione con l'istituto Superiore di Sanità, entrambi di Roma [1], Tale studio rappresenta una parte di una più vasta ri cerca promossa dall'UNESCÒ nel quadro della cam pagna di salvaguardia di Venezia. I campioni erano prelevati presso il Laboratorio per lo Studio della Dinamica delle Grandi Masse del CNR e venivano analizzati dall'istituto Superiore di Sanità. Lo scopo del presente rapporto è quello di rappresentare in maniera concisa i risultati ottenuti, perché ci si di lungherebbe troppo se venissero riportate per esteso, le numerose misure eseguite nei due anni di lavoro (dal gennaio 1972 al dicembre 1973). Modalità di campionamento I prelevamenti sono stati effettuati sulla facciata di Pa lazzo Papadopoli rivolta sul Canal Grande (S.SSW) a un'altezza di 3 m circa sul Imm. La sonda era posta a ridosso della parete in modo tale che le misure fossero il più possibile correlabili con l'alterazione delle pietre. La maggior parte dei campionamenti erano della durata di 24 ore e avevano inizio alle ore 8 di ogni giorno. Molto spesso erano raccolti anche campioni diurni e notturni separatamente allo scopo di vedere se esiste un ciclo giornaliero. Nei periodi di fine settimana i prelevamenti erano più lunghi di 24 ore, dato che non si disponeva di aspiratori automatici programmabili. Le analisi sul pulviscolo atmosferico venivano eseguite manualmente in laboratorio, poiché non esisteva in commercio alcuna strumentazione automatica che la vorasse in continuo. Per la sola anidride solforosa ab biamo potuto usare un apparecchio automatico messoci a disposizione della ditta costruttrice. Infine sono stati raccolti dei parametri fisici a carattere meteorologico. La temperatura e l'umidità relativa ven nero registrate su carta diagrammale analogica, median te un termoigrografo e successivamente digitalizzate su nastro magnetico e analizzate al calcolatore. La dire zione e la velocità del vento erano fornite dalla stazione meteorologica del Comune situata presso l'Ospedale a mare di Lido. dótt. Vasco Fassina, Gabinetto Scientifico del Laboratorio di Re stauro di S. Gregorio, Soprintendenza ai Beni Artistici e Storici di Venezia. Dosaggio dell'acidità del pulviscolo atmosferico E' stato seguito il metodo usato da Commins [2] con alcune modificazioni introdotte a causa del fatto che i volumi d'aria filtrati e la durata dei prelevamenti erano diversi. I campioni di materiale particellare erano ottenuti per filtrazione dell'aria attraverso delle membrane di acetato di cellulosa aventi porosità di 0,8 micron. Il flusso d'aria era fissato a 10 1/min, che erano le condizioni di massi ma aspirazione dell'apparecchio a disposizione. L'acidità del materiale particellare contenuta sul filtro viene determinata eseguendo una titolazione per ritorno con acido solforico N/100. Non si usa la titolazione di retta per ovviare all'inconveniente causato dalla presen za di particelle basiche insolubili (es. CaCOa), even tualmente presenti nell'aria, le quali tenderebbero a neu tralizzare il materiale particellare acido depositato sul filtro. Al filtro si addizionano 1-2 cc di indicatore blu di bromotimolo, un noto eccesso di tetraborato sodico N/100 e si titola, sotto agitazione, per ritorno con Ha SO4 fino a colorazione verde mela (pH = 7). Con questo procedimento l'eccesso di tetraborato sodico permette di neutralizzare il materiale particellare acido prima che lo possa fare l'eventuale base insolubile presente sul filtro. Prima dell'aggiunta di H2SO4 bisogna attendere alcuni minuti e agitare continuamente. La titolazione deve essere condotta non molto velocemente, per per mettere che la neutralizzazione abbia il tempo di avve nire, poiché si opera in condizioni cineticamente sfa vorevoli. II risultato finale viene espresso convenzionalmente co me acidità solforica anche se in realtà può esserci un con tributo minore di altri acidi presenti nell'aria. Rimozione del materiale particellare dal filtro L'estrazione è stata effettuata seguendo le raccomanda zioni di Jacobs [3] opportunamente modificate. Il filtro è stato posto in un pallone e fatto bollire con una colon na refrigerante a ricadere per 8 ore e lasciato digerire a freddo per una notte. Il giorno seguente il liquido ve niva trasferito in un matraccio tarato e portato al volu me di 50 cc. Dosaggio degli ioni SO4" Ad una aliquota della soluzione, ottenuta dall'estrazio ne, viene addizionato del cloruro di bario, il quale rea gendo con lo ione solfato, forma una quantità di BaSCL proporzionale alla concentrazione di SO4" presenti. La 1

Sono esaminati due dei principali agenti chimici (S02; HCI) che si presume abbiano un ruolo diretto o indiretto nelle reazioni che causano la degradazione dei materiali lapidei. Sono poi confrontati i rapporti misurati a Venezia con quelli ottenuti da Junge in Florida. Il Centro internazionale di studi per la conservazione e il restauro dei be ni culturali assieme all'istituto su periore di sanità ha intrapreso un piano di ricerca per comprendere quali siano le principali cause della rapida degradazione dei materiali lapidei dei monumenti e delle opere d'arte di Venezia. Lo studio è limi tato a un solo punto della città, per ché si preferisce acquisire una buo na conoscenza della situazione loca le, piuttosto che una superficiale di più punti della città. I dati riportati in questo rapporto costituiscono una parte del piano so praccitato e sono relativi a misure della concentrazione dell'acido clo ridrico gassoso e a quella degli os sidi di zolfo presenti sotto forma gassosa e particolata (SO2, SO3, SO4). Quest'ultima determinazio ne è importante perché gli ossidi di zolfo sono il prodotto di base neces sario alla formazione dell'acido sol forico. Infatti da molti autori tale acido è ritenuto il principale respon sabile della disgregazione delle pie tre, in quanto reagendo col carbo nato di calcio di cui sono costituite forma il solfato di calcio, che avendo proprietà chimiche e fisiche diverse, in breve tempo dà luogo a crepe che diminuiscono la compattezza del ma teriale e permettono ad altri agenti chimici o biologici di penetrare e proseguire nell'azione di alterazione. Analisi eseguite dal laboratorio del la Soprintendenza di Venezia [18], su campioni prelevati dalle superfici alterate di alcuni monumenti, hanno fornito quantità considerevoli di sol fato di calcio con valori decrescenti

The petroglyphs of Murujuga are unique in the world. The Dampier Archipelago is the only known place where at least 45,000 thousand of years of human culture and spiritual beliefs through a changing environment are captured in rock engravings. Murujuga is also the location for a major petrochemical industrial complex which is served by one of the largest bulk handling ports in the world. Emissions from industry have increased acidity of rock surfaces at some rock art sites by more than 1000-fold from near neutral pH of 6.8 ± 0.2 pre-industry to as low as 3.8 ± 0.15 in 2017. Maintaining integrity of the outer rock patina is essential for survival of the petroglyphs. The patina is formed at an extremely slow rate of around 10 microns per 1000 years through biological and chemical processes under neutral to weakly alkaline conditions of desert environments. Acid dissolves the manganese and iron oxides in the patina. Theoretically, petroglyphs at some locations on Murujuga are now being degraded by acids emitted from industry and shipping. However, there has not been credible research to determine whether this is occurring. Research is needed urgently to show whether the combined emissions from industry, shipping and the environment are dissolving the patina, the concentrations needed for dissolution and the rate it is occurring. The research must also examine the impact of nitrogenous emissions on the growth of microorganisms and fungi and the role of their organic acids in degrading the petroglyphs. A full understanding of the chemical reactions involved in degradation of the patina and its attachment to the underlying weathering rind is required to develop simulation models for predicting the likely impacts of future industrial emissions and to identify potential methods to arrest patina degradation. In the meantime, the Western Australian Government should invoke the Precautionary Principle from the Environmental Protection Act 1986 by restricting further industrial development on Murujuga and by setting regulations that limit industrial emissions to near zero.

Burrup Peninsula in northwest Western Australia, with an estimated one million petroglyphs, has the world's largest concentration of ancient rock art. It is one of a few places in the world where a continuous history of people living with a changing environment for over 40,000 years is recorded through rock art. The art is under threat due to high concentrations of acidic and nitrate-rich pollution from nearby industrial complexes. Maintenance of the outer, rock or desert varnish, layer of the rocks is essential for preservation of the art. An increase in acidity of rock surfaces through acid rain and organic acids from nitrate-stimulated microbial growth may alter the mineral composition, integrity and colour of the rock varnish. This paper describes analyses of distilled water washings from rocks on Burrup Peninsula compared with rocks collected prior to industrialisation. Acidity of rock surfaces has increased from near neutral to a pH just above 4. The increasing acidity has been associated with a logarithmic increase in solubilisation of manganese (Mn) and iron (Fe) compounds from the rock surfaces. A theoretical evaluation using electrochemical equilibrium principles confirms that increasing acidity will increase the solubilisation of Mn and Fe compounds. Removal of darker Mn and Fe mixed M(II)/M(III) compounds from the outer, rock varnish layer and the relative increase in ferrous oxide and illite/kaolin compounds will result in the rock surface layers becoming thinner, lighter, redder and more white/yellow over time. The impact on engraved surfaces would be expected to be greater because the rock varnish is thinner than on the non-engraved surface rock. Pollution from industry on Burrup Peninsula is likely to destroy the rock art over time.