Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near Eastern Studies

Dress is a prominent motif woven within the writings of the Hebrew Bible. Far from merely covering human nakedness, clothing is a culturally constructed symbolic language that marks ethnicity, signals social status, and even makes a political statement. 1 Nowhere is the symbolic power of dress to communicate ideology more evident than in the ritual attire of Israel's priesthood. 2 Since the earliest interpreters of the biblical text, there has been a fascination with the priesthood's sacral vestments and an attempt to explain their symbolism. 3 One aspect of liturgical dress, however, remains untouched-that of footwear. The biblical description of priestly dress unfolds in a tapestry of rich detail over forty verses, specifying materials, colors, weave, and ornamentation (Exod. 28). While ordinary priests officiate in linen tunics bound by sashes and linen caps, the high priest ministers in more elaborate apparel reflecting the higher status of his position. He wears a robe of costly blue fashioned of a single piece of cloth and ending in an ornamented hem of alternating golden bells and pomegranates. Over the robe he dons the ephod, fabricated of threads dyed in blue, purple, and scarlet, and interwoven with gold. Its shoulder pieces are embellished with two onyx stones engraved with the names of the tribes of Israel in birth order, six names on each stone. Over the ephod hangs a jewel-encrusted pouch of the same weave containing oracular media used in the priestly ministry. Twelve stones sunk in filigree settings adorn the breastplate, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. Finally, the high priest is crowned in a turban-like linen headdress worn also by kings (Ezek. 21:31). His, however, is distinguished by a rosette frontlet of pure gold inscribed with the dedication "holy to YHWH." Yet, among the prolific details relating to priestly vestments, there is a striking absence of the mention of footwear. Ancient and modern interpreters alike are in agreement that Israel's priests officiated barefoot within the sanctuary. 4 Exodus Rabbah elaborates: "Wherever the Shechinah [the divine presence] appears one must not go about with shoes on; and so we find in the case of Joshua; Put off thy shoe (Josh. 5:15). Hence the priests ministered in the Temple barefooted." 5 The practice no doubt is to be traced back to Moses' encounter with YHWH at the burning bush: "Do not come any closer. Remove your sandals from your feet, for the place on which you stand is holy

In ancient Israelite religious practice, the investiture of the high priest is instrumental in the construction and performance of his ritual identity. Sacral apparel transforms a man into a priest by transferring him from the realm of the common into the realm of the holy. Arrayed in garments reflective of the sanctuary in their styling and fabrication, the high priest serves as an extension of the sanctuary by becoming an access point to the divine. This article explores the manner in which the consecrated, dressed, and ornamented priestly body is a socially constructed microcosm of the divine-human relationship.

Isaiah's scrutiny of idol fashioning in 44:6-20 provides a window into his understanding of image making in the ancient Near East. The prophet's descriptions are a symptom of his shared perception, or the common cognitive environment, of the ancient world in which he lived; this includes information gathered from the discipline of biblical archaeology. Based on the cultic literary context of Isaiah 44, a nuance of the usual meaning of the Hebrew term ‫,בית‬ and the prophet's larger shared environment attested by the material culture of the ancient Near East, I suggest Isaiah's use of ‫בית‬ in 44:13b assumes a "model house."

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