Etruscan sarcophagi & other stone products & tombs by Daniel Morleghem
2025 - Morleghem-Ducret, Artigianato e economia della scultura in pietra vulcanica. Confronto tra il Latium vetus e l’Etruria meridionale (VIII-I secolo a.C.), journée d'étude, 5 juin 2025, École française de Rome (piazza Navona), Rome (Italie).
Gli autori sono a disposizione di quanti, non rintracciati, avessero legalmente diritto alla corr... more Gli autori sono a disposizione di quanti, non rintracciati, avessero legalmente diritto alla corresponsione di eventuali diritti di pubblicazione, facendo salvo il carattere unicamente scientifico di questo studio e la sua destinazione non a fine di lucro.
Forty years after the publication of Horst Blanck and Giuseppe Proietti's monograph, La tomba dei... more Forty years after the publication of Horst Blanck and Giuseppe Proietti's monograph, La tomba dei Rilievi di Cerveteri, which was the first detailed study of the monument as a whole, it became necessary to have a new tool for studying this exceptional testimony to Etruscan culture in the early Hellenistic period, in line with current research standards.
The photogrammetric survey of the burial chamber carried out in the context of this meeting makes it possible to correct the distortions, simplifications and approximations present in the manual surveys, while at the same time providing the research community with an instrument that will enable it to study the iconography, style and technique in greater depth, and to formulate new hypotheses concerning the representations in the tomb and the details of its realisation.
Putting the monument into perspective in a Mediterranean context testifies to its originality and profoundly local character, both in terms of plan and decoration, unlike large hypogea inspired by temples (Ildebranda tomb, Sovana), palaces (Grotte Scalina at Musarna, Lattanzi tomb at Norchia) or prestigious tombs (Torlonia tomb at Cerveteri) in the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin.
2025 - Mariuzzo-Morleghem, "Not just for show: using 3D models as “simple” tools to enhance archaeological understanding of an Etruscan Site", CAA 2025, Athens
The colony of Musarna, located in the eastern part of the territory of the great city of Tarquini... more The colony of Musarna, located in the eastern part of the territory of the great city of Tarquinia, was founded at the end of the 4th century BC, in response to the Roman expansion that began a few decades earlier. First Etruscan, then Roman, it was occupied until the 7th century AD. Rediscovered at the end of the 19th century, Musarna was mainly investigated between 1983 and 2003 under the direction of Henri Broise and Vincent Jolivet (École française de Rome; Broise and Jolivet 1997; Jolivet 2013). Numerous surveys, drawings, test pits, excavations and artefact studies have shed light on and provided a better understanding of the layout of the city and its road network, a number of important buildings (domus, Hellenistic baths, public buildings, etc.) as well as, the Hellenistic and Imperial necropolises, and the environment (agricultural landscape). This research has resulted in a wealth of written and graphic documentation (exclusively in 2D , such as survey and photos), a variety of publications, a lot of artefacts and numerous remains that are still accessible, but which are not always easy to study due to erosion of the land and vegetation cover. Since 2023, the site has once again been the subject of research as part of a doctoral project (focused on the defensive system) and a postdoctoral project (examining the Hellenistic necropolis and sarcophagi). This renewed investigation is distinguished by the integration of a substantial academic legacy, the exploration of new research questions and methodologies, and, above all, the application of advanced tools to deepen our understanding of the site.
The city and necropolis of Musarna are complex entities, whose identity is deeply rooted in a unique and remarkable three-dimensionality. This characteristic is not only a defining feature of the site’s current organisation , but also a key element of the plateau’s natural conformation, even before the foundation of the city. The site’s morphology, with its pronounced gradients and contrasts between the steeply sloping western slope (a 40-metre depressed valley) and the more gently undulating eastern slope, provided a structural basis for settlement choices, offering natural protection and functional differentiation. This three-dimensional landscape, shaped by a combination of natural forces and human intervention, gave rise to a city where surface and underground spaces, as well as aerial and semi-rupestrian constructions, are in constant dialogue. In a way the above-ground city corresponds to an underground city; the same applies to the Hellenistic necropolis, where funerary monuments built in tuf blocks materialise the burial chambers beneath on the surface.
The current graphic documentation of the Musarna site, limited to 2D representations (mainly excavation plans, with few sections and elevations), does not allow the complexity of the terrain survey to be fully seized. As a result, it is not possible to fully understand its strengths and limitations, nor the extent of tuf extraction and, consequently, the topographical transformation that the site underwent. Furthermore, one cannot fully appreciate how the structures are arranged, both above and below ground level, often on multiple levels.
Today, modern tools and methodologies, such as topography, digital photography, photogrammetry, lasergrammetry and 3D modelling, offer a new and more comprehensive opportunity to analyse the site, through the use of old data and the acquisition of new, natively digital and 3D data. These integrated approaches make it possible to examine Musarna on multiple scales and over the long term, enabling the study of both its overall spatial organisation and the visibility of individual structures. Furthermore, current technologies make it possible to combine old data with newly acquired data, providing a more precise understanding of the city, its construction methods and its development over time.
The study of the Musarna site presents significant challenges due to its pronounced and uneven topography, the variable state of preservation of the remains, and the multiplicity of partial and incomplete data, which can only be properly understood through an overarching perspective. To achieve this, creating one or more digital duplicates of the site, incorporating the current state of the site and the previous excavations, which have largely been filled in, is essential if we are to have this overall view.
Depending on the data that already exists, and the accessibility and visibility of the remains, several low-cost 3D digitisation methods that are quick and easy to implement can be envisaged:
- Topography using differential GPS and a tacheometer;
- Photogrammetric surveys of the area by drone (LIDAR is currently excluded for budgetary reasons but remains under consideration) and on ground level (topography, buildings, excavations);
- Lasergrammetric surveys, particularly in underground areas;
- Creation of photogrammetric models from photos (black and white, colour) of previous excavations;
- Using archive documentation (plans, sections, elevations, stratigraphy) to feed a 3D database.
All this data is used as a basis for producing phased reconstructions of the site, using Blender software in particular.
The 3D data is used at various levels:
For a simple visualisation, at different scales and with viewpoints impossible to reach in reality (aerial views, views of underground spaces in their entirety, etc.) ;
To extract high-resolution ortho-images (plans, profiles, elevations) as a basis for traditional 2D archaeological surveys; 3D is becoming a major asset, enabling the rapid and accurate production of a large number of plans and sections that would be impossible or at least difficult to produce using traditional techniques;
For 3D analysis, whether to produce a DEM or calculate volumes, for example.
Ultimately, they are intended to be integrated into the MUSARNA project's GIS.
For us, any 3D production serves primarily as a tool for archaeological inquiry and reflection, rather than as an end in itself. At this stage of the research, the quality of geometry and geo-referencing is prioritised over textures and the production of ‘clean’ models, which are difficult to obtain due to vegetation and difficulties in the underground. Leading to the creation of three-dimensional models that are low-quality from an aesthetic point of view, but of extreme importance for the data that can be obtained for archaeological reflection.
The first two years of the Musarna project focused on identifying existing sources and dataset that could be exploited with the digital and 3D tools now available to us, and to assessing the feasibility of this new 3D approach.
The archives from the excavations conducted by the École française de Rome (1983-2003) constitute a rich collection, the inventory and study of which is a major undertaking. The photographs (black and white and colour) relating to the defensive system and the Hellenistic and Imperial necropolises have been scanned. Numerous general views of the excavation areas and monuments, with good resolution and from a variety of viewpoints, were used to produce photogrammetric models which, once scaled and geo-referenced (a lengthy process based on existing topographical data and new surveys), feed into the project's GIS.
On the ground, the initial surveys carried out have enabled us to reinterpret certain remains or landforms and to identify new structures that were absent from the ancient plans, thereby updating the map of the city and its surroundings. A number of photogrammetric surveys have already been carried out by drone (of the entire area for one DEM in particular) and on the ground (of surface and underground monuments), all of which have greatly improved our perception of the site, not only in terms of its topography, of course, but also in terms of roads and traffic flow and the constraints involved in installing masonry structures, for example. The cartography of the city, its necropolises and its territory is also gradually being enriched with new, precise, standardised data, accompanied with metadata.
The 3D reconstruction work is still in its early stages. Starting with the DEM generated by aerial photogrammetry, we are gradually adding the main civil, defensive and funerary buildings in Musarna. These are still only simple volumes designed to provide a better understanding of the general organisation of the site and the relationships between the land and the buildings and between the buildings themselves.
Bibliography
Broise, Henri, Jolivet. Vincent. 1997. “Une colonie étrusque en territoire tarquinien.” Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 141 (4): 1327-1350.
Jolivet, Vincent. 2013. “Civita Musarna tra passato, presente e futuro.” AIAC FOLD&R. https://www.fastionline.org/docs/FOLDER-it-2013-283.pdf.
2025 - Morleghem-Jolivet, "Carrière et nécropole étrusque hellénistique : le fondo Scataglini à Tarquinia", seminar "Carrières et constructions", Paris, 30 avril 2025
2024 - Morleghem-Jolivet, "La tombe Torlonia de Cerveteri : nouvelles recherches", colloque international Paesaggi culturali degli insediamenti in roccia. Ricerca. Valorizzazione. Promozione, Palagianello (PG, Italie), 26-29 septembre 2024.
Stone sarcophagi are one of the most important witnesses of Etruscan funerary art and craftmanshi... more Stone sarcophagi are one of the most important witnesses of Etruscan funerary art and craftmanship. Although a few examples are attested between the 8th and the 5th centuries BC (Orientalist, Archaic and Classical periods), most of the production dates from the4th-2nd centuries BC (Hellenistic period) and is mainly distributed in the necropolises of the southern Etruria (northern Lazio), and more specifically in the territory of the city of Tarquinia. The reference publication on these objects dates from the mid-20th century and concerns only Hellenistic decorated pieces, studied through the prism of art history (iconography, stylistics); it was expanded in 1974 and 2004 to form a corpus of ca. 420 decorated sarcophagi well preserved. The undecorated specimens have never been taken into consideration, even though they represent between half and two-third of the Etruscan stone sarcophagi of this period. The earliest examples have never been the subject of a synthetic study any more. The SETRU-2.0 project aims to fill the gaps in research on all Etruscan stone sarcophagi and to establish a new reference publication that goes beyond artistic and stylistic considerations, through a complete inventory these objects and a methodological guide applicable to future discoveries and other type of handmade products. Its originality lies in the fact that it considers the entire production (from the 8th to the 2nd century BC; sarcophagi whole or fragmentary, decorated or not, painted or not, inscribed or not, of fine or coarse workmanship), on a global and interdisciplinary approach (archaeology, art history, epigraphy, geology, anthropology, etc.), and on the implementation of a specific methodology, from the study of tool marks to the use of 2.5 and 3D surveying (RTI, photogrammetry, lasergrammetry) and analysis tools and techniques (GIS, 3D modelling). This project is definitively innovative for this class of object and more widely in Etruscology.
2021 - "Découverte de trois nouvelles tombes au sud-ouest des tombes Lattanzi 1-5", in Jolivet, V. (dir.), Norchia (Viterbo), Progetto tomba Lattanzi, Campagna di studio 2021. Pulizie, rilievi, prospezioni, rapport archéologique, 2021, p. 29-36.
2021 - Étude technique des sarcophages conservés au Museo delle Necropoli Rupestri de Barbarano Romano (VT), rapport, mai 2021, 35 p.
L’étude des sarcophages du Museo delle Necropoli Rupestri (MNR) de Barbarano
Romano1 a été réalis... more L’étude des sarcophages du Museo delle Necropoli Rupestri (MNR) de Barbarano
Romano1 a été réalisée dans le cadre d’une recherche post-doctorale sur les sarcophages
étrusques d’époque hellénistique2 initiée en 2019 à la suite de l’obtention du « Prix Jeune
Chercheur » de la Fondation des Treilles. Cette recherche, qui porte sur l’ensemble des
sarcophages de pierre – décorés ou non – d’Étrurie méridionale, s’intéresse aux modalités
techniques et à la chaîne opératoire de la fabrication de ces contenants funéraires, vise à établir
une nouvelle typologie fondée sur des critères formels et techniques, et aussi à appréhender les
cadres artisanaux et économiques de leur production et de leur commerce.
La présente étude, qui ne porte que sur une partie des sarcophages retrouvés dans les
nécropoles de San Giuliano, peut être considérée comme un premier complément d’ordre
strictement technique à l’article de M. D. Gentili sur « la bottega dei sarcofagi di San
Giuliano »3, avant la réalisation d’une synthèse typologique et technique incluant les
exemplaires conservés dans les nécropoles, chez des particuliers ou dans un musée.
La première partie de ce rapport présente le cadre, les objectifs et les modalités de
l’étude des dix sarcophages conservés au MNR, qui sont décrits individuellement dans la
deuxième partie. Une troisième partie revient, de manière synthétique, sur les aspects
typologiques, morphologiques, techniques et pétrographiques remarquables de la collection.
Sont annexés à ce rapport deux tableaux en versions française et italienne : le premier
correspond à l’inventaire des sarcophages des nécropoles de San Giuliano, tandis que le second
détaille la typologie des seuls sarcophages du MNR.
2020 - "Note concernant le sarcophage de la tombe Lattanzi 4", in Jolivet, V. et Lovergne, E. . (dir.) - Norchia (Viterbo), Progetto Tomba Lattanzi, Campagna di scavo 2020, rapport de fouilles, 2020, p. 77-79.
2020 - "Les cippes du toit de la tombe Lattanzi 1", Jolivet, V. et Lovergne, E. (dir.) – Norchia (Viterbo), Progetto Tomba Lattanzi, Campagna di scavo 2020, rapport de fouilles, 2020, p. 65-72.
2020 - "Note technique concernant le toit de la tombe Lattanzi 1", in Jolivet, V. et Lovergne, E. (dir.) – Norchia (Viterbo), Progetto Tomba Lattanzi, Campagna di scavo 2020, rapport de fouilles, 2020, p. 57-64.
2019 - "Les sarcophages en pierre étrusques : étude technique", in Jolivet, V. et Lovergne, E. (dir.) – Archeologia nella Tuscia Viterbese, campagna di scavo 2019, rapport de fouilles, 2019, p. 35-46.
Articles by Daniel Morleghem
2021 - « Methods of studying the sarcophagi quarries of the High Middle Ages in Touraine-Poitou-Berry (France) », in Sciuto, C., Lamesa, A., Whitaker, K. et Yamaç, A., Carved in stone. The archaeology of rock-cut sites and stone quarries, BAR International Series S3054, 2021, p. 113-142.
2020 - La numérisation photographique au service de l’épigraphie , EPIMED-Culture écrite médiévale, 2020, publié le 15/04/2020.
2020 - La carrière de sarcophages du haut Moyen Âge de Pied Griffé (Saint-Pierre-de-Maillé, Vienne), Bulletin de l’Association des Archéologues du Poitou-Charentes 48, 2020, p. 31-40
2019 - Alix, Cl. et Morleghem, D. - Les caves d’Orléans. Apports de la recherche SICAVOR
in Alix, C., Salamage, A. et Gaugain, L., Caves et celliers dans l’Europe médiévale et Moderne, c... more in Alix, C., Salamage, A. et Gaugain, L., Caves et celliers dans l’Europe médiévale et Moderne, colloque international 4-6 octobre 2017, Tours, Presses Universitaires François Rabelais, Tours, 2019, pp. 57-85
2019 - Des sarcophages en pierre d’Ambrault ? Pas si sûr…
colloque international 1100 ans de l’abbaye Notre-Dame de Déols. Comprendre le rayonnement clunis... more colloque international 1100 ans de l’abbaye Notre-Dame de Déols. Comprendre le rayonnement clunisien au Moyen-Age, 8-9 septembre 2017, 2019, pp. 137-144
2019 - Déplacement et réouverture du sarcophage des Grêles (commune de Lavoux, Vienne)
Bulletin de l’Association des Archéologues du Poitou-Charentes 48, 2019
Uploads
Etruscan sarcophagi & other stone products & tombs by Daniel Morleghem
The photogrammetric survey of the burial chamber carried out in the context of this meeting makes it possible to correct the distortions, simplifications and approximations present in the manual surveys, while at the same time providing the research community with an instrument that will enable it to study the iconography, style and technique in greater depth, and to formulate new hypotheses concerning the representations in the tomb and the details of its realisation.
Putting the monument into perspective in a Mediterranean context testifies to its originality and profoundly local character, both in terms of plan and decoration, unlike large hypogea inspired by temples (Ildebranda tomb, Sovana), palaces (Grotte Scalina at Musarna, Lattanzi tomb at Norchia) or prestigious tombs (Torlonia tomb at Cerveteri) in the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin.
The city and necropolis of Musarna are complex entities, whose identity is deeply rooted in a unique and remarkable three-dimensionality. This characteristic is not only a defining feature of the site’s current organisation , but also a key element of the plateau’s natural conformation, even before the foundation of the city. The site’s morphology, with its pronounced gradients and contrasts between the steeply sloping western slope (a 40-metre depressed valley) and the more gently undulating eastern slope, provided a structural basis for settlement choices, offering natural protection and functional differentiation. This three-dimensional landscape, shaped by a combination of natural forces and human intervention, gave rise to a city where surface and underground spaces, as well as aerial and semi-rupestrian constructions, are in constant dialogue. In a way the above-ground city corresponds to an underground city; the same applies to the Hellenistic necropolis, where funerary monuments built in tuf blocks materialise the burial chambers beneath on the surface.
The current graphic documentation of the Musarna site, limited to 2D representations (mainly excavation plans, with few sections and elevations), does not allow the complexity of the terrain survey to be fully seized. As a result, it is not possible to fully understand its strengths and limitations, nor the extent of tuf extraction and, consequently, the topographical transformation that the site underwent. Furthermore, one cannot fully appreciate how the structures are arranged, both above and below ground level, often on multiple levels.
Today, modern tools and methodologies, such as topography, digital photography, photogrammetry, lasergrammetry and 3D modelling, offer a new and more comprehensive opportunity to analyse the site, through the use of old data and the acquisition of new, natively digital and 3D data. These integrated approaches make it possible to examine Musarna on multiple scales and over the long term, enabling the study of both its overall spatial organisation and the visibility of individual structures. Furthermore, current technologies make it possible to combine old data with newly acquired data, providing a more precise understanding of the city, its construction methods and its development over time.
The study of the Musarna site presents significant challenges due to its pronounced and uneven topography, the variable state of preservation of the remains, and the multiplicity of partial and incomplete data, which can only be properly understood through an overarching perspective. To achieve this, creating one or more digital duplicates of the site, incorporating the current state of the site and the previous excavations, which have largely been filled in, is essential if we are to have this overall view.
Depending on the data that already exists, and the accessibility and visibility of the remains, several low-cost 3D digitisation methods that are quick and easy to implement can be envisaged:
- Topography using differential GPS and a tacheometer;
- Photogrammetric surveys of the area by drone (LIDAR is currently excluded for budgetary reasons but remains under consideration) and on ground level (topography, buildings, excavations);
- Lasergrammetric surveys, particularly in underground areas;
- Creation of photogrammetric models from photos (black and white, colour) of previous excavations;
- Using archive documentation (plans, sections, elevations, stratigraphy) to feed a 3D database.
All this data is used as a basis for producing phased reconstructions of the site, using Blender software in particular.
The 3D data is used at various levels:
For a simple visualisation, at different scales and with viewpoints impossible to reach in reality (aerial views, views of underground spaces in their entirety, etc.) ;
To extract high-resolution ortho-images (plans, profiles, elevations) as a basis for traditional 2D archaeological surveys; 3D is becoming a major asset, enabling the rapid and accurate production of a large number of plans and sections that would be impossible or at least difficult to produce using traditional techniques;
For 3D analysis, whether to produce a DEM or calculate volumes, for example.
Ultimately, they are intended to be integrated into the MUSARNA project's GIS.
For us, any 3D production serves primarily as a tool for archaeological inquiry and reflection, rather than as an end in itself. At this stage of the research, the quality of geometry and geo-referencing is prioritised over textures and the production of ‘clean’ models, which are difficult to obtain due to vegetation and difficulties in the underground. Leading to the creation of three-dimensional models that are low-quality from an aesthetic point of view, but of extreme importance for the data that can be obtained for archaeological reflection.
The first two years of the Musarna project focused on identifying existing sources and dataset that could be exploited with the digital and 3D tools now available to us, and to assessing the feasibility of this new 3D approach.
The archives from the excavations conducted by the École française de Rome (1983-2003) constitute a rich collection, the inventory and study of which is a major undertaking. The photographs (black and white and colour) relating to the defensive system and the Hellenistic and Imperial necropolises have been scanned. Numerous general views of the excavation areas and monuments, with good resolution and from a variety of viewpoints, were used to produce photogrammetric models which, once scaled and geo-referenced (a lengthy process based on existing topographical data and new surveys), feed into the project's GIS.
On the ground, the initial surveys carried out have enabled us to reinterpret certain remains or landforms and to identify new structures that were absent from the ancient plans, thereby updating the map of the city and its surroundings. A number of photogrammetric surveys have already been carried out by drone (of the entire area for one DEM in particular) and on the ground (of surface and underground monuments), all of which have greatly improved our perception of the site, not only in terms of its topography, of course, but also in terms of roads and traffic flow and the constraints involved in installing masonry structures, for example. The cartography of the city, its necropolises and its territory is also gradually being enriched with new, precise, standardised data, accompanied with metadata.
The 3D reconstruction work is still in its early stages. Starting with the DEM generated by aerial photogrammetry, we are gradually adding the main civil, defensive and funerary buildings in Musarna. These are still only simple volumes designed to provide a better understanding of the general organisation of the site and the relationships between the land and the buildings and between the buildings themselves.
Bibliography
Broise, Henri, Jolivet. Vincent. 1997. “Une colonie étrusque en territoire tarquinien.” Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 141 (4): 1327-1350.
Jolivet, Vincent. 2013. “Civita Musarna tra passato, presente e futuro.” AIAC FOLD&R. https://www.fastionline.org/docs/FOLDER-it-2013-283.pdf.
Romano1 a été réalisée dans le cadre d’une recherche post-doctorale sur les sarcophages
étrusques d’époque hellénistique2 initiée en 2019 à la suite de l’obtention du « Prix Jeune
Chercheur » de la Fondation des Treilles. Cette recherche, qui porte sur l’ensemble des
sarcophages de pierre – décorés ou non – d’Étrurie méridionale, s’intéresse aux modalités
techniques et à la chaîne opératoire de la fabrication de ces contenants funéraires, vise à établir
une nouvelle typologie fondée sur des critères formels et techniques, et aussi à appréhender les
cadres artisanaux et économiques de leur production et de leur commerce.
La présente étude, qui ne porte que sur une partie des sarcophages retrouvés dans les
nécropoles de San Giuliano, peut être considérée comme un premier complément d’ordre
strictement technique à l’article de M. D. Gentili sur « la bottega dei sarcofagi di San
Giuliano »3, avant la réalisation d’une synthèse typologique et technique incluant les
exemplaires conservés dans les nécropoles, chez des particuliers ou dans un musée.
La première partie de ce rapport présente le cadre, les objectifs et les modalités de
l’étude des dix sarcophages conservés au MNR, qui sont décrits individuellement dans la
deuxième partie. Une troisième partie revient, de manière synthétique, sur les aspects
typologiques, morphologiques, techniques et pétrographiques remarquables de la collection.
Sont annexés à ce rapport deux tableaux en versions française et italienne : le premier
correspond à l’inventaire des sarcophages des nécropoles de San Giuliano, tandis que le second
détaille la typologie des seuls sarcophages du MNR.
Articles by Daniel Morleghem