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Note: 2019a and 2019b correspond to surveys before and after a storm/ spring tide, respectively. TABLE 1 Multibeam echosounder time-lapse survey date availability for the candidate shipwrecks

Table 1 Note: 2019a and 2019b correspond to surveys before and after a storm/ spring tide, respectively. TABLE 1 Multibeam echosounder time-lapse survey date availability for the candidate shipwrecks

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FIGURE 1 (a) Location of the study area on the map of the United Kingdom and Ireland. (b) Locations of the study sites in the Irish Sea with inset maps representing sites (c) between Fairhead and Rathlin Island, (d) off Belfast Lough, (e) northeast of Dublin, (f) east of Dublin, (g) southeast of Dublin. Backdrop bathymetry presented in Figure 1 was obtained from (b) EMODnet Bathymetry Consortium (2018), (c) Joint Irish Bathymetric Survey project (https://www.infomar.ie/partnerships/jibs-joint-irish-bathymetricsurvey), (d) Royal Navy (public sector information, licensed under the Open Government License v2.0), and (e-g) INFOMAR project [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] north to Dublin Bay in the south (Figure 1). Within this area, 10 wrecks were investigated: SS Lugano, SS Santa Maria, SS Tiberia, SS Chirripo, SS Polwell, FV St. Michan, SS WM Barkley, SS Hare, RMS Leinster, and HMS Vanguard. With the exception of HMS Vanguard, all shipwrecks investigated in this study were lost due to naval warfare during World War 1. HMS Vanguard sank in fog in 1875 due to a collision with its sister ship HMS Iron Duke. The 10 shipwreck sites were selected to represent a range of physical environments, characterized by different tidal con- ditions and varied geological substrates. These shipwrecks are just a few of more than 18,000 other wrecking incidents that are recorded off the island of Ireland (Brady et al., 2012; Forsythe et al., 2000). The study area encompasses the waters off the east and northeast coast of the island of Ireland from Rathlin Island in the
FIGURE 1 (a) Location of the study area on the map of the United Kingdom and Ireland. (b) Locations of the study sites in the Irish Sea with inset maps representing sites (c) between Fairhead and Rathlin Island, (d) off Belfast Lough, (e) northeast of Dublin, (f) east of Dublin, (g) southeast of Dublin. Backdrop bathymetry presented in Figure 1 was obtained from (b) EMODnet Bathymetry Consortium (2018), (c) Joint Irish Bathymetric Survey project (https://www.infomar.ie/partnerships/jibs-joint-irish-bathymetricsurvey), (d) Royal Navy (public sector information, licensed under the Open Government License v2.0), and (e-g) INFOMAR project [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] north to Dublin Bay in the south (Figure 1). Within this area, 10 wrecks were investigated: SS Lugano, SS Santa Maria, SS Tiberia, SS Chirripo, SS Polwell, FV St. Michan, SS WM Barkley, SS Hare, RMS Leinster, and HMS Vanguard. With the exception of HMS Vanguard, all shipwrecks investigated in this study were lost due to naval warfare during World War 1. HMS Vanguard sank in fog in 1875 due to a collision with its sister ship HMS Iron Duke. The 10 shipwreck sites were selected to represent a range of physical environments, characterized by different tidal con- ditions and varied geological substrates. These shipwrecks are just a few of more than 18,000 other wrecking incidents that are recorded off the island of Ireland (Brady et al., 2012; Forsythe et al., 2000). The study area encompasses the waters off the east and northeast coast of the island of Ireland from Rathlin Island in the
FIGURE 2 Sand-dominated sites presented as digital elevation models with a multidirectional hillshade occlusion: (a) RMS Leinster, (b) SS WM Barkley, (c) SS Hare, (d) HMS Vanguard (the seismic profile is described in Figure 3). Rose charts represent the modeled near-seabed current data. Grab samples: gS, gravelly sand; (g)S, slightly gravelly sand; S, sand [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 2 Sand-dominated sites presented as digital elevation models with a multidirectional hillshade occlusion: (a) RMS Leinster, (b) SS WM Barkley, (c) SS Hare, (d) HMS Vanguard (the seismic profile is described in Figure 3). Rose charts represent the modeled near-seabed current data. Grab samples: gS, gravelly sand; (g)S, slightly gravelly sand; S, sand [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
TABLE 2 Characterization of the shipwreck sites
TABLE 2 Characterization of the shipwreck sites
FIGURE 3 (a) Seismic line acquired over HMS Vanguard and (b) its interpretation, showing the digitized horizons vertically limiting further development of the scour pits. The profile's location is shown in Figure 2d. Sediment waves and a large sediment wave are visible SSE and NNW of the wreck, correspondingly. Multiple reflections (seismic artifacts) are marked separately [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 3 (a) Seismic line acquired over HMS Vanguard and (b) its interpretation, showing the digitized horizons vertically limiting further development of the scour pits. The profile's location is shown in Figure 2d. Sediment waves and a large sediment wave are visible SSE and NNW of the wreck, correspondingly. Multiple reflections (seismic artifacts) are marked separately [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 4 Multimodal sites presented as digital elevation models with a multidirectional hillshade occlusion: (a) SS Chirripo, (b) SS Tiberia, (c) SS Polwell, (d) FV St. Michan. Rose charts represent the modeled near-seabed current data. Grab samples: gM, gravelly mud; gmS, gravelly muddy sand; (g)mS, slightly gravelly muddy sand; mS, muddy sand; msG, muddy sandy gravel [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 4 Multimodal sites presented as digital elevation models with a multidirectional hillshade occlusion: (a) SS Chirripo, (b) SS Tiberia, (c) SS Polwell, (d) FV St. Michan. Rose charts represent the modeled near-seabed current data. Grab samples: gM, gravelly mud; gmS, gravelly muddy sand; (g)mS, slightly gravelly muddy sand; mS, muddy sand; msG, muddy sandy gravel [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 5 Gravel-dominated sites presented as digital elevation models with a multidirectional hillshade occlusion: (a) SS Lugano, (b) SS Santa Maria. Rose charts represent the modeled near-seabed current data. Grab samples: G, gravel; sG, sandy gravel [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 5 Gravel-dominated sites presented as digital elevation models with a multidirectional hillshade occlusion: (a) SS Lugano, (b) SS Santa Maria. Rose charts represent the modeled near-seabed current data. Grab samples: G, gravel; sG, sandy gravel [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
TABLE 3 Maximum depths and annual changes of bed erosion (relative to a preceding time step) due to scour at the sites In general, the biggest changes occurred at the sand-dominated
TABLE 3 Maximum depths and annual changes of bed erosion (relative to a preceding time step) due to scour at the sites In general, the biggest changes occurred at the sand-dominated
Note: Blank cells indicate that the extent of a digital elevation model of difference did not allow for a calculation or that there are no data for the given time step. Increasing red intensity corresponds to higher deposition, whereas blue intensity indicates higher erosion. TABLE 4 Volumetric changes for different time steps, expressed in cubic meters within the 50- to 500-m radii buffer zones around the shipwrecks
Note: Blank cells indicate that the extent of a digital elevation model of difference did not allow for a calculation or that there are no data for the given time step. Increasing red intensity corresponds to higher deposition, whereas blue intensity indicates higher erosion. TABLE 4 Volumetric changes for different time steps, expressed in cubic meters within the 50- to 500-m radii buffer zones around the shipwrecks
FIGURE 6 Multiannual digital elevation models of difference with major geomorphic changes for SS WM Barkley (a) 2015-2010, (b) 2019-2015, (c) 2019-2010; SS Hare (d) 2015-2010, (e) 2019-2015, (f) 2019-2010; RMS Leinster (g) 2019-2015; HMS Vanguard (h) 2019-2015. Pixels within the detection threshold (+30 cm) are in white [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 6 Multiannual digital elevation models of difference with major geomorphic changes for SS WM Barkley (a) 2015-2010, (b) 2019-2015, (c) 2019-2010; SS Hare (d) 2015-2010, (e) 2019-2015, (f) 2019-2010; RMS Leinster (g) 2019-2015; HMS Vanguard (h) 2019-2015. Pixels within the detection threshold (+30 cm) are in white [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 8 Annual digital elevation models of difference (2016-2015) with major geomorphic changes for (a) SS WM Barkley, (b) SS Hare, and (c) RMS Leinster. Pixels within the detection threshold (30 cm) are in white [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 8 Annual digital elevation models of difference (2016-2015) with major geomorphic changes for (a) SS WM Barkley, (b) SS Hare, and (c) RMS Leinster. Pixels within the detection threshold (30 cm) are in white [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 7 Multiannual digital elevation models (DEMs) of difference with minor geomorphic changes for (a) SS Polwell, 2019-2015, (b) FV St. Michan, 2019-2015, and (c) inset map showing a multidirectional hillshade raster created using the 2019 DEM with FV St. Michan. Pixels within the detection threshold (30 cm) were retained to avoid information loss [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 7 Multiannual digital elevation models (DEMs) of difference with minor geomorphic changes for (a) SS Polwell, 2019-2015, (b) FV St. Michan, 2019-2015, and (c) inset map showing a multidirectional hillshade raster created using the 2019 DEM with FV St. Michan. Pixels within the detection threshold (30 cm) were retained to avoid information loss [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 9 Annual digital elevation models of difference (2016-2015) with minor geomorphic changes for (a) SS Chirripo, (b) SS Tiberia, and (c) inset map showing a sediment wave train in SS Tiberia's far field. Pixels within the detection threshold (+30 cm) were retained to avoid information loss [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 9 Annual digital elevation models of difference (2016-2015) with minor geomorphic changes for (a) SS Chirripo, (b) SS Tiberia, and (c) inset map showing a sediment wave train in SS Tiberia's far field. Pixels within the detection threshold (+30 cm) were retained to avoid information loss [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 10 Weekly digital elevation models of difference (2019) for (a) SS WM Barkley and (b) SS Hare. Pixels within the detection threshold (30 cm) were retained to avoid information loss [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 10 Weekly digital elevation models of difference (2019) for (a) SS WM Barkley and (b) SS Hare. Pixels within the detection threshold (30 cm) were retained to avoid information loss [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
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