Women and Menstruation

Women are still routinely excluded from Hindu sacred places during their periods, even in spite of India's constitutional promises of equality. These limitations deprive women of their spiritual power by framing their bodies as barriers to holiness, which are rooted in deeply ingrained ideas of cleanliness and defilement. The dichotomy of worshiping gods while stigmatizing menstruation women as unclean is examined in this article.  The study highlights the inconsistencies in theological orthodoxy by looking at cultural customs like the Ambubachi Mela at Kamakhya Temple, where menstruation is regarded as heavenly. It begs important concerns, such as why menstruation is frowned upon in mortal women yet praised in goddesses. Why do patriarchal standards of ritual "cleanliness" take precedence over a woman's devotion?
These inconsistencies show how religion frequently upholds societal structures at the expense of women's worth. By examining Andal's dedication to Vishnu, which made her a saint, and the recent Sabarimala case, which put the judiciary's capacity to address ingrained gender biases to the test, the piece further places this fight within the larger sociopolitical context. Women continue to face violent resistance in spite of historic rulings like as the Supreme Court's 2018 decision, illustrating how legislative progress is futile in the absence of social change. In the end, the article makes the case that removing these obstacles necessitates balancing equality and faith, opposing patriarchal conceptions of religion, and reaffirming women's equal entitlement to spiritual expression. In doing so, it advocates for a rethinking of Hindu sacred spaces as inclusive places where access to the divine is determined by devotion rather by genetics.

Menstruation in Bhutan remains a silenced and stigmatized subject, contrasting sharply with the nation's holistic development philosophy and Gross National Happiness framework. This case study examines menstrual taboos among Lhotshampa women and girls in Tsirang, drawing on ethnographic interviews, literature review, and thematic content analysis. Findings reveal that Hindu beliefs, patriarchal customs, and intergenerational norms frame menstruation as impure, restricting women's mobility, participation in cultural and religious activities, and access to education and health resources. These practices negatively influence self-esteem, school attendance, and reproductive health. The study calls for culturally sensitive menstrual education, strengthened community dialogue, and targeted policy interventions to promote menstrual equity and gender justice in Bhutan.

Objective: This study was conducted to determine the genital hygiene behaviors of midwifery students. Method: The sample group of this descriptive study consiste d of 175 midwifery students who voluntary to participate in the study among 264 students receivi ng education in the Department of Midwifery at the Faculty of Health Sciences. The data were collected using the “Personal Information Form” and “Genital Hygiene Be haviors Scale”. The data were evaluated with SPSS package p rogram by means of mean, percentage, t test and One -Way ANOVA. Findings: It was determined that the mean total score of the s udents on the genital hygiene behaviors scale wa s 95.25±8.57. 31.3% of students had a vaginal shower, 10.9% did not take a shower in the menstrual perio d and 15.1% had been cleaning the genital area with soap. It was determined that the students' level of grad e, living place and mother education level on the genital hygiene b ehaviors were effective (respectively; p:.015, p:.0...

The book The Price of Impure Blood: Cultural and Economic Aspects of Menstruation in Bosnia and Herzegovina provides a comprehensive analysis of one of the most significant yet often overlooked issues faced by women and girls worldwide. The research was conducted in 28 cities across Bosnia and Herzegovina through a survey involving over 2,000 women and interviews with 73 women. Through an examination of social norms, economic challenges, and health implications, the book uncovers deeply rooted stigmas, gender inequalities, and structural barriers that hinder women from managing menstruation with dignity. The goal of the book is to raise awareness of this complex issue, create space for discussion, and explore solutions that would enable economically, health-wise, and socially fairer conditions for women and girls.

Vulnerability is the amount of damage to social structures, services and geographical areas due to a crisis. It helps understand the effect of risks, and nature of hazardous zones. It also means the condition from
which a person can deal with a crisis and recover from it. Vulnerability is often created by society. It creates unequal effects and differentiation between different
groups. So, while evaluating risks of a hazard, it is important to put into focus the social production of
vulnerability as much as, if not more than, natural hazards. For that, it is necessary to understand that vulnerability is a mix of natural hazards and social inequality.
In the Nepalese context, religious minorities who have been facing structural discrimination and exclusion are highly vulnerable in the times of crisis. The objective of this study is to analyse how religious minorities
become doubly vulnerable due to structural discrimination and exclusion in the time of Covid-19 pandemic.

This paper examines the portrayal of Rachel in two Old French Christian biblical poems, Li Libres de le Bible by Herman de Valenciennes and La Bible des sept estaz du monde by Geufroi de Paris, to explore the medieval Christian transformation of menstruation into maternity. In contrast to Jewish texts, which emphasize the menstrual cycle and its ritual significance, medieval Christian exegesis often reinterprets menstruation in the context of female fertility and maternity, with figures like Rachel being reimagined as pregnant rather than menstruating. This shift reflects a broader Christian tendency to align Old Testament figures with Marian typology, thus distancing biblical narratives from Jewish purity laws and practices. By analysing the ways in which these French texts reframe Rachel’s body, this article highlights the theological and cultural forces at play in medieval biblical translations and the reappropriation of biblical figures. The study contributes to Critical Menstruation Studies by demonstrating how menstruation was either erased or reinterpreted in Christian texts, reflecting the complex relationship between gender, religion, and cultural identity in the Middle Ages.

Menstrual exile is an exploitative custom observed in the tribal communities of developing nations across the world, where menstruating women are banished from their own homes. This paper explores the impacts of menstrual exile on the physical, psychological and reproductive health of women. This stigma around menstrual exile interferes with their liberty, bodily integrity and violates the right not to be discriminated against based on sex. The authors have performed a complete review of Chhaupadi and Gaokor in Nepal and India with the help of existing quantitative data, journal articles, international and national reports and case studies. Finally, the authors have highlighted the areas which can be worked upon, and have left room for further discussion as the scope for research is immense. This paper is the authors’ contribution to a cause with minimal representation in the mainstream development agendas.

The preference for sanitary protection material is based on personal choice, cultural acceptability, economic status, and availability in the local market. The choice of absorbents varies among rural and urban women and girls. This review examined the chemical, medical and sustainability/environmental implication of using different menstrual materials which include Cloth-made reusable pads, tampons, menstrual cups and conventional single-use sanitary pads In rural areas, the most preferred absorbents are reusable sanitary products or natural sanitary products made from materials like banana fiber, bamboo fiber, sea sponges, water hyacinth, and so on, and in urban areas, women prefer to use commercial sanitary pads. Chlorine-bleached kraft or sulfate pulp is used by manufacturers to produce fluff pulp as an absorbent used to make disposable sanitary products. Nowadays, many deodorized and non-deodorized sanitary products are available in the market made of synthetic fiber rayon. These deodorized products contain chemicals like organochlorines which have antibacterial activity. Due to their chemical composition, these products when buried in the soil they kill the soils microflora and delay the process of decomposition.

This article analyzes period poverty based on interviews with six girlsliving in a region on the outskirts of the city of Porto Alegre (Brazil).The results of the qualitative study reveal some realities that arebehind the numbers. The lack of information about menstrualhealth, menstrual cycles, and the limited self-awareness about thebody became evident. All the interviewed adolescents whosought health services due to any menstrual or body-relatedissues during puberty received a racist, sexist, or ageist treatmentor a combination of these prejudices. Their accounts regardingaccess to menstrual hygiene products and sanitationinfrastructure do not fully correspond to the data on periodpoverty: the girls have access to disposable sanitary pads duringmenstruation, clean water, and bathrooms in usable conditions.The stories told by the teenagers expand the discussion aboutperiod poverty as they highlight cultural factors related to theirmenstrual experiences. Their accounts also show that initiativesand public policies to combat menstrual precariousness cannotbe limited to the material field and point to the need for systemiccultural changes to combat racism, sexism, and ageism.

This book examines the complexities of menstrual beliefs and practices in
Nepal. Taking an interdisciplinary and intersectional approach, it explores
and promotes the rights of women, girls, and people who menstruate to a
dignified and healthy menstruation.
The volume
• collates current research in Nepal from local academics, early career
researchers, and the Dignity Without Danger research project;
• provides a more nuanced understanding of the complex stigmas and
taboos that surround menstruation;
• highlights the importance of rethinking ideas of religion, gender, menstruation, stigma and taboos, cultural practises, and discrimination;
• proposes a counter-narrative that places sociological studies at the heart of  the discussion surrounding menstruation; and
• calls for more collaborative action research to strengthen the links between academia and activism across disciplines.
An authoritative contribution, the book will be of interest to scholars and
researchers of gender studies, public health, sociology, human rights, South Asian studies, medical sociology, cultural studies, and social medicine, particularly for those concerned with Nepal.

A menstrual restriction is a form of social suffering which is also identified as a violation of the constitutional right globally. But menstrual restriction-related work is still a neglected area. This paper has adopted traditional types of reviews to conceptualize how the health, education, and empowerment of women have been affected by the menstrual restriction. This study suggests, the menstrual-related restriction is not only a developing world issue but exists globally which has a high impact on girl's health, education, and empowerment. Though, the research on implementation and evaluation of the menstrual restriction is still needed to establish the evidence.

Recently, the term “Period Tax” or “Tampon Tax” has gained much attention, and many women are expressing their opinions on period tax. Even though the period is a natural part of the women’s body, people rarely talk about it openly in Bangladesh. The good thing is many people are taking social media to talk about menstruation and menstrual products’ accessibility and affordability in Bangladesh. Many women expressed that period products are costly in Bangladesh and that it is not affordable for people of every social class. Many stated that period products are considered “luxury items” when these are the basic health products for women. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to find out about period tax, explore various aspects and issues of period tax and menstrual hygiene products, how other countries are dealing with this issue, and what Bangladesh can do to solve this issue.

Discriminatory practices related to menstruation affect the social, mental and physical wellbeing of girls in many low-and middle-income countries. We conducted mixed methods research in five districts of Nepal to explore how menstruation affected girls’ ability to fully participate in school and community life. We conducted 860 structured interviews, 26 group interviews and 10 focus group discussions with schoolgirls in rural areas,14 semi-structured interviews with girls’ mothers, and 10 interviews with health teachers. Girls in all districts experienced social, material and information barriers to confident menstrual management. Menstrual blood was believed to carry diseases, and girls’ movement was restricted to contain ritual pollution and protect them from illness, spirit possession, and sexual experiences. Taboos prevented girls from worshipping in temples or in their home, and some girls were not allowed to enter the kitchen, or sleep in their home while menstruating. Teache...

Menstruation is a natural, biological phenomenon that is experienced by more than half of the world’s population. For many, it is a lived experience that comes alive socially in the form of restrictions and taboos. In Nepal, menstruation equates to ritual impurity. Although menstrual rituals are present throughout the country in many forms, academic research on the issue has mostly focused on the Chhaupadi Pratha of the Far-West. This research aimed to identify the menstrual taboos prevalent among adolescent school-going girls in a metropolitan area and trace the possible reasons for their existence. A mixed method study was conducted at two schools - a
private school and a public school - in Lalitpur Metropolitan City. Data was collected among 400 girls aged 11-21 regarding the knowledge and experience of menstrual restrictions and the role of Comprehensive Sexuality Education on influencing their perceptions of the same. The quantitative phase was carried out through a questionnaire. The data collected from this phase was analyzed using IBM SPSS 20. After this, the qualitative phase was conducted using a focus group discussion and the responses have been presented in verbatim. The data gathered from both the phases were used to form the results of the study. It was concluded that the narrative of menstruation as a female problem, generational reinforcement of menstrual stigma, lack of female solidarity and self-objectification render to the longevity of such discriminatory practices. Family members, especially mothers have been found to play an important role in both helping young women manage menstruation and developing their understanding of the issue. Although formal education plays a large role in changing the perception of menstruation as taboo, the elimination of menstrual restrictions require multi-layered interventions that should start at home.
Key words: menstrual taboo, ritual impurity, Comprehensive Sexuality Education

Twenty years ago, Arunachalam Muruganantham, a poor school dropout from Southern India, launched a revolution in menstrual hygiene among developing nations with his invention of a simple machine that produces cheap sanitary pads. Muruganantham created a four-step process for producing sanitary towels through the innovative use of existing simple tools and technologies. Eventually, Muruganantham's invention and method spread, one village at a time, to 1,300 villages in 23 Indian states, with plans to eventually reach more than 100 countries. This article illuminates how Muruganantham's achievement progressed from a simple and practical idea to one that is changing lives-perhaps even saving lives. The diffusion of innovation in Muruganantham's achievement exemplifies Rogers' (1962/2003) landmark theory, Diffusion of Innovations. In explaining his theory, Rogers described the types of persons involved in diffusion of innovations, including opinion leaders, change agents, innovators, and versions of adopters. This article focuses on cultural factors regarding two categories of influencers on diffusion that are evident in Muruganantham's case: early adopters and laggards.

Menstruation cycle is a normal physiological process that is managed differently according to various social and cultural understandings. Aim of the study: to determine the effect of an educational booklet about menstruation on female nursing students' knowledge, practices and beliefs.A convenient sample of 200 female nursing students who enrolled in the first academic year (2017-2018) at the Technical Institute of Nursing affiliated to the University of Alexandria, and accepted to participate in the study were included in the study. The study was done during the first semester of the third year of the academic year (2017-2018). Tools of data collection: Part (I) students’ Socio demographic data. Part (II): Students’ knowledge about menstruation. Part (III): Students ’practices during menstruation. Part (IV): Students’ beliefs about to menstruation. Results: A highly statistically significant difference was observed between pre & post-test as the students' mean knowledge sco...

Background: Young women, especially those with disabilities suffering from primary dysmenorrhea (PD), should be a cause for concern, as it negatively affects both their physical and mental health, as well as their future productivity. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of implementing audio-educational measures on the severity of PD among blind female students.
Methods: This quasi-experimental study was conducted at 2 schools for blind females in Egypt in 2022. The sample consisted of 40 blind female students who were selected randomly. The WaLIDD (working ability, location, intensity, days of pain, dysmenorrhea) scale was used to assess the degree of dysmenorrhea, while the 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12) was used to evaluate their physical and mental well-being. The intervention program involved audio education sessions designed to improve their health, education, and skills, as well as reduce the severity of dysmenorrhea. These audio education sessions took place twice a week, with each session lasting 45 minutes for a duration of 3 months. Data analysis was performed using chi-square and paired sample t tests at a significance level of α = 0.05.
Results: The average age of the participants was 15.5 ± 1.91 years. The findings showed that the implementation of the audio-educational intervention led to a significant reduction in the severity of dysmenorrhea symptoms, significant increase in general knowledge, and significant improvements in the physical and mental health of the participants (P < 0.001). Listening training was a positive and significant predictor for the health status of blind female students (ß = 0.614; P = 0.028), while the severity of dysmenorrhea was a significant negative predictor for their health status (ß = -0.046; P = 0.05).
Conclusion: The use of audio-educational measures is an effective strategy for increasing knowledge, practice, and health status while reducing the severity of dysmenorrhea among blind female students. Therefore, it is recommended that nurses educate blind teenage girls about menstruation and standard menstrual care to reduce dysmenorrhea and enhance their overall health. Additionally, dysmenorrhea and its management strategies should be included in school curricula for females.

Menstruation is unique to women and transgender men, affecting them directly or indirectly. Its management is subjective to a woman’s socio-cultural and economic position. In this paper, ‘menstruation’ and ‘menstrual management’ are examined from an eco-feminist perspective. The paper offers a theoretical insight to evaluate the impact of heedless disposal of menstrual waste on environmental contamination in India. Additionally, an attempt has been made to analyse the dynamics and underlying forces that act behind its multiplication. The substantial growth of menstrual waste (such as sanitary napkins and tampons) that majorly consists of single-use plastic is considered a threat to the environment. Further, the present paper discusses implications of policies and programmes for menstrual waste disposal and reflects upon the measures for sustainable menstrual management.

Understanding the social context of menstruation is key for both health benefits and social justice. The volume has highlighted the diversity, breadth, and depth of menstruation research and experiences across the globe. There has been a growth of awareness and global activism, with the establishment of menstrual networks and a more inclusive definition of menstrual health. Yet there are notable absences, and the need for further research. Voices from Latin America, for example, are missing from this volume, and much of the literature from the Global North is from the UK, USA, and Northern Europe. Research on disability is limited, and the menopause is emerging as an under-researched issue. In conclusion, we highlight the work of menstrual networks, the importance of collaboration, draw together the issues raised in the book, and look forward to emerging research priorities. Research going forward This book has highlighted some of the comparative and collaborative perspectives on menstruation from the Global North and South, focusing on the diversity of experiences across the life course, and the importance of working collaboratively, sharing, and learning from experiences. It is part of a growing body of research into Critical Menstruation Studies (e.g., Bobel et al., 2020) that seeks to show how studying menstruation across the life course can bring new methodological and theoretical insights into a wide range of disciplines. As a book based on conference proceedings, it does not claim to be a comprehensive overview and its scope is limited. There are many areas for further research that we hope this book will encourage others to address.

When the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) and UN Women started working on menstrual hygiene management (MHM) in West and Central Africa, many people were unfamiliar with the acronym. During our first meetings in the region, officials from ministries, parliamentarians, and social entrepreneurs were surprised to hear MHM being spoken about, even if they suspected or knew that many women and girls faced challenges related to menstruation. One social entrepreneur told us after a training of trainers "we've been working on this for so long but we were not able to conceptualize it this well." We proceeded to hold a first 'MHM Lab,' a simple but effective training session held in tents aimed at breaking the silence and learning about the menstrual cycle (Fig. 40.1). We also carried out a study in Louga, Senegal, which provided vital quantitative and qualitative information and a solid basis from which to start conversations on menstrual hygiene. The interest, passion, and enthusiasm of the people we met were overwhelming. From the little girl in a village to the minister in a capital city, we have encountered people who wanted to change the status quo, and we have enjoyed going on this journey with them.

The topic of Menstruation has always remained a taboo in the world, which makes managing menstrual health difficult for women. Reviewing menstrual products on the market and improving their quality and affordability is imperative. Our survey found that sanitary pads are India's most used product, but other options such as menstrual cups and reusable cloth pads should also be considered. Women should also be provided with a supportive environment to discuss their menstrual health and dispel myths and misconceptions. It is also possible to reduce the financial burden of menstruation by introducing initiatives such as free menstrual products and menstrual leave policies. In addition to addressing the social stigma attached to menstruation and women's menstrual health in India, this review also examines approaches to enhance accessibility, affordability, and overall quality of menstrual health care for all women.

With voices for women's education coming from around the globe, it is a real setback when girls are unable to attend schools during their menstruation or periods, a process they encounter every month. The absence of Nepalese rural female students from schools during their periods does not only have the biological aspect to it but incorporates a wide range of social, cultural, familial, and even the economic factors that impact Nepal hindering its economic growth. This paper examines all those factors relating to girls' menstruation and its impact on their schooling in developing countries. Recommendations for possible ways to carve out solutions for developing countries are noted for this global issue.

The topic of Menstruation has always remained a taboo in the world, which makes managing menstrual health difficult for women. Reviewing menstrual products on the market and improving their quality and affordability is imperative. Our survey found that sanitary pads are India's most used product, but other options such as menstrual cups and reusable cloth pads should also be considered. Women should also be provided with a supportive environment to discuss their menstrual health and dispel myths and misconceptions. It is also possible to reduce the financial burden of menstruation by introducing initiatives such as free menstrual products and menstrual leave policies. In addition to addressing the social stigma attached to menstruation and women's menstrual health in India, this review also examines approaches to enhance accessibility, affordability, and overall quality of menstrual health care for all women.

Supplemental material, question-guide_SOM-WHE-18-0023 for &#39;Menstrual blood is bad and should be cleaned&#39;: A qualitative case study on traditional menstrual practices and contextual factors in the rural communities of far-western Nepal by Subash Thapa, Shivani Bhattarai and Arja R Aro in SAGE Open Medicine

Introduction: Classical studies worldwide give a new dimension of how religious values motivated an individual's menstrual practice in the sociological framework and psychological understanding of social actions against social barriers in this issue. Religion argues that the law of women's social conduct and dominance is becoming a social taboo on menstruation issues. Religious structure and conviction decide a woman's path from menarche to menopause, depending on society's pattern. Methodology: The discussion is entirely based on secondary sources available in esteem journals and web pages. Discussion: Menstruation has been condemned by all religions, which has led to restrictions on sociocultural activity during this period. The assumption is that menstrual blood is "dirty" that girls and women will bring "bad luck" to the counterpart of the society. The secrecy and shame associated with menstruation and assumptions about certain behaviours on menstruation activities are among the themes explored in the different regions worldwide. Conclusion: Isolation, exclusion from religious practices, and sexual abstinence are the most commonly used tactics. Women are still prohibited from entering temples in today's religions. Both religions share the age-old belief in spiritual impurity, which does not seem to go away. Thus, menstruation is a taboo subject in today's culture.

A menstrual restriction is a form of social suffering which is also identified as a violation of the constitutional right globally. But menstrual restriction-related work is still a neglected area. This paper has adopted traditional types of reviews to conceptualize how the health, education, and empowerment of women have been affected by the menstrual restriction. This study suggests, the menstrual-related restriction is not only a developing world issue but exists globally which has a high impact on girl&#39;s health, education, and empowerment. Though, the research on implementation and evaluation of the menstrual restriction is still needed to establish the evidence.

This paper tries to address one of the cultural taboos related with menstruation existing and in practice in Nepalese society, creating an incident of social harassment for women and girls, in a silent mode, in the name of social norms. A methodology of unstructured one to one interview and a group discussion were employed to dig inside the issue which ends up with the remark of being in intimidation, annoyance, hassle, stigmatize, discriminate, and other ill-practices. This write-up might contribute to re-think on harmful menstruation practices in order to bring positive change in cultural practice and making menstruation talk more open in society.

The present work is the result of bibliographic and documentary research that seeks to demonstrate, through deductive and qualitative method, how menstrual precariousness is closely connected with gender inequality and how such problems could be solved or, at least, mitigated, with the development of adequate public policies. To this end, it broadly analyzes the Brazilian and international reality with regard to menstrual poverty and its impacts. Then, it examines documents released by UNICEF, in addition to the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Afterwards, it explores menstrual precariousness from the perspective of public policies, viewing it as a social and public health issue. Subsequently, it points out the actions implemented so far and it investigates the role of private agents. In the end, the text concludes that the actions of private individuals are relevant, especially when the State fails to act, but that it is necessary to demand from governments a more active position.

This paper explores the buying behavior of teenagers towards various menstrual products available in the market. The "coming of age" period, during which a girl becomes a woman, is one of the essential components of a woman's existence.(Garg et al, 2021) A menstruator begins this journey of monthly cycle with either fear, humiliation, or happiness, depending on their culture and beliefs (Dwivedi, 2021; Asumah et al., 2022). It is important to mention that at this point, the elders of the family (specifically mother or grandmothers) give the menstrual products to help with the menstruation. These products include menstrual cups, bamboo fibre cloth, cotton-made pads, tampons, and sanitary napkins. (Foster & Montgomery, 2021; Kaur et al, 2018) The researchers aim to bring out the change in the buying behavior of young menstruators (aged 12-25) and reasons for the change. A detailed review of literature from developed and developing countries was carried out and analyzed by the researchers. It was found that young menstruators are increasingly choosing sustainable menstrual products including menstrual cups, reusable pads and period pants in recent years. This change is the result of a number of causes, including worries about the environmental effects of conventional disposable products, a desire for more affordable solutions, and a growing understanding of the health dangers connected to certain chemicals contained in disposable menstruation products. (Perberdy et al., 2019). As a result of this, a large number of businesses making sustainable menstrual products have come onto the scene recently, providing creative and environmentally beneficial alternatives to conventional disposable goods. These businesses are gaining market share in the menstrual product sector by taking advantage of teenage menstruators' evolving purchasing habits. The study will thus pave way for manufacturers of sustainable products to promote their products by identifying specific buying behaviors.

Today in the 21 st century, we may boast of gender equality and women empowerment but the truth is somewhat implausible. Today women may have excelled in many spheres of life but, somewhere, she is still struggling to get out of her veil. In the name of tradition a women is always told to follow the rules what the society has set for her. A look at major religions of the world shows that, without exception, they have placed restrictions on menstruating women. Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism have all made statements about menstruation and its negative effect, leading to prohibitions about attending places of worship, cooking, physical intimacy and sometimes requiring women to live separately at this time. Present paper is a compilation of the information available on the menstrual taboo and various practices regarding it. For this extensive search was done on internet along with personal observations. The present study is carried out in order to provoke the need f...

Today in the 21st century, we may boast of gender equality and women empowerment but the truth is somewhat implausible. Today women may have excelled in many spheres of life but, somewhere, she is still struggling to get out of her veil. In the name of tradition a women is always told to follow the rules what the society has set for her. A look at major religions of the world shows that, without exception, they have placed restrictions on menstruating women. Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism have all made statements about menstruation and its negative effect, leading to prohibitions about attending places of worship, cooking, physical intimacy and sometimes requiring women to live separately at this time. Present paper is a compilation of the information available on the menstrual taboo and various practices regarding it. For this extensive search was done on internet along with personal observations. The present study is carried out in order to provoke the need fo...

Background Reusable menstrual products have expanded the choices available for menstrual care and can offer long-term cost and environmental benefits. Yet, in high-income settings, efforts to support period product access focus on disposable products. There is limited research to understand young people’s product use and preferences in Australia. Methods Quantitative and open-text qualitative data were collected through an annual cross-sectional survey of young people (aged 15–29) in Victoria, Australia. The convenience sample was recruited through targeted social media advertisements. Young people who reported menstruating in the past 6 months (n = 596) were asked questions about their menstrual product use, use of reusable materials, product priorities and preferences. Results Among participants, 37% had used a reusable product during their last menstrual period (24% period underwear, 17% menstrual cup, 5% reusable pads), and a further 11% had tried using a reusable product in the...

Menstruation is a physiological phenomenon that has long been associated with taboos and myths that justify women's exclusion from religious ceremonies and the public realm. Many cultures around the world consider menstruating women as unholy and polluting, often associating them with filth that must stay beyond the threshold of shrines and places of worship. Owing to the negative attributes associated with menstruation, the equation between women's bodies and divinity gets problematized leading to their polarised conception. Such beliefs culminate into sexist practices that often undermine women's rights and freedom and become instruments of perpetuating gender-based violence against them. The controversy of Sabarimala Temple in India stands as

This dissertation identifies “the myth of menstrual danger” and its development in Western thought, and how this myth continues to contribute to internalized menstrual shame. In the West, female bodies, and particularly their menstrual bleeding, have long been sites of fearful patriarchal fantasies. Evidence suggests, however, that menstrual blood was revered as part of a Great Goddess tradition in Neolithic Old Europe. Yet in the West religious paradigms tabooed menstrual blood, constructing it as an existential threat to cosmic order and human civilization. At the same time, medical paradigms have and continue to pathologize menstruation. Even today, medical paradigms often present menstruation as a symbolic and sometimes literal threat to human, animal, and plant life, and purport that it may even be harmful for women’s or other menstruators’ health. Even more problematic, however, are modern menstrual discourses that convey to women and other menstruators that no longer menstruating is a liberation from their own body. Thus, the dehumanizing depictions of “the myth of menstrual danger” have been used to control women’s bodies, devalue women’s place in society, and contribute to women’s menstrual shame through a process termed “internalized sexism.”

This dissertation concludes with a remythologization of the Mesopotamian story, “The Descent of Inanna,” and offers a new menstrual myth that more holistically embraces embodied experiences of menstruation and that allows us to celebrate our menstruating bodies.

This paper is based on descriptive research on entrepreneurship positioning conducted among the UnderGraduate Students throughout the Madurai District. This study clarifies the Entrepreneurship initiatives amongstUG Pupils in Madurai district, Tamilnadu, the area which observed a phenomenal increase in the number of ArtsColleges in the recent years. The research, not just aids in understanding the preferences as well as ambitions ofadministration pupils pertaining to entrepreneurship yet also explains the different elements preferring andimpeding entrepreneurship. Today&#39;s study reveals some fascinating trends concerning entrepreneurship whichare rather different from the offered body of expertise regarding entrepreneurship climate in the country. Thesample of 450 UG degree Students of various departments of selected arts and science college Institutes in theMadurai District, Tamilnadu was chosen through stratified Random Sampling Technique. Data was collectedthrough pre-tested s...

Background Menstruation, a natural biologic process is associated with restrictions and superstitious beliefs in Nepal. However, factual data on women’s perspectives on menstrual practices and restrictions are scarce. This study aimed to assess socio-cultural perceptions of menstrual restrictions among urban Nepalese women in the Kathmandu valley. Methods Using a clustered random sampling, 1342 adolescent girls and women of menstruating age (≥15 years) from three urban districts in the Kathmandu valley completed a survey related to menstrual practices and restriction. This was a cross-sectional survey study using a customized program allowing pull-down, multiple choice and open-ended questions in the Nepali language. The self-administered questionnaire consisted of 13 demographic questions and 22 questions related to menstruation, menstrual hygiene, socio-cultural taboos, beliefs and practices. Univariate descriptive statistics were reported. Unadjusted associations of socio-cultura...

"ChhaupadiPratha" is in the Karnali and far-western states of Nepal. It"s a kind of a cultural practice that violates the rights of women and girls. Especially, Women and girls during their menstruation periods are forced to live in a menstruation shed, cowshed or in tiny rooms until their periods are over. Besides the isolation from family and society, menstruating women and girls are also restricted from participating in day-today activities such as using communal water resources, touching male members and engaging in any religious or social gathering, cooking, and taking baths. In this paper,it explores the impacts of ChhaupadiPratha on the health of women and girls during their menstruation period and examines the root causes of the serious discriminatory practice against women and girls and why ChhaupadiPratha continues even if it has been declared illegal by the government of Nepal and it provides policy recommendations to eradicate the ChhaupadiPrathain the far-western and Karnali states.ChhaupadiPratha is reinforced as the gender inequality interacts with poverty and low education of people. It is a serious form of discrimination against women and girls, which is deeply embeddedin the patriarchal Hindu culture and the caste-based hierarchy of Nepalese society. Also, this paper addresses that much of the government"s efforts to eradicate ChhaupadiPratha have been in vain mainly with the reasons. First, insufficient budget to implement designed Chhaupadi eradication programs. Secondly, lack of programs targeting the elimination of root-causes of the practice. Thirdly, difficulty in monitoring the eradication projects/programs in affected areas due to the poor transportation in the country and lastly, lack of participation of community members including women and girls, local community leaders, and religious leaders and impunity. There are different kinds of gender-based violence existing in Nepal including domestic violence, physical violence, sexual violence, social and cultural violence. Isolating women during their menstrual cycle for 4 to 5 days and during the postnatal period for 11days called "ChhaupadiPratha" is one of the widespread cultural violence against women and girls in Nepal.

In this study, we explore how women perceive menstruation in Turkey. The general discourse in Turkey defines menstruation as an adverse and even dirty biological process mainly described as "being ill" and/or making women unable to worship until becoming clean again. Experiences of menstruation also shape women's identities to a certain extent and create adverse feelings as a fundamental part of womanhood in Turkey. The experiences of the participants reflect the dynamic interactions among being suppressed, feeling self-shame, and being silent. The main dataset of this study was collected from December 2021 to February 2022 in Turkey via 20 online in-depth interviews conducted with a semi-structured questionnaire.

Indonesia is the first country in its highest cases of cervical cancer in the world, and 62% of them was due to the use of a poor-quality sanitary napkins. There are 400 additional cervical cancer patients annually. Menstrual problems are also triggered by a poor quality sanitary napkins while menstruating and wearing regular sanitary napkins that have been mixed with chemicals and mixed with non-sterile materials from common sanitary napkins. Aim this research is to create a good quality of menstrual panties (named as CENAME). This research applied a research and development (R&D) method. A questionnaire trial on the panties to fertile women who were at menstruation period; they were 18 to 45 years old. The location was in Toyareka Village, Kemangkon District, Purbalingga. This research was carried out in December 2020. Most respondents were 18-20 and 21-30 years old (each with 2 persons), most of them had a high level of education (3 people). The product has passed a product testing of the health experts. The testing was to determine three aspects of comfort, capacity and hygiene. Its comfort level had an average score of 33.8, meaning very comfortable/excellent category. The producst has passed the testing of health experts. It has been proved to overcome an irritation which was usually caused by a regular disposable sanitary napkin and it surely minimizes the waste. The selection of the materials must be highlyconsidered.

This chapter shares the policies and practices enacted as a result of a pilot program in menstrual hygiene management undertaken from 2014 to 2018 in West and Central Africa. Aidara and Gassame Mbaye describe a culture of silence and taboo around menstruation. The pilot program, implemented by the UN Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) and UN Women, sought to address women’s and girls’ needs, specifically in the WASH sector. In reviewing results from the program, Aidara and Gassama Mbaye show that operational research in and with communities is key to inform public policies. The authors especially focus on the policy dialogue and sensitization efforts undertaken to promote gender equality in the WASH sector.

Background: Chhaupadi is the old unscientific system in mid and far western parts of Nepal. Reproductive age women were considered unclean during the menstrual and delivery period. Invisible cultural taboos and practices were prevailing in each and every household. The objective of the study is to assess the associated factors affecting during Chhaupadi and delivery practice with their health outcome. Method: The cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted amongst 175 reproductive age women in Bajura districts of Nepal, by using multistage random sampling. Both qualitative and quantitative methods was used. All the data were entered in Ms excel and exported into SPSS 16.0. The necessary descriptive and inferential statistics was used for quantitative analysis and thematic analysis was done for qualitative analysis. Results: More than one third (38.9%) of the participants were in the age group 20-29 years. Almost all the participants were from Hindu religion. The majority (91%) o...

Background: Chhaupadi is the old unscientific system in mid and far western parts of Nepal. Reproductive age women were considered unclean during the menstrual and delivery period. Invisible cultural taboos and practices were prevailing in each and every household. The objective of the study is to assess the associated factors affecting during Chhaupadi and delivery practice with their health outcome. Method: The cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted amongst 175 reproductive age women in Bajura districts of Nepal, by using multistage random sampling. Both qualitative and quantitative methods was used. All the data were entered in Ms excel and exported into SPSS 16.0. The necessary descriptive and inferential statistics was used for quantitative analysis and thematic analysis was done for qualitative analysis. Results: More than one third (38.9%) of the participants were in the age group 20-29 years. Almost all the participants were from Hindu religion. The majority (91%) o...

Generally speaking, it is maintained that menstruation is a biological process, a socio-culturally stigmatized phenomenon and a disguised personal corporeal experience. However, it is noticed that menstrual experiences also have existentialist underpinnings. Women, as menstruating subjects keep their menstrual bodies within the boundaries of certain norms and prescribed rules of etiquette. The most simplistic understanding of the idea of menstrual etiquette may be uncovered through the following examples: Women are expected to observe menstrual etiquette by keeping silent about their menstrual experiences, by keeping a check on their clothes in order to confirm that it is stain-free, by hiding the purchase of sanitary wear, by storing and using it secretly, etcetera. Hence, menstrual etiquette is plainly related to concealment, silence and surveillance.
Since childhood, women have been motivated to menstruate politely. By polite menstruation, we may refer to the disciplinary measures that menstruating women follow as repeated upholders of etiquettes related to menstruation. These measures are directed towards one core goal, which is to conceal or cover the facts about their menstruation. For instance, few efforts towards this concealment include the following: ““Look at the back of my skirt, is anything showing?” “Here, take my sweater and tie it around your waist, I’ll walk behind you.” “Can you pass me a tampon in your algebra book?” We dwell in the delicious space of shared secrets and protect one another from ridicule” (I.M. Young)


Image: Cover page of Feminist Philosopher, I.M. Young’s seminal book: On Female Body Experience.

In addition, the potency of polite menstruation also lies in the directive demands of creating a balance between a menstruating body and the socio-cultural situation that prevails. This balancing act communicates a lot about the existing power dynamics. A menstruating body acquires the status of docility in an active way indicates two things, first, a docile body is active with regards to the actions that are other-directed, referring to the fact that women as menstruators both physically and verbally actualise this panoptic discipline in response to the power structures that foster such regimes and second, docile bodies as active also entails the act of self-policing. Thus, a menstruating body is glued, frozen and deserted!
Organised menstruation does not refer to deliberate or scheduled menstruation; rather, it refers to a well-planned, strategized and managed menstrual experience. Women, in our society still choose polite menstruation over the proposed idea of organised menstruation. The question is: “Why does this form of choice transpire?” The extensive climate of menstrual shame and women’s attribution and ascription to it could be considered as one of catalysts for the selection and transpiration of this choice. Menstrual shame, as a phenomenon is a subjective experience; a product of internalisation of external norms and menstrual shaming is a product of objective/ external influence on women’s bodies and bodily events.
In the Indian society, taboos around menstruation reflect the consistent perception that a menstrual body is impure and dishonourable. The range of limitations and secrecy which are associated with menstruation create a negative impact on women. One such negative impact could be specified as polite menstruation. When we are speaking of women’s subjective act of menstruating politely as one of the negative impacts, this indicates that there is an undermining impetus that is originally guided and governed by the prevalent socio-cultural design. Therefore, we may simply state the choosing politeness or planning is actually a product of the act of shaming.

Image: Period Shaming is a Serious Problem, Engender.
All in all, it can be moderately said that the relation between women and their lived menstrual experiences encompass not merely biological subordination of women, but also their socio-cultural subjection.

Feminist researchers have reviewed various bodily experiences of women with regard to the designated set of standards and codes. Women as menstruating beings keep their menstrual bodies within the boundaries of certain norms and prescribed rules of etiquette. Having pronounced this, it will be elementarily contended in the following paper that menstrual etiquette promotes corporal devaluation and socio-cultural subjugation of women in relation to their feminine bodily experiences. The codes of menstrual etiquette grant a suppressive and subordinate status to a woman’s body due to the disciplinary endurance it creates. In this setting, the paper examines the socio-ontological implications of the system of menstrual etiquette by referring to various feminist theories on the female body. More specifically, the notion of body-for-others, body as docile and body as an abject will considered in order to demonstrate how the disciplinary comportments linked with menstrual etiquette is closely interlaced with the ontological condition of female corporeality. Therefore, there are three fundamental question that guided this research, they are: ‘what is menstrual etiquette and how is it connected to women’s corporeal mode of existence?’ secondly, ‘how can the stature of the female body as docile and as an abject serve as a superlative approach for investigating women’s adherence to the system of menstrual etiquette?’ and lastly, ‘what does it mean to exist under the authority of menstrual etiquette?’ Therefore, the fundamental objective of the following study is to exhibit how the menstrual etiquette is grounded in the socio-ontological condition of the female body. This way, the paper explores a somewhat overlooked work of menstrual etiquette.
Keywords: Menstruation, Menstrual Etiquette, Corporeal Feminism, Female Body, Body-for-Others, Docile body, Abject, Abjection.

Supplemental material, question-guide_SOM-WHE-18-0023 for &#39;Menstrual blood is bad and should be cleaned&#39;: A qualitative case study on traditional menstrual practices and contextual factors in the rural communities of far-western Nepal by Subash Thapa, Shivani Bhattarai and Arja R Aro in SAGE Open Medicine

Menstruation is a natural, physiological process, but it can be a challenging experience for millions of women around the world. In Nepal, a geographically small yet diverse country of 125 caste/ethnic groups, understanding how caste/ethnicity impacts menstrual health is critical for developing context-specific interventions to improve women's health. A community-based, cross-sectional survey was conducted with 679 women and girls between the ages of 13-51 from the country's most populous castes/ethnic groups. Forty eight percent had high menstrual knowledge, 60% had positive menstrual attitudes, and 59% had positive menstrual practices. Caste/ethnicity was a significant predictor of menstrual knowledge and practices. The caste/ethnic groups Tarai/Madhesi/Other, Newar, Janajati, and Muslim all had statistically significant fewer odds of positive menstrual practices compared to Brahman/Chhetri (high caste groups), with Janajati (indigenous ethnic groups) having the poorest outcomes. Despite Nepal making impressive advances in health, certain caste/ethnic groups have fallen behind in terms of menstrual health outcomes. Consequently, blanket menstrual health programs may not be sufficient for improving menstrual knowledge and practices for all. Future programming should consider the use of local languages and context-specific content that incorporates indigenous beliefs, as well as cultivate partnerships with indigenous health organizations, and develop outcome indicators disaggregated by caste/ethnicity to ensure improved menstrual health for all.