Transport and Justice

In this essay we argue for what we term ‘dynamic evaluation’ of transport policies. In a time of increasing political polarization of public transport, dynamic evaluations involve a broader scope of factors and indicators, including political processes and justice, compared to traditional evaluations typically centered on ridership. We illustrate this perspective by discussing the experiment of free public transport provision in Stavanger,
Norway during July-December 2023. Planned and budgeted for a year shortly before local elections, the intervention was repealed halfway through, as the new governing political coalition held that this was a sub-optimal means to deliver public transport policies. We contrast a traditional commissioned evaluation of how the experiment modestly increased ridership with a dynamic evaluation involving broader political and justice processes, to
illustrate that the experiment contributed to politicizing public transport in potentially transformative ways.

A acessibilidade tem sido utilizada como um indicador de qualidade de vida e de competitividade nas areas urbanas, devido ao seu impacto sobre os negocios e as atividades sociais. Este artigo sugere que a avaliacao economica da acessibilidade deve ser considerada como um mecanismo implicito de custeio e financiamento dos sistemas de mobilidade urbana, para reposicionar o transporte como uma urban utility, como a eletricidade, a agua e o esgotamento sanitario. Alem disso, este trabalho propoe, ainda, maneiras de aperfeicoar essa formulacao estrategica aos niveis tatico e operacional, mudando a enfase do conceito de mobilidade para o de acessibilidade, viabilizando, assim, a analise politica dos beneficios do investimento em acesso.

Land use plmming regulations in developing countries often fail to achieve greater efficiency and equity in the use of urban land. As a result plans often bear little or no relation to the people's needs and wishes and they m·e in any case distorted by limited implementation and their rigid nature. These problems are exacerbated, pmticularly in the face of rapid change, by lack of consistent overall policy framework and failure to involve the public in the formulation of laws and regulations which affect their interests. This study seeks to evaluate whether Kenyan Law is capable of securing the right to an unobstructed view from property in Kenya. The Study m1alyses the Land use plmming system in the United Kingdom with pmticular focus on London which has protected views in order to reserve its identity. It can be concluded that, the Kenyan Land use planning system has not yet adopted the 'bottomup' approach in the fommlation of regulations. Hence, interests such as, an ...

This chapter examines the progress that Kenya has made in the development of a socially just public transport system, and
the challenges and dynamics involved. It defines the pillars of a socially just public transport model as: availability; accessibility;
inclusivity; fairness; affordability; reliability; sustainability; and safety in the provision of the service.
Challenges in the Kenyan public transport system are attributed to increase in population, urbanisation, and discrimination
against disadvantaged groups. Previously established colonial practices are reviewed to determine how they have influenced
the dynamics of the present transport system in terms of concentration in urban areas, operation, and ownership.
Currently the transport system in Kenya is mainly composed of privately-owned and operated transport options, referred to
as “paratransit system”. This poses a challenge in the development of a just system, as there are competing interests, complex
relationships, and unequal power relations among the actors in the public transport sector. How public transport needs to
evolve to cater for the growing population, and for alternative non-motorised means of transport, has to be discussed.
The authors note that the Kenyan government has developed infrastructure that intends to promote inclusion, mobility,
accessibility, and participation of all citizens. Even though there have been challenges, notable achievements have been
made across major urban centres in Kenya, such as opening up of urban and rural areas through construction of new roads
and improving existing ones, construction of pedestrian walkways and crossings, including for persons with disabilities, and
installing and maintaining street lighting to enhance visibility at night. Ongoing provision of infrastructure for non-motorised
traffic is evident in the cities of Nairobi, Kisumu, and Mombasa. However, there are still shortcomings that suggest that there
is still more work to be done to achieve socially just public transport systems in all of the country’s urban areas.

Background The More Doctors Program, established in 2013, aimed at reducing inequalities in access to health, through the emergency provision of doctors, improvement of medical care in SUS and expansion of medical training in Brazil. In this context, equity should be considered in setting priorities and allocating resources. This study describes the distribution of doctors of the Program in five Brazilian Metropolitan Regions and analyzes if the most vulnerable areas were prioritized, as provided in the legislation of the program. Methods

Background The More Doctors Program, established in 2013, aimed at reducing inequalities in access to health, through the emergency provision of doctors, improvement of medical care in SUS and expansion of medical training in Brazil. In this context, equity should be considered in setting priorities and allocating resources. This study describes the distribution of doctors of the Program in five Brazilian Metropolitan Regions and analyzes if the most vulnerable areas were prioritized, as provided in the legislation of the program. Methods

O Programa Mais Médicos, objetivou reduzir as desigualdades em saúde, por meio do provimento emergencial de médicos, aperfeiçoamento do atendimento médico e ampliação na formação médica no Brasil. Nesse contexto, a equidade deve ser considerada na definição de prioridades e alocação de recursos. Este estudo descreve a distribuição dos médicos do Programa em cinco Regiões Metropolitanas brasileiras e analisa se as áreas mais vulneráveis foram priorizadas, conforme previsto na legislação do programa. Foi realizada associação entre o Índice de Vulnerabilidade Social, do Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada, e a alocação dos médicos do Programa. Nas Regiões Metropolitanas analisadas, existem 2.592 Unidades Básicas de Saúde e 981 receberam pelo menos um médico do Programa. Em Manaus, Recife e Distrito Federal, as áreas com os quintis mais vulneráveis receberam médicos em proporção significativamente maior que os outros quintis, ultrapassando a média nacional (51,7%). Não houve difere...

The aim of this paper is to analyse the type of mobilities and subjects that are being promoted and constituted through bike-sharing systems. This is done through an analysis of the bike-sharing system in the city of Lund in Sweden. The analysis utilises Bacchi's What is the Problem Represented to be? framework and develops it through adding a spatial perspective. Departing from a critical velomobilities perspective, we argue that urban transport policies cannot merely be regarded as one specific and delimited reaction to well-defined policy problems. Instead, the ways that BSSs are, described, motivatedbut also spatially organisedconstitute which mobilities are produced. The analysis is based in an analysis of relevant policy documents, maps and observations. It is concluded that bike sharing is not seen as cycling and is rarely linked to cycling as such, but rather is seen as part of the public transport system. Further, it is concluded that the motivation behind the location of the stations is to facilitate the flow of workers to public transport, and promote attractiveness and tourism, thus constituting a strong belief in a win-win situation between sustainability and growth. Here prioritisation between different values, and the possible tensions between different social and environmental dimensions of sustainability is down-played.

Shared use of bicycles, now expanded to electronic bikes and scooters has become part of the public transport system in many parts of the world. This paper aims to explore in brief how these systems came to be and developed to the present state. We then discuss the various factors that influence the usage of Bike sharing systems-from environmental and built infrastructure to socio-economics to weather and climate. We discuss how analyzing the weight of influences can help design and update bike sharing systems to function better. We also explore the benefits of using these systems which pan from economic to environmental. These have positive impacts on users in the form of health and finance.

Shared use of bicycles, now expanded to electronic bikes and scooters has become part of the public transport system in many parts of the world. This paper aims to explore in brief how these systems came to be and developed to the present state. We then discuss the various factors that influence the usage of Bike sharing systems-from environmental and built infrastructure to socio-economics to weather and climate. We discuss how analyzing the weight of influences can help design and update bike sharing systems to function better. We also explore the benefits of using these systems which pan from economic to environmental. These have positive impacts on users in the form of health and finance.

Accessibility analysis can have important implications for understanding social equity in transit planning. The emergence and the increasingly broad acceptance of the general transit feed specification (GTFS) format for transit route, stop, and schedule data have revolutionized transit accessibility research by providing researchers with a convenient, publicly available source of data interoperable with common geographic information system (GIS) software. Existing approaches to GTFS-based transit analysis, however, focus on currently operating transit systems. With major transit expansions across the nation and around the world increasing in number and ambition, understanding the accessibility impacts of proposed projects in their early planning stages is crucial to achieving the greatest possible social benefit from these massive public investments. This paper describes the development of a hypothetical transit network based on current GTFS data and proposed 2040 transit improvemen...

The paper will address the role of choice and positive liberty in light of the utilitarian ideal of 'greatest happiness for the greatest number'. It would also explore how utilitarianism leads towards restriction of choices that leads to paternalism. Sceptics have

If sustainable transport is defined by emissions and energy, urban passenger transport in Chile could be considered "sustainable", with two-thirds of trips made by walking, cycling or public transit. Recent studies, however, reveal that gender and equity issues are highly problematic, pointing to tensions between environmental and social sustainability. Given these tensions, a university-community collaboration, the Laboratory for Social Change, developed a pilot methodology to define and evaluate Transport Justice. We sought a relatively simple instrument, a Transport Justice report (Balance de Transporte Justo, BTJ) that could combine experiential and academic knowledge and thereby influence policy and decision-making more effectively. We used a participatory action research (PAR) approach to bring together community leaders and university researchers, and consider experiential and research data, through this "transport justice" lens. To start, we introduced the idea of "transport justice" with researchers in different disciplines and citizen organizations involved in relatively specific battles: fighting a highway, for better cycling facilities, or for reduced road speeds, for example. We focused on established issues, such as universal access, walkability, cycle-inclusion, but added children's freedom and autonomy, the wise city (older adults, heritage, identity), care and land use, and transport impacts on ecological services. Building on this collaboration, we also applied a transport justice survey in two contrasting Chilean cities, Santiago and Temuco. Our analysis reveals that, despite a planning system that favours high-income households whose members rely mainly on cars, the majority of pedestrians, cyclists, public transit and even car users would prefer a redistribution of road space and investment in favour of active transport. During the next phase of research (2020-2021), we will test how well these results are taken up by citizen organizations, politicians and senior government staff from all parties. This will allow us to evaluate its effectiveness as a policy and power distributing instrument. 1. Introduction: Navigating multiple epistemologies On the evening of 18 October 2019, as we were completing the first phase of a Transport Justice "Balance Sheet" (Balance de Transporte Justo, BTJ), thousands of high school students leapt over turnstile in the Santiago Metro system to protest a fare increase, plunging the entire country into waves of massive protests. Plaza Italia, an intersection where all transport modes and people from all walks of life converge, became the main site of marches and, increasingly, teargas, police brutality, torture and human rights violations, the most terrible involving loss of eyes, sight, and sometimes, lives (AmnestyInternational 2019; HRW, 2019; INDH, 2019; UN, 2019). As we complete this article, significant social conflict, which we will abbreviate to 18-X, was continuing into 2020. As occurred in Brazil (2013) or Ecuador (2019), daily transport injustices catalyzed a powerful movement for social transformation in Chile. This article reports on a research project that provides a complex portrait of transport-related conditions leading up to these events. In the ensuing months, territorial (spatial) and urban (micro and meso scale) issues, including transport, vanished, as public debates focused on macro social demands, particularly human rights, pensions, health, and education. As an interdisciplinary research team working closely with university and advocacy/grassroots neighbourhood associations, we

In the context of dealing with mobility poverty, it is relevant to consider how personal choices and (changes in) one's personal situation affect behaviour and, possibly, lead to behavioural change. A growing number of studies have explored and confirmed the impact of life events on travel behaviour. As most travel behaviour is habitual, it is a challenge to encourage people to consider other transport modes. For policy makers and transport service providers, it follows that life events or transition points can-and should-be considered as opportunities for triggering behavioural change, i.e. for promoting alternative transport options and nudging people towards using them. Life events in travel behaviour change theory: an overview Personal choices and (changes in) one's personal situation affect behaviour and may trigger behavioural change. In this chapter, we analyse how behaviour and behavioural change insights can be applied to the study of travel behaviour and travel behaviour change. First, we address a more theoretical framework and then we offer some case studies. We can start with Adjei and Behrens (Adjei et al. 2012). In their review and synthesis of travel behaviour theories and experiments, they distinguish between four types of theories, depending on which questions they seek to answer: • How behavioural choices are made (rational choice theory, prospect theory, habit formation theory, theory of interpersonal behaviour); • What factors affect decision-making (theory of planned behaviour, theory of interpersonal behaviour, norm activation theory); • When behavioural change occurs (habit formation theory, cognitive dissonance theory, stages of change model); and • How people respond to behaviour change interventions (self-perception theory, goal setting theory).

Contributions to Chapter 6 and 4 0.3 16/10/2020 Francesco Fabbri (EUT), Guillermo Cid (EUT), Pablo Aragón (EUT), David Laniado (EUT) Contributions to Chapters and 6 0.4 04/01/2021 Andrea Gorrini (SYS), Rawad Choubassi (SYS) Contributions to Chapters and 4. 0.5 31/01/2021 Augustus Ababio-Donkor, Wafaa Saleh Contributions to Chapter (Use case III) 0.6 31/01/2021 Begoña Mateo (IBV) Contributions to Chapter 4

Promotion of active travel is a fixture in transport policy and planning. Yet, this paper argues, walking and the availability of comprehensive and accessible pedestrian environments have an importance for mobility justice and sustainability which is not currently recognised. The paper investigates how and why walking provision matters for justice, and explores what this means for decision-making affecting mobility systems and the built environment. It begins with an argument that a coherent conception of mobility justice would be simultaneously concerned with environmental and social implications of transport since both affect people’s physical lives, welfare and flourishing. That requirement frames the types of mobility systems which could be compatible with justice, and points to a need for prioritisation of active travel far beyond current policy and practice. Specifically, the need for environmental sustainability coupled with social inclusion creates a case for systematically ...

If sustainable transport is defined by emissions and energy, urban passenger transport in Chile could be considered "sustainable", with two-thirds of trips made by walking, cycling or public transit. Recent studies, however, reveal that gender and equity issues are highly problematic, pointing to tensions between environmental and social sustainability. Given these tensions, a university-community collaboration, the Laboratory for Social Change, developed a pilot methodology to define and evaluate Transport Justice. We sought a relatively simple instrument, a Transport Justice report (Balance de Transporte Justo, BTJ) that could combine experiential and academic knowledge and thereby influence policy and decision-making more effectively. We used a participatory action research (PAR) approach to bring together community leaders and university researchers, and consider experiential and research data, through this "transport justice" lens. To start, we introduced the idea of "transport justice" with researchers in different disciplines and citizen organizations involved in relatively specific battles: fighting a highway, for better cycling facilities, or for reduced road speeds, for example. We focused on established issues, such as universal access, walkability, cycle-inclusion, but added children's freedom and autonomy, the wise city (older adults, heritage, identity), care and land use, and transport impacts on ecological services. Building on this collaboration, we also applied a transport justice survey in two contrasting Chilean cities, Santiago and Temuco. Our analysis reveals that, despite a planning system that favours high-income households whose members rely mainly on cars, the majority of pedestrians, cyclists, public transit and even car users would prefer a redistribution of road space and investment in favour of active transport. During the next phase of research (2020-2021), we will test how well these results are taken up by citizen organizations, politicians and senior government staff from all parties. This will allow us to evaluate its effectiveness as a policy and power distributing instrument. 1. Introduction: Navigating multiple epistemologies On the evening of 18 October 2019, as we were completing the first phase of a Transport Justice "Balance Sheet" (Balance de Transporte Justo, BTJ), thousands of high school students leapt over turnstile in the Santiago Metro system to protest a fare increase, plunging the entire country into waves of massive protests. Plaza Italia, an intersection where all transport modes and people from all walks of life converge, became the main site of marches and, increasingly, teargas, police brutality, torture and human rights violations, the most terrible involving loss of eyes, sight, and sometimes, lives (AmnestyInternational 2019; HRW, 2019; INDH, 2019; UN, 2019). As we complete this article, significant social conflict, which we will abbreviate to 18-X, was continuing into 2020. As occurred in Brazil (2013) or Ecuador (2019), daily transport injustices catalyzed a powerful movement for social transformation in Chile. This article reports on a research project that provides a complex portrait of transport-related conditions leading up to these events. In the ensuing months, territorial (spatial) and urban (micro and meso scale) issues, including transport, vanished, as public debates focused on macro social demands, particularly human rights, pensions, health, and education. As an interdisciplinary research team working closely with university and advocacy/grassroots neighbourhood associations, we

Accessibility analysis can have important implications for understanding social equity in transit planning. The emergence and the increasingly broad acceptance of the general transit feed specification (GTFS) format for transit route, stop, and schedule data have revolutionized transit accessibility research by providing researchers with a convenient, publicly available source of data interoperable with common geographic information system (GIS) software. Existing approaches to GTFS-based transit analysis, however, focus on currently operating transit systems. With major transit expansions across the nation and around the world increasing in number and ambition, understanding the accessibility impacts of proposed projects in their early planning stages is crucial to achieving the greatest possible social benefit from these massive public investments. This paper describes the development of a hypothetical transit network based on current GTFS data and proposed 2040 transit improvemen...

The article studies the demand for public transport in Colombian cities, identifying the main determinants explaining market shares for transit services. We used aggregated choice models to estimate overall price, income, speed and frequency elasticities for urban public transport demand in the country. The model successfully accounts for unobservable information about attributes of alternative public transport modes. The results suggest high demand elasticities to price and frequency, while demand responds moderately to speed. We also find a negative income elasticity, which classifies public transport as an inferior good. Results provide relevant information for the current discussion about new transport systems in cities of developing countries, with a deeper understanding of the elements to consider in the design of public transport policies.

Every day, many women struggle to access essential opportunities such as jobs, education, shops and friends. Failing to provide them with adequate transport services can eventually lead to an undesirable situation of social disadvantage and exacerbate the gender gap between men and women. This chapter explains how being a woman has a significant influence on mobility characteristics and travel behaviour. It also goes deeper into the main challenges and issues that need to be overcome to reduce inequalities of access and movement opportunities between genders. Properly addressing these challenges plays a crucial role in providing women with empowerment, access to opportunities and independence.

While distributive aspects have been a topic of discussion in relation to costbenefit analysis (CBA), little systematic thought has been given in the CBA literature to the focus of such an equity analysis in evaluating transport projects. The goal of the paper is to provide an overview of the various directions an equity analysis, carried out within the context of a social cost-benefit analysis, could take. The paper starts from the widely-shared definition of distributive justice: the morally proper distribution of goods and bads over members of society. Following this definition, carrying out an equity analysis requires that decisions are made about: (1) the benefits and costs that are distributed through a transport project; (2) the members of society between whom benefits and costs are distributed; and (3) the distributive principle that determines whether a particular distribution is fair. Much of the discussions about cost-benefit analysis and equity do not address these questions in any systematic way. The paper aims to provide a framework. Three sets of benefits and costs are identified as a possible focus of an equity analysis: (1) net benefits; (2) mobility-enhancing benefits; and (3) individual benefits and costs. For each set, a discussion follows regarding the way in which members of societies could be divided into meaningful groups, as well as the possible yardstick for judging whether a certain distribution is fair. While the paper acknowledges that the choice between the three sets is ultimately a political decision, it ends with a set of arguments that suggest that the equity analysis of transport projects should focus first and foremost on the mobility-enhancing benefits generated by such projects.

Accessibility measures the ease at which an individual can access a desired location. It is a major aspect in transportation planning, and transit systems are extensively used to improve accessibility. Well-designed public transit systems enable a high level of access to socioeconomic opportunities. This is especially important to socially disadvantaged populations due to their higher need for transit services to maintain a basic level of mobility. Increased transit-based accessibility can potentially diminish social exclusion rates and improve the well-being of these population groups. This research analyzes the spatio-temporal variability and the socio-demographic characteristics of transit-based job accessibility in Flagstaff, Arizona. This study employs a temporally-enabled schedule-aware simulation based on the transit system’s General Transit Feed Specification and the city’s street network. Gravity-based measurements were used in the calculation of accessibility from origin l...

The growing interest in the equity dimensions of transport planning has resulted in increasing criticism on the dominant assessment methodology of transport projects: cost-benefit analysis (CBA). In this paper, we focus on travel time savings, given their importance in the assessment of transport projects and the sometimes fierce equity-related citicism on their inclusion in project appraisal. We identify five equity effects related to the use of travel time savings in CBA. Each of these equity effects implies that transport projects serving the majority population are highly likely to perform better in CBA than comparable projects serving disadvantaged population groups. We subsequently explore whether the replacement of travel time savings by accessibility gains can address the identified equity effects. We observe that this only holds for two of the five equity effects, while a third effect can be mitigated through the introduction of the notion of diminishing marginal return in the valuation of accessibility gains. We conclude that the mere introduction of accessibility gains is in itself insufficient to address all equity effects related to the application of travel time savings within the CBA framework.

Embora a noção de equidade seja considerada primordial no emergente paradigma da mobilidade urbana sustentável, o planejamento da mobilidade tem sido acusado de contribuir para a produção e a consolidação de desigualdades sociais e espaciais relacionadas à provisão e organização do transporte coletivo urbano, principalmente no contexto de países em desenvolvimento. Este artigo investiga em que medida planejadores atuantes em cidades brasileiras estão cientes de iniquidades relacionadas ao transporte e a forma como compreendem o papel do transporte em relação a objetivos sociais. Diferentemente do que a literatura sugere, resultados da survey conduzida para este estudo indicam que, no Brasil, planejadores de transportes reconhecem certas associações entre privação socioeconômica e deficiências na oferta de transporte coletivo urbano, mas não necessariamente identificam no processo de planejamento fatores que levam à produção de desigualdades. Tampouco compreendem a ideia de equidade ...

The social impacts of transport systems and new transport infrastructure have often been overlooked and undervalued, partly because the relationship between transport and social equity is indirect and difficult to quantify. Researchers have usefully investigated the relationship between transport and social exclusion, focusing on aspects such as access to opportunities and activities by different population cohorts such as income, class, age, ethnicity and gender. The analysis has focused on addressing the imbalance in the distributional effects of transport provision and accessibility planning has often been a central tool in analysis. This paper seeks to build on the aforementioned research, employing Amartya Sen's Capabilities Approach as a theoretical framework to explore how an individual's capabilities and functionings differ in relation to transport. Beijing is used as a case study, with analysis from three stations on the Beijing subway line 1 and its extension to the Batong line, namely Guomao, Sihui and Tuqiao. Martha Nussbaum's Central Human Capabilities Approach is used to frame the analysis. The results show that functionings and capabilities differ according to an individual's socioeconomic characteristics and geographical location, meaning that both the opportunities to participate in life and also the actual activities themselves differ. This is an important distinction that the Capabilities Approach offers, and it is useful to consider if the potential for achieving improved social equity is to be realised. Keywords Transport; social equity; travel equity; the Capabilities Approach; Beijing. Highlights  The Capabilities Approach is applied in transport planning.  A framework for understanding multi-dimensional social impacts is developed, including issues of life, bodily health, emotion and affiliation.  Comparisons are made for capabilities and functionings across socio-demographic characteristics and location.

One of the concerns that has aroused much scholarly attention in transport geography lately is the extent to which public transport provision enables the less privileged population segments, especially those without privately owned motorized vehicles, to participate in activities that are deemed normal within the society they live in. This study contributes to this line of inquiry by proposing a methodology for identifying public transit gaps, a mismatch between the socially driven demand for transit and the supply provided by transit agencies. The methodology draws on the latest accomplishments in the field of modeling time-continuous, schedule-based public transport accessibility. Accessibility levels to key destinations are calculated at regular time intervals, and synoptic metrics of these levels over various peak and off-peak time windows are computed for weekdays and weekends. As a result, a temporally reliable picture of accessibility by public transport is constructed. The obtained index of public transport provision is compared to a public transport needs index based on the spatial distribution of various socio-demographics, in order to highlight spatial mismatches between these two indices. The study area consists of Flanders, which is the northern, Dutch-speaking region of Belgium. The results indicate that mainly suburban areas are characterized by high public transport gaps. Due to the time-variability of public transport frequencies, these gaps differ over time.

The aim of this paper is to analyse the type of mobilities and subjects that are being promoted and constituted through bike-sharing systems. This is done through an analysis of the bike-sharing system in the city of Lund in Sweden. The analysis utilises Bacchi's What is the Problem Represented to be? framework and develops it through adding a spatial perspective. Departing from a critical velomobilities perspective, we argue that urban transport policies cannot merely be regarded as one specific and delimited reaction to well-defined policy problems. Instead, the ways that BSSs are, described, motivatedbut also spatially organisedconstitute which mobilities are produced. The analysis is based in an analysis of relevant policy documents, maps and observations. It is concluded that bike sharing is not seen as cycling and is rarely linked to cycling as such, but rather is seen as part of the public transport system. Further, it is concluded that the motivation behind the location of the stations is to facilitate the flow of workers to public transport, and promote attractiveness and tourism, thus constituting a strong belief in a win-win situation between sustainability and growth. Here prioritisation between different values, and the possible tensions between different social and environmental dimensions of sustainability is down-played.

This two-part study employs fine-scale performance measures and analytical techniques designed to evaluate and improve transit services for people experiencing disability. Part one puts forth a series of time-sensitive, general transit feed system (GTFS)-enhanced employment accessibility models that account for multiple transportation modes, categories of functional limitation and design characteristics of existing public transit infrastructure. Model results shed light on the degree to which a medium-size city's public transit system addresses the gap between a theoretical continuum of rider capacities and the physical demands required to achieve mobility and access to employment. Our research finds that an individual's combined physical mobility constraints (e.g., walking speed and maximum walking distance) and public transit infrastructure requirements (e.g., presence/absence of wheelchair boarding platforms and connections to pedestrian access routes) may reduce employment accessibility outcomes by as much as 86 percent. Part two of the study utilizes performance measures developed in part one to model-via spatially explicit structural equations-the degree to which employment accessibility explains variations in public transit ridership and work commute transportation mode share. Here we find that commute share and ridership…(results). Developing a better understanding of relationships between accessibility and transit usage, we reason, will help shed light on how American Disabilities Act (ADA) compliant transit infrastructure affects mode choice decisions among people with considerable functional limitations and across the broader population.

Bike-sharing is widely recognized as an eco-friendly mode of transportation and seen as one of the solutions to the problem of air pollution and congestion. As there is little research exploring the performance of bicycle-sharing systems (BSS), many municipal authorities invest in their development without knowledge of their effectiveness. Therefore, the aim of this article is to identify factors that correlate with BSS performance. Data related to BSS and urban characteristics were collected for the 56 cities in Poland, which is the population of BSS systems in this country. The Ordinary Least Square regression model was used to estimate the model. Additionally, to support our findings, a survey of 3631 cyclists was conducted. Our main findings show that BSS performance was positively related to cities’ population, tourism, number of bike stations per capita, congestion, bicycle pathways’ length and higher temperature, and negatively related to precipitation. We have also found tha...

The article presents the accessibility of workplaces in Szczecin using the method of potential and cumulative accessibility for commuting by public transport. The public transport commuting times used in the study were generated using the public transport model, which was developed based on data in the General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS) format. The results of potential accessibility by public transport were calculated for several selected time thresholds in the morning rush hours between 7 a.m. and 9 a.m.. On the other hand, cumulative accessibility is characterised by variability of travel times for 8 a.m., which is calculated in 10- to 60-minute intervals of travel time. The aim of this study is to identify workplaces in Szczecin that are situated in areas where accessibility is more dependent on the parameters of the public-transport timetable. In addition, a possibility to define the optimal journey length was assumed so that it would regard the largest number of jobs. Th...

Local governments increasingly justify the hosting of mega-events because of their legacy value, assuming that all local residents benefit from those events. Yet, little attention has been paid to the distributive question of who benefits from the transport legacy left by those events. This paper reflects on the delimitation of transport legacies and its social impacts in terms of how such developments can reshape urban accessibility to opportunities. It analyses the transformation in the transport system of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in preparation for the 2014 World Cup and the 2016 Olympic Games. That transformation involved substantial expansion in public transport infrastructure, followed by cuts in service levels and a reorganization of many bus lines to streamline the transport system. The paper examines whether those recent changes have increased the number of people from different income levels who could access Olympic sports venues and healthcare facilities by public transport within 15, 30, 60 and 90 minutes. The analysis uses a before-and-after comparison of Rio's transport network (2014-2017) and a quasi-counterfactual scenario to separate the effects of newly added infrastructure from the reorganization and cuts of transport services. The results show that the infrastructure expansion alone would have increased the number of people who could access the Olympic sports venues, but it would have only marginally improved people's access to healthcare facilities. Nonetheless, the findings indicate that the streamlined bus system have offset the benefits of infrastructure investments in a way that particularly penalizes the poor. The analysis of both the implemented changes to the public transport network and the counterfactual scenario show that the accessibility benefits from the recent cycle of investments and disinvestments in Rio generally accrued to middle-and higherincome groups, reinforcing existing patterns of urban inequality.

The evaluation of social impacts of transport policies has been attracting growing attention in recent years. Yet studies thus far have predominately focused on developed countries and overlooked whether equity assessment of transport projects is sensitive to the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP). This paper investigates how investments in public transport can reshape socio-spatial inequalities in access to opportunities, and it examines how MAUP can influence the distributional effects of transport project evaluations. The study looks at Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and the transformations carried out in the city in preparation for the 2014 World Cup and the 2016 Olympics, which involved substantial expansion in public transport infrastructure followed by cuts in service levels. The paper uses before-and-after comparison of Rio's transport network (2014-2017) and quasi-counterfactual analysis to examine how those policies affect access to schools and jobs for different income groups and whether the results are robust when the data is analyzed at different spatial scales and zoning schemes. Results show that subsequent cuts in service levels have offset the accessibility benefits of transport investments in a way that particularly penalizes the poor, and that those investments alone would still have generated larger accessibility gains for higher-income groups. These findings suggest that, contrary to Brazil's official discourse of transport legacy, recent policies in Rio have exacerbated rather than reduced socio-spatial inequalities in access to opportunities. The study also shows that MAUP can influence the equity assessment of transport projects, suggesting that this issue should be addressed in future research.

Over the past decades, transport researchers and policymakers have devoted increasing attention to questions about justice and equity. Nonetheless, there is still little engagement with theories in political philosophy to frame what justice means in the context of transport policies. This paper reviews key theories of justice (utilitarianism, libertarianism, intuitionism, Rawls' egalitarianism, and Capability Approaches), and critically evaluates the insights they generate when applied to transport. Based on a dialogue between Rawlsian and Capability Approaches, we propose that distributive justice concerns over transport disadvantage and social exclusion should focus primarily on accessibility as a human capability. This means that, in policy evaluation, a detailed analysis of distributional effects of transport policies should consider minimum standards of accessibility to key destinations and the extent of which these policies respect individuals' rights and prioritize disadvantaged groups, reduce inequalities of opportunities and mitigate transport externalities. A full account of justice in transportation requires a more complete understanding of accessibility than traditional approaches have been able to deliver to date.

Older people’s social exclusion in mountain areas is often the result of service inaccessibility. Mountain territories are indeed partly characterised by a low availability of services and high transport constraints. In this environment, older people, with a lower capacity for mobility (such as impaired or not autonomous individuals), require a set of reversed mobilities, where the mobility of relatives, caregivers or shops ensures, at least indirectly, their access to relevant services. This chapter aims to stress how reversed mobilities may promote older people’s inclusion in mountain areas and contribute to a better understanding of exclusion from services. In particular, we will emphasise: (1) the interaction between different factors in constructing service inaccessibility as an exclusionary process in the lives of mountain dwelling older people; (2) the key role played by reversed mobilities in combatting older people’s experience of exclusion from services in mountain areas, ...

This paper provides an overview of the conceptual essence of a number of justice theories and their possible consequences for transport project appraisal. In this paper, we discuss three alternative philosophical approaches to the still-dominant approach of utilitarianism: Rawls's approach, Walzer's approach, and the capability approach (CA), as they have different practical implications. We discuss which of these approaches could potentially give guidance to transportation appraisal, and which approaches are not suited for this purpose. We demonstrate the use of the CA and compare it to utilitarianism in a case study, and discuss the implications of adopting the former for transport evaluation and policy.

Transport studies continue to grapple with the challenge of evaluating the benefits of transport policy in contributing to wellbeing. Motility (mobility capital) defined as the personal capacity for travel, captures the life-enhancing aspect of mobility, separate from the value of a destination activity. Using the experiences collected from 24 Israeli women between the ages of 25-65, this paper demonstrates the role of mobility experiences in promoting motility, the relationship with social and cultural capital and the contribution to their personal wellbeing. Socially structured group identities, including gender roles, alongside community and family, define a starting point for motility. Personal choices and travel experiences build on this starting point. By capturing the benefits for wellbeing that can result from more diverse and inclusive travel opportunities, motility can be a tool for more inclusive transport policies.

This is the pre-publication version of: Martens, K., Singer, M.E., and Cohen-Zada, A.L. (2022). Equity in Accessibility: Moving From Disparity to Insufficiency Analyses. Journal of the American Planning Association: 1-16.
Problem, research strategy, and findings
Many studies on transport equity have analyzed disparities in access to destinations between different population groups. In this study, we challenge this disparity approach and propose an alternative: analyzing accessibility insufficiencies. We argue that disparity analyses fall short on two accounts. First, they are based on group averages that inherently hide in-group variation. Second, they compare accessibility levels between groups without addressing whether these levels actually allow people to engage in daily activities. The proposed sufficiency approach avoids the former and addresses the latter by setting an explicit sufficiency threshold for accessibility. Empirical analyses for 49 of the 50 largest U.S. metropolitan areas confirmed the problematic nature of disparity analyses. In line with most literature, our disparity analyses show that disadvantaged groups are virtually always better served by transit than their more advantaged counterparts. Yet a systematic sufficiency analysis reveals large inequities in accessibility, regardless of the exact sufficiency threshold employed.
Takeaway for practice
Our outcomes underscore the need for researchers and planning practitioners to move away from seemingly neutral disparity analyses toward equity analyses of insufficiencies. Though this move implies inevitably normative, and thus politically difficult, decisions, such analyses enable professionals to systematically identify transport inequities as input for regional transport plans. They may also be used to prioritize already proposed interventions based on their contribution to a reduction in accessibility insufficiencies.

The social impacts of transport systems and new transport infrastructure have often been overlooked and undervalued, partly because the relationship between transport and social equity is indirect and difficult to quantify. Researchers have usefully investigated the relationship between transport and social exclusion, focusing on aspects such as access to opportunities and activities by different population cohorts such as income, class, age, ethnicity and gender. The analysis has focused on addressing the imbalance in the distributional effects of transport provision and accessibility planning has often been a central tool in analysis. This paper seeks to build on the aforementioned research, employing Amartya Sen's Capabilities Approach as a theoretical framework to explore how an individual's capabilities and functionings differ in relation to transport. Beijing is used as a case study, with analysis from three stations on the Beijing subway line 1 and its extension to the Batong line, namely Guomao, Sihui and Tuqiao. Martha Nussbaum's Central Human Capabilities Approach is used to frame the analysis. The results show that functionings and capabilities differ according to an individual's socioeconomic characteristics and geographical location, meaning that both the opportunities to participate in life and also the actual activities themselves differ. This is an important distinction that the Capabilities Approach offers, and it is useful to consider if the potential for achieving improved social equity is to be realised. Keywords Transport; social equity; travel equity; the Capabilities Approach; Beijing. Highlights  The Capabilities Approach is applied in transport planning.  A framework for understanding multi-dimensional social impacts is developed, including issues of life, bodily health, emotion and affiliation.  Comparisons are made for capabilities and functionings across socio-demographic characteristics and location.

In recent years there has been a significant increase of temporally variable analyses of accessibility by public transport as a result of the increased availability of open and standardized time table information in the form of GTFS (General Transit Feed Specification) data. To date, very little attention has been paid to systematically analyze the impact of temporal resolutions on the results. Different authors have applied different standards, often in an ad-hoc manner. In this study, we address the loss of precision associated with a stepwise reduction of the temporal resolution of travel time estimations based on GTFS data for the city of Szczecin in Poland. The paper aims to provide guidance to researchers and practitioners on the selection of appropriate temporal resolutions in accessibility studies. We test four sampling methods in order to analyze four different public transport frequency scenarios, three types of accessibility measures (travel time to the nearest provider, cumulative opportunities measure and potential accessibility) and seven types of destinations ranging from high to low centrality. Additionally, the impact on spatial disparities is explored using the Gini coefficient. We find that a reduction of temporal resolution is associated with a decrease in precision of public transport accessibility measurement. However, with up to 5-min resolutions this reduction is negligible, while computational time is reduced fivefold, compared to a 1-min resolution benchmark. Lower temporal resolutions still provide relatively precise estimations of travel times and accessibility measures. However, further resolution reductions are associated with decreasing reductions of computational time. As a result, we argue that 15-min temporal resolution provides a good balance between precision and computational time while providing very precise estimations of Gini coefficients (errors ≤0.001). A non-linear relationship is found between the public transport frequency and the loss of precision, with lower frequencies leading to a greater loss in precision. More attention should be paid to highly centralized services, in particular when analyzed using proximity and cumulative opportunities measures. Finally, the cumulative opportunities measure is found to be highly sensitive to changes in the temporal resolution and not suited for time-sensitive accessibility analysis.

Accessibility, as a requisite to guarantee the individual ability to participate in valued activities, has been receiving increasing yet scattered attention from diverse theoretical and operational approaches. These approaches focus on how individuals are able to engage in out-of-home activities, participate in social life as well as on their involvement in other activities that contribute to their overall well-being. The paper aims at further investigating such approaches, analysing forms of inequality in job-related mobilities while assuming that a person's accessibility depends on both contextual and individual factors. Taking the Buenos Aires metropolitan area as a suitable testbed, the paper offers an approach to identify the inequalities in job-related accessibility at the neighbourhood scale. The approach considers the relationship between the quality and supply of public transport, level of social exclusion and reachable employment opportunities. The research proposes a synthetic index of inequalities in access to job opportunities (IAO) to identify disadvantaged urban areas characterized by a confluence of problems related to socioeconomic deprivations, low accessibility to employment as well as a low mobility and poor quality of transport supply. The approach has an explicit operational dimension and intends to contribute to outlining tailored measures to guarantee better job opportunities, as in the case of people living in areas experiencing substandard levels of accessibility to workplaces.

Most of the transport equity and TRSE studies assume that increasing accessibility levels lead to increased activity participation and, therefore, a reduction in social exclusion. Although this assumption makes sense from a theoretical point of view, this causal relationship has not yet been validated in practice. Previous studies investigating the accessibility-participation relationship were inconclusive, indicating that increasing accessibility has a limited impact on activity participation levels, if any. Moreover, the existing empirical evidence in the literature in the Global South context is scarce, is merely correlational and fails to infer causality between both variables. The contributions of the paper are threefold. First, (a) to provide a conceptual model of the causal relationship between accessibility, activity participation and risk of transport-related social exclusion (TRSE); second, (b) to summarise the available empirical evidence about the accessibility-activity ...

Transportation policies, plans, and projects all flow through state institutions because of the substantial cost of infrastructure and the need to assess transportation system performance, including equity implications. But environmental justice scholarship interrogates the state’s role in perpetuating injustice. Most research and planning practice related to transportation equity has relied upon state-sponsored analytical methods. Transportation planners and scholars can benefit from critical assessments of these approaches. We propose a shift in focus from transportation equity to a broader consideration of transportation justice that is more closely aligned with models of social change promulgated in the environmental justice literature and by related movements.