Sustainable Development (International Development)

The current complexity of the world demands further approaches in how Higher Education Institutes can respond to the diverse topics that are relevant to the curriculum´s learning journey and market needs. This academic article aims to provide a dialogue between an analysis of qualitative literature review and how market-based education is being transformed into sustainable internationalization of education. In that sense, and observing that the world is becoming more conflicted but also interconnected, sustainable education becomes an approach that meets diverse needs to prepare participants for the future. The article concludes that WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS

In an era of rapid modernization, the challenge
of
preserving cultural authenticity while
adopting cutting-edge technology has become
increasingly significant, particularly in regions
like Bali, which is rich in cultural heritage. This
paper examines architectural innovations that
integrate traditional Balinese elements with
modern technology to develop sustainable
solutions. The research aims to investigate how
traditional Balinese architecture can be adapted
and integrated with new technologies to
support development that aligns with the global
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This
study also identifies gaps in previous research
and offers new theoretical contributions within
this context. The research employs a qualitative
method with a case study approach, analyzing
several architectural projects in Bali that have
integrated modern technology within a local
cultural framework. The findings reveal that
blending tradition with technology not only
preserves the cultural identity of Bali but also
enhances
environmental
sustainability.
efficiency
and
The paper concludes that
integrating traditional elements and modern
technology is crucial to achieving sustainable
development that is both locally relevant and
globally significant, emphasizing the urgent
need for sustainable development in Bali.

The purpose of this paper is to present research that develops and tests human settlement infrastructure policy statements as input for a new White Paper on Human Settlements in South Africa. Design/methodology/approach The study develops infrastructure policy statements for human settlements. These are tested through an online survey of human settlement stakeholders. Data gathered through the survey are analysed to provide findings for the study and develop recommendations for human settlement policy. Findings The findings indicate that stakeholders think that addressing infrastructure in human settlements in South Africa is a high priority. It shows that there is strong support for alternative models for the development and operation of infrastructure in human settlements. These include increased involvement by the private sector and communities, innovative financing and the use of sustainable technologies and systems. What is original/value of paper. The study is original as it explores new approaches to addressing infrastructure backlogs in human settlements in South Africa. It contributes new thinking on how the private sector and communities can be involved, alternative delivery models developed, and how sustainable technologies may be applied in addressing these backlogs.

At the end of 1982, Mobil Oil Corporation (Mobil) withdrew from its Libyan oil exploration and production concessions. Subsequently, Mobil filed an arbitration claim against the Libyan Government, alleging that government action had effectively destroyed the economic value of Mobil's concession. This arbitration raises substantial questions of transnational contract law. Part I of this Note provides the factual background to the Mobil-Libya dispute and a review of the major issues involved. Part II discusses the right of a host government to set export prices. Part III considers whether a host government may take unilateral action even though the concession agreement includes a stabilization clause. Part IV examines the issue of "creeping expropriation." Part V analyzes the effect of the doctrine of permanent sovereignty over natural resources on the issues raised by the Mobil-Libya dispute. The Note concludes that when an oil concessionaire continues to operate in the host state for an extended period following the host government's alleged breach of contract, the concessionaire should be held to have effectively waived its claims for breach of the concession agreement.

». of action when the reasons underlying the contract in the first place have changed drastically.' 2 Normally, before any foreign investor commits his capital into a petroleum exploration or mining project, he will want to be assured that there shall be stability in the investment regime. That is to say, that the whole or key aspects of the agreement will be respected by the host State and that the rules of the game will not be changed unilaterally.3 The foreign investor needs such an assurance not only as a means of ensuring that he realises the expected benefits (rate of return) for his shareholders, but also to convince other sponsors of the project (e.g. banks, insurance agencies and customers) that the project will generate enough capital to pay off their loans and meet their supply requirements. These objectives may only be realised-other things being equal-if the terms of the investment agreement are respected by the host State. Hence, for this reason, the principle of sanctity of contract is regarded as one of the most important legal concepts in the investment process. On the other hand, the host State which owns the minerals and enters into an agreement with the foreign investor to exploit and develop the natural resources at a time when it is not certain as to the extent, quality and future prices of the commodity will want the agreement to be flexible and amenable to change according to the circumstances in both the domestic and international political and economic situations. The host State is therefore more likely (but in rare cases, the foreign investor as well) to view the contract as a planning document-to be referred to and amended as relationships progress. The contract is therefore one, but by no means the exclusive, guide for post-contractual bargaining. In that regard, there is a continuous conflict over the stability and flexibility of a long-term investment agreement. The concept of sanctity of contract is based on the 19th century classical contract theory which is founded in the Aristotelian virtue of promise keeping, and libcrality.4 According to the theory, a contract is an expression of the parties' free will or choice. It is an exercise of the parties' freedom and autonomy and as such, it should be honoured and not be interfered with by the courts. The terms of the contract must be implemented

Climate change is one of the biggest challenges faced by humanity today, and it poses a threat to food security and agricultural production worldwide. Agronomy, which is the science of crop production and soil management, has a significant role to play in mitigating the effects of climate change. Agronomic practices such as conservation agriculture, cover cropping, crop rotation, and reduced tillage have been found to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon sequestration in soils. These practices also contribute to improved soil health and water conservation, which are important for climate change adaptation. In addition, the use of precision agriculture technologies, such as remote sensing, precision planting, and variable rate fertilization, can reduce the extend of inputs required and improve the efficiency of production, further reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, agronomy has a vital role to play in climate change mitigation and adaptation in agriculture. The adoption of sustainable agronomic practices can contribute significantly to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing carbon sequestration, and promoting food security. However, to maximize the potential of these practices, it is important to address the challenges and limitations associated with their implementation and to promote the adoption of climate smart agronomy practices mitigating its effects through enhancing productivity, adaptation, and mitigation, ensuring food security, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote sustainable agriculture.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs) contain a set of 17 measures to foster sustainable development across many areas. It offers a good opportunity to reinvigorate sustainable development research for two main reasons. Firstly, it comprises many areas of SD research, which have become mainstream thanks to the UN SDGs. Secondly, the fact that the UN and its member countries have committed to attaining SDGs by 2030 has added a sense of urgency to the need to perform quality research on SD on the one hand, and reiterates the need to use the results of this research on the other. 32 Even though the basic concept of sustainability goes back many centuries, it has only recently appeared on 33 the international political agenda. This is partly due to an awakening of the fact that the human ecological pressure on the planet is still much larger than what nature can renew or compensate for. Based on this state 35 of affairs, this paper presents an outline of the process leading to the agreement on the UN SDGs, and looks 36 at some of the ecological aspects as a result of continued pressure of human activities on natural resources. 37 Furthermore, a set of research needs is proposed-also based holistically on updated research trends-38 discussing the degree of urgency of some measures and explaining why the UN SDGs need to be accorded 39 greater priority in international sustainable development research efforts.

These are trusts based on the division first suggested by Sir Samuel Romilly in the case Morice v. Bishop of Diirltant, 10 Ves. 522 and subsequently categorised by Lord MacNaughten in Income Tax Special Purposes Comrs. v. Penisel [1891] A.C. 531, 593 as comprising: " trusts for the relief of poverty; trusts for the advancement of education; trusts for the advancement of religion; and trusts for other purposes beneficial to the community not falling under any of the preceding heads."

Climate change is one of the biggest challenges faced by humanity today, and it poses a threat to food security and agricultural production worldwide. Agronomy, which is the science of crop production and soil management, has a significant role to play in mitigating the effects of climate change. Agronomic practices such as conservation agriculture, cover cropping, crop rotation, and reduced tillage have been found to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon sequestration in soils. These practices also contribute to improved soil health and water conservation, which are important for climate change adaptation. In addition, the use of precision agriculture technologies, such as remote sensing, precision planting, and variable rate fertilization, can reduce the extend of inputs required and improve the efficiency of production, further reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, agronomy has a vital role to play in climate change mitigation and adaptation in agriculture. The adoption of sustainable agronomic practices can contribute significantly to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing carbon sequestration, and promoting food security. However, to maximize the potential of these practices, it is important to address the challenges and limitations associated with their implementation and to promote the adoption of climate smart agronomy practices mitigating its effects through enhancing productivity, adaptation, and mitigation, ensuring food security, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote sustainable agriculture.

National governments across Sub-Saharan Africa include climate-smart agriculture (CSA) - context-specific interventions that support resilience, productivity, and climate mitigation-in plans and policies and strategies to jointly address climate change, agricultural production and rural livelihood goals. This paper synthesizes the evidence on field-based CSA management practices generated through ten years of research led by the CGIAR in Tanzania, an agriculturally diverse country in East Africa that has prioritized climate-smart agriculture practices in its climate adaptation strategies. Tanzania provides an illustrative example of how countries can use evidence of impacts, synergies and tradeoffs to prioritize activities for sustainable development.

In the course of a meeting held in La Malbaie (Québec, Canada) on August 5th to 7th, 1990, thirty european, north-american and african jurists and economists exchanged ideas on the evolution of international economic law. This first colloquium organised by the SDIE (Canada) in cooperation with the SDIE (France) covered historical, theorical, practical and ethical aspects of this sector of law which covers the organisation of trade and production, monetary and financial relations, international trade law, resources management and environmental protection. The present document reproduces the texts submitted by the speakers in their original language. The first two papers aim at giving a general perspective of the variables of International Economic Law. The following papers focus on specific areas of international economic law where changes are taking place.

The yoke of suppression upon the Africans by the European countries has left a permanent scar in the minds of African people for ages. The Europeans have not only invaded the African continent physically but also intruded upon its emotional space by creating the division of colonies for nearly hundred years across the vast land. The African continent abounds; massive resources which, from time to time, have perpetually been exploited by the colonizers from the Europe; not for the sake of the continent people but for fulfillment of the colonizers. This has had a knock-on-effect in every stratum of the African societies-be it cultural, social, economic or political. Ghana, the first country to set free in the sub-Saharan region of Africa against the European colonialism now shows its resistance to the foreign aid. Against this backdrop, this paper examines the resistance of the Ghanaian people rhetorically as the political exhortation to its best, in the speech delivered by Ghanaian P...

The yoke of suppression upon the Africans by the European countries has left a permanent scar in the minds of African people for ages. The Europeans have not only invaded the African continent physically but also intruded upon its emotional space by creating the division of colonies for nearly hundred years across the vast land. The African continent abounds; massive resources which, from time to time, have perpetually been exploited by the colonizers from the Europe; not for the sake of the continent people but for fulfillment of the colonizers. This has had a knock-on-effect in every stratum of the African societies-be it cultural, social, economic or political. Ghana, the first country to set free in the sub-Saharan region of Africa against the European colonialism now shows its resistance to the foreign aid. Against this backdrop, this paper examines the resistance of the Ghanaian people rhetorically as the political exhortation to its best, in the speech delivered by Ghanaian P...

JuDr., PhD.(CSc). I. Cf. BARTOLUS DE SASSOFERRATO (Postglossators School), TRACTATUS REPRESSALIUM, Questio 1/3, para. 10 (1354), where one finds the origin of the now famous phrase, which in its entirety reads: "Non enim una civitas potest facere legem super alteram, quia par in parem non habet imperium" (There is no polity which should have power over another, because one equal has no power over another). 2.

This article explores whether oil concession agreements are private contracts or public treaties. Specifically, to what extent is the stateowned National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) bound by its dealings with private companies? In addition, should sovereign immunity apply to the action of a wholly state-owned corporation?

After the revolution, the legislator changed his attitude (Principle 45 of the Constitutional Law) and categorized oil and gas reservoirs (mines) among Anfal (property truly belonging to Prophet Mohammad or to any of the imam) and public wealth. In addition, it used the term "Public Ownership" in Principle 44. It seems that although the concept of national and public ownership is different from that of Anfal from ideological viewpoint, there are several similarities between these two concepts with respect to their effects. Most of the post revolution rules put an emphasis on maintaining ownership and sovereignty of oil resources. In this paper, these two concepts and the several interpretations made from them will be discussed. It should be noted that this paper has been written by using descriptive and analytical method.

The prevailing view in international practice is that, by consenting to arbitration, a State does not waive its immunity from execution. Yet, in the context of arbitration administered by the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) – as in the context of arbitration between States and private parties more generally – the problem of execution immunities is a very significant obstacle to the effective implementation of arbitral awards. When immunity from execution allows States to escape obligations they have freely undertaken, and when it withholds from claimants the fruits of a favourable award, the benefits of arbitration become illusory. This article contends that the prevailing view is no longer compelling. We argue that domestic courts can and should uphold the rule-of-law objectives and benefits of the ICSID Convention by adjusting their approach to immunity claims in the arbitral context: consent to arbitration should be interpreted as an implied wai...

These are trusts based on the division first suggested by Sir Samuel Romilly in the case Morice v. Bishop of Diirltant, 10 Ves. 522 and subsequently categorised by Lord MacNaughten in Income Tax Special Purposes Comrs. v. Penisel [1891] A.C. 531, 593 as comprising: " trusts for the relief of poverty; trusts for the advancement of education; trusts for the advancement of religion; and trusts for other purposes beneficial to the community not falling under any of the preceding heads."

This study assesses factors influencing the adoption of land management practices associated with a World Bank-financed project on 'climate-smart' agriculture: the Kenya Agricultural Carbon Project. Drawing upon mixed-methods research with participating farmers in Bungoma County, western Kenya, we find modest reported adoption rates overall for project-encouraged practices, amounting to 53.6 percent on average. However, we also find that there are systematic differences in the reported adoption rates of individual practices. Disaggregating our sample into three classes or 'wealth groups', we find that the 'very poor' and 'poor' groups exhibit substantially lower adoption rates (42 percent and 49 percent, respectively) relative to the 'less poor' wealth group (73 percent). Across these groups, practices related to livestock management and pest management are systematically less adopted (0e45 percent) than more popular practices such as agroforestry and tillage management, the reported adoption of which both range from 60 to 80 percent. Consequently, we suggest that barriers to the adoption of apparently 'climate smart' agricultural practices at scale may increasingly be political-economic rather than simply technical-managerial in nature. This reflects the poorest strata of farmers' struggles to negotiate the increasingly externally imposed imperatives of climate adaptation and mitigation with the necessity of 'simple reproduction' or survival of the household as a socioeconomic unit. Future generations of 'climate smart' agricultural programmes may thus benefit from disaggregating adaptation and mitigation objectives in order to avoid unduly burdening the poorest strata of participating households in rural African contexts.

JuDr., PhD.(CSc). I. Cf. BARTOLUS DE SASSOFERRATO (Postglossators School), TRACTATUS REPRESSALIUM, Questio 1/3, para. 10 (1354), where one finds the origin of the now famous phrase, which in its entirety reads: "Non enim una civitas potest facere legem super alteram, quia par in parem non habet imperium" (There is no polity which should have power over another, because one equal has no power over another). 2.

JuDr., PhD.(CSc). I. Cf. BARTOLUS DE SASSOFERRATO (Postglossators School), TRACTATUS REPRESSALIUM, Questio 1/3, para. 10 (1354), where one finds the origin of the now famous phrase, which in its entirety reads: "Non enim una civitas potest facere legem super alteram, quia par in parem non habet imperium" (There is no polity which should have power over another, because one equal has no power over another). 2.

This article is intended to analyse the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal by considering its origins and decisions in order to find out to what extend it has been successful in the settlement of international commercial and inter-state disputes between Iran and the United States. The Tribunal work is evaluated to determine whether it has been a workable pattern of Western-style legal institution for further instances of politically changed circumstances. In its arguments and expositions, I will discuss whether the Tribunal is an international arbitral tribunal created to resolve private law disputes or an interstate arbitration body typically established by treaty. I will argue that the Tribunal should be considered as an instrument of public international law, because it is based on an international treaty between sovereign states. Through this study I will examine the question of the Tribunal’s jurisdiction and its application of international law as compared with the decisions o...

The most exposed sector influenced by climate change is agriculture because of its reliance on climatic parameters like soil health, temperature, rainfall, etc. In developing countries, agriculture must undergo a significant transformation such that it can overcome the related challenges of achieving food security and responding to climate change. In most of the estimations, it has indicated that climate change is likely to decrease agricultural productivity, production and incomes in some areas that already have high food insecurity levels. It is the need of the hour for agriculture to become 'climate smart' so as to alleviate these challenges posed by climate change. Climate smart agriculture means sustainably increase agricultural productivity, production and income, adapt and build resilience to climate change and reduce greenhouse gases emissions in every possible way. Therefore, to achieve climate change goals and food security, there is a significant need to develop climate smart agriculture.

This paper explores how the concept of resilience has been used in development studies. Set amidst the rise of resilience in sustainable development, it offers insights for scholars and policy-makers, alike. Sampling 419 resilience-oriented journal articles from 2017–22, it uses Kuhnian paradigms to analyse development knowledge production.

This produces three key findings. First is the absence of a coherent resilience paradigm (with shared definitions, problems, and methods) in development studies. Second is its use, instead, by pre-existing paradigms as a theoretical add-on to better address complexity and/or as a new buzzword to repackage prior arguments.

Third are latent possibilities for resilience as both a rallying call and siren song in sustainable development. Here, resilience discourses open vital space for development cooperation and climate action. However, its outcomes will depend on whether we can first understand precisely what we talk about when we talk about resilience.

Agriculture is pivotal to the development of most countries in southern Africa, including Zimbabwe, with the sector contributing significantly to the Gross Domestic Product of these countries. The sector also provides labour to the majority of people and most rural populations in these countries derive their livelihoods from agriculture. The relative contribution of agriculture to national economies and to food security is, however, being reduced by climate variability and change. Smallholder farmers in semi-arid areas of Africa are particularly vulnerable to climate variability and change. The overall objective of this study was to establish the extent to which maize yield in the smallholder farming sector of semi-arid Zimbabwe could be affected by climate change, by 2050. The study also sought to establish trends in extreme temperature and rainfall indices, current farmer cropping practices and their current coping/adaptation strategies to climate variability and to assess the lik...

Doc. A/CN.9/471/Add.l, paras. 10 and 14. '' The present article uses the terms "concession", "economic development agreement", "investment agreement" and "concession contract" or, more loosely, "State contract" interchangeably because it is the objective content that is important, not the form of the particular legal instrument or the terminology employed to describe it, and, especially, all these terms belong to the same tamily of economic development agreements as far as the object is concerned. "' See generally for numerous agreements (types and forms) P. Fischer, (ed.

Special thanks to Almighty God for the grace and opportunity that He has afforded me to complete this research work successfully. My appreciation also goes to everyone that has supported me and contributed to the successful completion of this research. Many thanks to my Supervisor, the Director of Studies, Professor Andrew Haynes for his assistance and guidance during my work on this research. He created time out of his busy schedule to read, comment and discuss in order to improve the quality of my research and I must be honest to say this; Professor Haynes is a good man and an excellent Supervisor. I would like to thank Professor Charles Chatterjee for his valuable contribution and comments on all of this study. I appreciate many useful discussions with him and his criticism has helped me in many ways, particularly on the relevant legal issues surrounding my work on this research. I would love to express my gratitude to my parents, Alhaji Amosa Adebayo and Alhaja Habeebat Odee Adebayo for their support, love, encouragement and care throughout my PhD programme at the University of Wolverhampton. In a magnificent way, I wish to express my gratitude to my beloved wife, Alhaja Bilikis Ajoke Adebayo, my son, Hajj Ibrahim Adebayo and my daughters, Fridaous Adebayo and Iradat Adebayo, without your support and understanding, I could not have completed this research. Many people supported my doctoral research, yet without my brother, Alhaji Ibrahim Ajibola Kareem's support, this research would not have been completed. I cannot thank you enough, Boda. Equally, I am indebted to my friend, Alhaji Afeez Oladimeji for his support and kindness that have contributed to the completion of this research. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the support given to me during the course of this research by the School of Law, Doctoral College, the Management of the University of Wolverhampton and members of staff in the Walsall Learning Centre. I am grateful to you all.

Southern Africa (SA) is expected to be particularly impacted by climate change projecting a 40% decrease in rainfall in critical areas over the next 70 years and maize productivity falling by up to 30% by 2030. The high variability in agro-climatic conditions, farming systems and rural livelihoods in SA represents a challenge in the generation of locally adapted climate-smart cropping systems. To explore and test adaptation strategies to climate change at the farm level, and to assess the role of alternative maize-based cropping systems, an interdisciplinary approach was developed that consists of loose coupling of cropping systems and farm household models. Using data from long-term agronomic field trials, the crop growth model APSIM was calibrated to simulate a wide range of maize-based cropping systems for different agro-ecologies and climate change scenarios. At the farm household level, the efficient frontier analysis was used to identify efficient farming systems which minimiz...

Concerns of food and environmental security have increased enormously in recent years due to the vagaries of climate change and variability. Efforts to promote food security and environmental sustainability often reinforce each other and enable farmers to adapt to and mitigate the impact of climate change and other stresses. Some of these efforts are based on appropriate technologies and practices that restore natural ecosystems and improve the resilience of farming systems, thus enhancing food security. Climate smart agriculture (CSA) principles, for example, translate into a number of locally-devised and applied practices that work simultaneously through contextualised crop-soil-water-nutrient-pest-ecosystem management at a variety of scales. The purpose of this paper is to review concisely the current state-of-the-art literature and ascertain the potential of the Pfumvudza concept to enhance household food security, climate change mitigation and adaptation as it is promoted in Zi...

People with disabilities are under-represented in the global workforce, and this problem is often particularly acute in the 'global south'. This special issue seeks to provide new perspectives on why this is the case and comprises seven papers focused on disability inclusive employment. We deliberately wanted to place this collection in the Journal of International Development as a core development publication, rather than in a disability specific one, because we think it is important to 'mainstream' 1 disability within development so that the international community can develop an increased understanding and awareness of disability dilemmas. The challenges faced by disabled people need to be tackled as part of all development thinking and programming. The issue of employment and livelihoods for people with disabilities is gaining increased attention from funders, policymakers, scholars and practitioners, with funding expanding for interventions aiming to fix the complex problems constraining the opportunities for decent work for disabled people (Hanass-Hancock & Mitra, 2016; Steffens, 2021; Wickenden et al., 2020). Sadly, it exists pretty much universally across our planet in high-, middleand low-income settings. The problem is not just one of unequal access to work but also of inequalities experienced by people with disabilities when in work: When disabled people do work, they generally do so for longer hours and lower incomes, have fewer chances of promotion, and are at greater risk of becoming unemployed for longer periods. (Tripney et al., 2015, p. 11) The Sustainable Development Goals' (UN, 2015) call to 'leave no one behind' is particularly pertinent for people with disabilities, for whom being excluded has often been their regular experience to date. However, this is now beginning to change as recognition and funding for disability-focussed intervention programmes and research are rising up the international development agenda. This collection of papers covers a range of issues pertinent to the topic of disability inclusive employment from different practical and theoretical standpoints and focuses on a range of countries and contexts in the 'global south'. We invited contributions from a wide range of authors, intentionally encouraging those who had not previously written for academic journals, to submit, including NGO practitioners, representatives of organisations of people with disabilities (OPDs) and other allies and activists. Support during the writing process was available to those who needed it, and opportunities to be involved in reviewing other papers in the collection were also offered. Thus, these papers reflect an aspiration for different perspectives to be brought in various dilemmas and challenges to be highlighted regarding the progress towards achieving a disability inclusive society generally, and specifically towards people with disabilities having access to meaningful employment on an equal basis. At the same time, we cannot deny that such a special issue, put together by a team of nondisabled scholars based in northwestern Europe, and drawing directly and indirectly our established networks, remains, in John Gaventa's (2020: 118f) terminology, an 'invited space' shaped by hidden and invisible forms of power, offering selected entry points for influence and

Trust is an often overlooked socioeconomic factor when determining the extent to which international development organizations empower the financially impoverished populations that they serve. Nevertheless, it can be a vital factor for such organizations in their attempts to foster poverty alleviation. This is particularly true with respect to the efforts of Oxfam International (Oxfam) in India's National Capital Region (NCR). This paper identifies three interrelated indexes that measure an organization's trust-building capacity with its stakeholders and applies them to Oxfam's poverty relief efforts throughout NCR. These indexes include an organization's mission statement, structure, and funding sources. This paper explores why each of these indexes can serve as a benchmark of trust for Oxfam in this region and suggests that they can be applied on a wider scale to other organizations that assist marginalized communities worldwide.

This article is intended to analyse the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal by considering its origins and decisions in order to find out to what extend it has been successful in the settlement of international commercial and interstate disputes between Iran and the United States. The Tribunal work is evaluated to determine whether it has been a workable pattern of Western-style legal institution for further instances of politically changed circumstances. In its arguments and expositions, I will discuss whether the Tribunal is an international arbitral tribunal created to resolve private law disputes or an interstate arbitration body typically established by treaty. I will argue that the Tribunal should be considered as an instrument of public international law, because it is based on an international treaty between sovereign states. Through this study I will examine the question of the Tribunal's jurisdiction and its application of international law as compared with the decisions of other international tribunals. It also considers an internal question to the theory of the governing law to the resolution of disputes.

A foreign investor rarely contracts with the state itself in the context of international economic connections, but rather with one of the state's instrumentalities "that possesses a legal identity separate and autonomous from the State." State enterprises, regulatory bodies, infrastructure agencies, development agencies, and municipal governments are all examples of state instrumentalities. Those instruments must be separated from state institutions, and the existence of legal personhood is central to that separation. An organ is an entity that is not independent of the state and has that status under that state's domestic legislation. The fact that it is closely linked to the state has always fueled debate about the identity of such an enterprise. Whether it is a truly independent entity or merely a state organ hiding behind its legal personality to carry out the state's policies? In response to this question, some argued that the classic distinction between organ and enterprise should be maintained, while others argued that the latter should be a state organ. In this paper, we will focus on the answer provided by investment arbitration jurisprudence (II) to this question, and then we will look at how some recent and important free trade agreements have approached the issue in order to create their own lex specialis set of rules on the subject (III).

Climate change in the form of temperature increases and rainfall variability has intensified in the last three decades. Recent studies in Southern Africa (of which Zimbabwe is part) have indicated the extreme vulnerabilities of smallholder farmers to the impact of climate change and recommended that appropriate adaptation measures be put in place. In-field rainwater harvesting is one of the adaptation strategies that has been adopted by some smallholder farmers in drought-prone regions. The study examines the effectiveness of in-field rainwater harvesting as a climate change adaptation strategy for smallholder farmers in Gwanda district, Zimbabwe. Data was collected through semi-structured questionnaires (administered to 45 smallholder farmers) and five key informants. We find that most respondents adopted pit planting and mulching in-field rainwater harvesting techniques. A few respondents practised deep tillage, dead level contours, ephemeral stream diversion, ridges/furrows and hillside sheet runoff. In-field

Stabilization clauses add a twist to the general debate about states’ legitimate discretion to regulate in the public interest and potentially conflicting investors’ rights under international investment law. While this debate is about the legitimate outreach of standards such as fair and equitable treatment (FET) or expropriation in the face of social and environmental regulation, stabilization clauses can go as far as protecting investments from any unfavorable changes in law. This absolute wording could from the outset exclude interpretative reconciliation in conflict of law situations. Recent arbitral decisions seem to confirm this farreaching legal effect. The paper aims to take a closer look at these decisions and to shed light on interpretative leeway in conflict of law situations that involve stabilization clauses. The authors conclude that today far-reaching general stabilization clauses do not stand up to their goal of investment security but rather generate delegitimizing...

Rain-fed agricultural crop production has recently declined due to volatile and unreliable rainfall patterns in Tharaka community. The scarce understanding of seasonal rainfall variability in the cropping calendar by farmers has contributed to low crop yields. The study was designed to test the yields of sorghum, cowpeas and green grams using conservation agriculture in the semi-arid parts of the Tharaka Nithi County namely; Tharaka North and Tharaka South sub-counties (Tharaka Constituency). Two sites with four experimental plots were subjected to 6 treatments. Treatment one was Sorghum, treatment two was Sorghum/ Cowpeas, treatment three was Sorghum/green grams, treatment four Green grams, treatment five Cowpeas and finally treatment six Conventional Control, all treatments were under conservation agriculture with an exception of the treatment six. Sorghum was the main crop for the intercropping pattern. Using a randomized block design, the subjects were assessed and put in layout of six according to the study design. The four experimental plots (blocks) were then randomly assigned with a total of 3 times replication. The sorghum planting depth was 5 centimeter with spacing of 60 centimeter by 20 centimeter, cowpeas was at depth of 4 cm with spacing of 60 centimeter by 20 centimeter, while green grams was at depth of 4 cm with spacing of 45 centimeter by 15 centimeter. The treatments of conservation agriculture in addition to soil amendment of 60 Kilogrammes of CAN (Calcium Ammonium Nitrate) coupled with to 60 Kilogrammes NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus Potash) had the highest grain yield ranging from 2.0 tonnes per hectare for the intercropped to 2.3 tonnes per hectare for the mono cropped Conservation agriculture contributed positively in increased crop yield owing to more moisture retention in comparison to conventional control. Generally, trials under conventional controls had the lower yield at 1.0 tonnes per hectare for the mono cropped. Therefore, conservational agriculture could be considered as an alternative option towards increasing resilience on food security means and buffering the effects of climate change for Tharaka community attributed to the capability of more moisture retention.

Agronomists have increasingly conducted experiments on-farm, in an attempt to increase the wider applicability (external validity) of their experimental findings and their relevance for agricultural development. This review assesses the way in which on-farm experimental studies address the scope or generalisability of their findings when based on a limited number of farms. A central question is how on-farm studies define the environment or research population in which the on-farm trial findings are valid, or are valuable for. Such an assessment is, of course, conditional on the (internal) validity of the experimental findings. We therefore first analyse how authors of on-farm experimental studies describe the factors that may shape experimental outcomes. As agronomic experiments often use ‘yield’ as dependent variable to assess treatment effects, we developed a procedure to score studies on their descriptions of yield-determining factors. Although experimental validity principally r...

The purpose of this Article is to describe the principal laws and regulations currently applicable to foreign investment in Indonesia, including the investment approval process, local incorporation rules, reporting requirements, investment incentives, foreign employee guidelines, investment guaranties, and protection of intellectual property rights. FOREIGN INVESTMENT IN INDONESIA Robert N. Hornick* Mark A. Nelson**

The twentieth century, when the future looks back on it, will not only be remembered as the era of atomic discoveries and interplanetary explorations. The second upheaval of this period, unquestionably, is the conquest by the peoples of the lands that belong to them. 1

This article explores whether oil concession agreements are private contracts or public treaties. Specifically, to what extent is the stateowned National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) bound by its dealings with private companies? In addition, should sovereign immunity apply to the action of a wholly state-owned corporation?

This article explores whether oil concession agreements are private contracts or public treaties. Specifically, to what extent is the stateowned National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) bound by its dealings with private companies? In addition, should sovereign immunity apply to the action of a wholly state-owned corporation?

The Mlondozi Dryland Maize project that developed into the Mlondozi LandCare project was a project that was aimed at developing the agricultural practices of the people in Mlondozi. It was the first LandCare project in South Africa. We learnt a lot, but more importantly we achieved a lot of successes. Special thanks are due to Hester Jansen van Rensburg, project leader, scientist, leader and motivator extraordinaire. This was a project for a community. Due to the complexities of the project, a number of experts were included in the project team. This included the farmers in Mlondozi, the Mpumalanga Department of Agriculture, especially Simon Tshabalala for his tireless enthusiasm and energy; Dr Jim Findley who taught us to teach the communities; Johann Adendorff, an inspiration and pioneer in community development; our sister Institutes the Plant Protection Research Institute, Jacomina Bloem and Dr Jolisa Pakela, the Institute for Agricultural Engineering Johan Fuls, Johan van Biljon and Gawie Stols; Animal Production Institute Gerry Trytsman, as well as Marie Smith for her much valued contribution with the statistical analysis. A special thank you to Nicolene Thiebaut for assistance with statistical analysis and the rewrite ; also Prof. Robin Barnard who has been my supervisor. To the host of unmentioned people, who contributed to the development of the Mlondozi community, thank-you. To my family who have been my inspiration and untiring support.

At the end of 1982, Mobil Oil Corporation (Mobil) withdrew from its Libyan oil exploration and production concessions. Subsequently, Mobil filed an arbitration claim against the Libyan Government, alleging that government action had effectively destroyed the economic value of Mobil’s concession. This arbitration raises substantial questions of transnational contract law. Part I of this Note provides the factual background to the Mobil-Libya dispute and a review of the major issues involved. Part II discusses the right of a host government to set export prices. Part III considers whether a host government may take unilateral action even though the concession agreement includes a stabilization clause. Part IV examines the issue of “creeping expropriation.” Part V analyzes the effect of the doctrine of permanent sovereignty over natural resources on the issues raised by the Mobil-Libya dispute. The Note concludes that when an oil concessionaire continues to operate in the host state fo...

The theory of internationalization of state contracts poses some of the hardest questions that relate to both public and private international law. The theory suggests that, no matter what law the parties to such a contract choose as the proper law of the contract, international law superimposes their choice and applies automatically as the overriding governing law. Thus where the law of the host state applies as the sole applicable law either by virtue of the parties' express choice or by the conflict of laws rule of closest connection in the absence of such choice, the theory of internationalization triggers off not only the theoretical controversies of monism versus dualism of public international law but also the issues of party autonomy and the doctrine of the proper law of the contract in private international law. Besides theoretical interest, the matter has great practical importance in the real world of foreign investment dispute settlement. While critically examining ...