Rumen Microbes

Objective: The present study was conducted to select a plant oil without inhibitory effects on rumen fermentation and microbes, and to determine the optimal supplementation level of the selected oil in a series of in vitro studies for dietary application. Then, the selected oil was evaluated in a feeding study using Thai crossbred beef cattle by monitoring growth, carcass, blood and rumen characteristics. Methods: Rumen fluid was incubated with substrates containing one of three different types of plant oil (coconut oil, palm oil, and soybean oil) widely available in Thailand. The effects of each oil on rumen fermentation and microbes were monitored and the oil without a negative influence on rumen parameters was selected. Then, the dose-response of rumen parameters to various levels of the selected palm oil was monitored to determine a suitable supplementation level. Finally, an 8-month feeding experiment with the diet supplemented with palm oil was carried out using 12 Thai crossbred beef cattle to monitor growth, carcass, rumen and blood profiles. Results: Batch culture studies revealed that coconut and soybean oils inhibited the most potent rumen cellulolytic bacterium Fibrobacter succinogenes, while palm oil had no such negative effect on this and on rumen fermentation products at 5% or higher supplementation level. Cattle fed the diet supplemented with 2.5% palm oil showed improved feed conversion ratio (FCR) without any adverse effects on rumen fermentation. Palm oil-supplemented diet increased blood cholesterol levels, suggesting a higher energy status of the experimental cattle. Conclusion: Palm oil had no negative effects on rumen fermentation and microbes when supplemented at levels up to 5% in vitro. Thai crossbred cattle fed the palm oil-supplemented diet showed improved FCR without apparent changes of rumen and carcass characteristics, but with elevated blood cholesterol levels. Therefore, palm oil can be used as a beneficial energy source.

Intracytoplasmic epithelial inclusion bodies in the digestive mucosa of fallow deer (Dama dama L.) were found to most probably be the result of an unspecific degenerative or post mortal change. There are reasons to believe that this is true also for the inclusion bodies found in reindeer, roe deer and moose.

Biotechnology has a role on animal feed improvement in three main ways, those are: value-addition to forage used as animal feed, production of feed additives and the manipulation of rumen microbes to improve feed utilization. Know a day; there is shortage of animal feed in most parts of the world, and an increasing in the price of feed ingredients, which is an indicative of improving feed utilization. The developing world accounts majority of the world's human population. Due to this fact, biotechnology has a key role in livestock feed improvement in order to fulfill the requirements of animals as well as human beings. Many of the biotechnological techniques can be employed in the area of quality assurance programs, which would be of great importance to produce livestock products of assured quality and public health safety. Monogastric animals, like pig and poultry, are unable to digest poor quality feeds unlike ruminant animals. Such animals need biotechnology to improve the nutritive value of poor-quality feed and its ability to digest fibers. As a result, the productive and reproductive performance of those livestock used biotechnological feeds become higher. Therefore, the objective of this review is to investigate the role or application of biotechnology on livestock feed improvement.

In penned sheep offered a mainly roughage diet, supplementation with 30, 50 or 60 g/day bentonite consistently increased the density of ruminal protozoa. The effect of 15 g/day bentonite administered via the drinking water to pregnant grazing ewes that were either normally faunated or had been defaunated for 6 months was studied. The wool growth of defaunated sheep at pasture was 25% greater (P < 0.05) than that of faunated animals. The wool growth of the latter was increased 17% (P < 0.15) by the addition of 15 g/day bentonite to their drinking water, while a similar addition of bentonite to defaunated sheep had no effect on wool growth. In this field study, supplementation with bentonite increased the population densities of protozoa free in the ruminal fluid of faunated sheep by 51% (5.6 X 105 v. 3.7 X 105, P<0.07). It is suggested that this allows a greater flow of protozoal protein from the rumen to the intestines, leading to increased wool growth in response to supple...

1. Experiments were undertaken to examine the kinetics of large ciliate protozoa in the rumen of cattle on sugar-cane diets.2. Three Zebu bulls were fed once daily on a diet of sugar cane and wheat bran. The diurnal patterns of volatile fatty acids and ammonia concentrations, and the numbers of protozoa in rumen fluid were determined. The numbers of protozoa reached values of 5 × 104/ml for holotrichs (large ciliates) mainly Isoiricha and Dasytricha spp and 4 × 105 for smaller protozoa, mainiy Entodinia (small ciliates)3. A method was developed which allowed large ciliate protozoa in rumen fluid to be separated from plant material and bacteria and concentrated in a relatively uncontaminated form. Analysis of these protozoa indicated that 1.8 × 105 large ciliates contained 1 mg nitrogen and approximately 32 mg dry matter4. A labelled preparation consisting mainly of large ciliates (principally Isotricha spp.) was obtained by incubating isolated protozoa in rumen fluid (free of plant ...

Biotechnology has a role on animal feed improvement in three main ways, those are: value-addition to forage used as animal feed, production of feed additives and the manipulation of rumen microbes to improve feed utilization. Know a day; there is shortage of animal feed in most parts of the world, and an increasing in the price of feed ingredients, which is an indicative of improving feed utilization. The developing world accounts majority of the world's human population. Due to this fact, biotechnology has a key role in livestock feed improvement in order to fulfill the requirements of animals as well as human beings. Many of the biotechnological techniques can be employed in the area of quality assurance programs, which would be of great importance to produce livestock products of assured quality and public health safety. Monogastric animals, like pig and poultry, are unable to digest poor quality feeds unlike ruminant animals. Such animals need biotechnology to improve the nutritive value of poor-quality feed and its ability to digest fibers. As a result, the productive and reproductive performance of those livestock used biotechnological feeds become higher. Therefore, the objective of this review is to investigate the role or application of biotechnology on livestock feed improvement.

Wild ruminants may differ in their protozoal fauna according to their feeding type, but a comprehensive evaluation of available data is lacking. Here, we evaluate the literature data available on the protozoal fauna (diversity, concentration and proportions of the major groups including Entodiniinae, Diplodiniinae and Isotrichidae) in relation to the natural diet (as percentage of grass in the natural diet, %grass) and body mass (BM) in 55 wild ruminant species. The effects of ruminant phylogeny were controlled for using phylogenies based on molecular data and phylogenetic generalized least-squares. Transferring results from domestic to wild ruminants, we hypothesized (1) a decrease in the proportion of Entodiniinae and an increase in that of Diplodiinae, with %grass in the natural diet; (2) a positive correlation between Diplodiinae and Isotrichidae; (3) no influence of BM on these protozoal groups. Based on the literature statements, we additionally expected that (4) protozoa diversity increased with %grass and BM and that (5) protozoa concentrations were independent of both BM but decreased with %grass. Only hypothesis 1 was confirmed completely. Isotrichidae and Diplodiinae only tended to correlate (P=0.08), but the proportion of Isotrichidae increased with BM. Protozoa diversity only increased with BM but not with %grass. Protozoa concentrations were very variable across the %grass range but in extreme grazers, only low concentrations were reported. The results indicate that diet determines protozoa concentrations and part of the taxonomic composition of the protozoal fauna, but not protozoal diversity. Yet, conditions determining the protozoal fauna have not been completely understood; in particular, conditions relating to the presence of Diplodiinae and Isotrichidae, which occur in opposing magnitudes in wild and domestic ruminants, respectively, remain to be investigated. The results indicate clear effects of the ecology of host species (BM, natural diet) on the ecology of their protozoal endobionts.

The stomach morphology of 28 species of artiodactyls that differ in feeding style (browser, mixed feeder, grazer) was analysed using a multivariate approach and phylogenetic correction in order to test whether stomach morphology was correlated with feeding style when body mass was controlled for. A total of 25 morphological traits of the stomach were used in the analysis. After the effects of body mass and phylogeny on stomach morphology were taken into account, there was no significant grouping of species according to feeding style. When information about the feeding style of each species was included in the analysis, the set of morphological traits separated the mixed feeders from the other two feeding styles, but grazers and browsers had similar morphological features. Most of the variance in stomach morphology was explained by body mass and a lesser proportion by phylogeny. The main morphological features that have previously been proposed as being adaptations in grazing species, namely, lengthening of the retention time of ingesta to achieve an increase in their fibre digestion capability by means of a larger relative stomach capacity, a greater subdivision of chambers and smaller openings, are not supported by the findings of this study. Thus, there is no consistent evidence to support a significant adaptive effect of stomach morphology to different diets in the Artiodactyla.

The digestive tract anatomy of 14 blackbucks (Antilope cervicapra) and seven Arabian sand gazelles (Gazella subgutturosa marica) was quantified by dimensions, area and weight. Data from the two small-sized antilopinae were evaluated against a larger comparative data set from other ruminants classified as having either a 'cattle-type' or 'moose-type' digestive system. The digestive anatomy of the blackbuck resembled that of 'cattle-type' ruminants, which corresponds to their feeding ecology and previous studies of solute and particle retention time; however, a surprising exception was the remarkably small omasum in this species, which makes the blackbuck stand out from the general rule of a relatively large omasum in grazing ruminants. Sand gazelles had morphological features that corresponded more to the 'moose type' or an intermediate position, although previous studies of solute and particle retention time had led to the expectation of a more 'c...

This study aimed at surveying intestinal protozoan ciliates of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Tsavo West National Park, Kenya. Faecal samples of seven elephants chemically immobilized for translocation were collected opportunistically and flotation-sedimentation techniques used to assess the presence of ciliates. Identification of ciliates was based on morphological features such as shape, presence and morphology of external spines and lobes, microand macronuclei, and internal skeletal plates. Seven ciliate families and 27 genera were found in the faecal samples of the elephants. The families included Blepharocorythidae, Buetschliidae, Cycloposthiidae, Isotrichidae, Ophryoscoleciidae, Paraisotrichidae and Troglodytellidae. The dominant families were Buetschliidae with nine ciliate genera and Cycloposthiidae with eight. These ciliates in the caecum and colon of elephants are similar to those in the rumen and reticulum of ruminants. They digest plant fibres (principally ...

The macroscopic anatomy of the stomach of the adult pampas deer, Ozotoceros bezoarticus (Linnaeus, 1758), a cervid species considered to ingest high quantities of grass in its natural diet, was described. Fourteen deceased adult pampas deer of both sexes from a captive breeding station were used for this study. There were no differences in the absolute or relative size from the different compartments of the stomach in relation to gender. Compared to measurements in other ruminants, pampas deer appeared anatomically capable of feeding on a variety of diets as an 'intermediate feeder'.

Rumen protozoa ciliate has been studied and debated for long time, however, their real role as component of biomass in the rumen maintains unclear. Buffaloes have been raised on grazing system in Brazil and almost around the world. The diet is the principal cause that affects direct and indirectly the rumen microbial population and it's the interaction between the microbes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the rumen protozoa population (density and composition) in buffaloes on two feeding systems: grazing an exclusive tropical grass pasture and grazing with concentrate ration. Thus, four buffaloes with rumen cannula were used in a switchback design with two treatments and two periods with 27 days each. Differences were observed in the density of rumen protozoa population, but not in its composition between both treatments. The total number of ciliates was increased by 66% when buffaloes received concentrate ration. In addition, it was observed high level of protozoa belong the subfamily Diplodiniinaeand, the ciliates of genus Entodinium have consisted half of the total protozoa population.

The gastrointestinal tracts of most herbivorous mammals are colonized by symbiotic ciliates of the subclass Trichostomatia, which form a well-supported monophyletic group, currently composed by ∼1,000 species, 129 genera, and 21 families, distributed into three orders, Entodiniomorphida, Macropodiniida, and Vestibuliferida. In recent years, trichostomatid ciliates have been playing a part in many relevant functional studies, such as those focusing in host feeding efficiency optimization and those investigating their role in the gastrointestinal methanogenesis, as many trichostomatids are known to establish endosymbiotic associations with methanogenic Archaea. However, the systematics of trichostomatids presents many inconsistencies. Here, we stress the importance of more taxonomic works, to improve classification schemes of this group of organisms, preparing the ground to proper development of such relevant applied works. We will present a historical review of the systematics of the subclass Trichostomatia highlighting taxonomic problems and inconsistencies. Further on, we will discuss possible solutions to these issues and propose future directions to leverage our comprehension about taxonomy and evolution of these symbiotic microeukaryotes.

Based on data from 33 sheep, bacterial concentrations per gram of rumen contents were correlated highly with total bacterial numbers (r = .99). Diets ranged from all forage to 90% concentrate. Similar data were obtained from cattle fed a corn silage diet (r = .95); however, the slope of the regression lines differed between species. Weight of rumen contents was correlated poorly with total bacterial numbers.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of the presence of protozoa in the rumen of wild roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) on the bacteria composition and digestion rate of the main carbohydrates of forage. The research material involved rumen content and rumen fluid, which were collected in the autumn-winter season, from eight adult males of roe deer with an average body mass of 22.6 kg. The microscopic analysis demonstrated that there were only protozoa in 50% of the animals sampled. Qualitative analysis revealed the presence of protozoa belonging to the genus Entodinium. The density of protozoal population varied from 6.5 to 38.7 × 105/mL rumen fluid. The analysis of bacteria composition indicated that protozoa did not have an effect on bacterial diversity. Furthermore, the results of hydrolytic activity revealed that the fastest digestion of carbohydrates was for pectin, while the slowest was inulin. The pH and redox potential in the rumen varied from 5.9 to 6.1 and fro...

The role of rumen ciliates in starch digestion is not well known. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of the ciliates Eudiplodinium maggii and Entodinium caudatum on the turnover of dietary starch in the rumen. It was found that ciliates significantly increased the contents of α-D-glucose polymers in the rumen and their amount passing to the omasum (P<0.05). Competition among the ciliate species for starch was also observed. It is concluded that the effect of ciliates on the metabolism of starch consists of a restrictive influence on the bacterial fermentation of this polysaccharide in the rumen.

Quantitative data on digestive anatomy of the world's largest ruminant, the giraffe, are scarce. Data were collected from a total of 25 wild-caught and 13 zoo-housed giraffes. Anatomical measures were quantified by dimension, area or weight and analysed by allometric regression. The majority of measures scaled positively and isometrically to body mass. Giraffes had lower tissue weight of all stomach compartments and longer large intestinal length than cattle. When compared to other ruminants, the giraffe digestive tract showed many of the convergent morphological adaptations attributed to browsing ruminants, for example lower reticular crests, thinner ruminal pillars and smaller surface area of the omasal laminae. Salivary gland weight of the giraffe, however, resembled that of grazing ruminants. This matches a previous finding of similarly small salivary glands in the other extant giraffid, the okapi (Okapia johnstoni), suggesting that not all convergent characteristics need be expressed in all species and that morphological variation between species is a combination of phylogenetic and adaptational signals.

Phosphate uptake into intracellular inorganic phosphorus and cellular phospholipids and the relationship between cell growth and phospholipid synthesis were studied with suspensions of washed ruminal bacteria in vitro with (33)P-phosphorus. It was shown that ruminal bacteria accumulated inorganic phosphate at a low rate when incubated without substrate. Upon the addition of substrate, the rate of inorganic phosphorus uptake into the cells increased markedly, and phospholipid synthesis and cell growth commenced. There was a highly significant relationship (r = 0.98; P &lt; 0.01) between phospholipid synthesis and cell growth. The specific activity of the intracellular inorganic phosphorus did not equilibrate with phosphorus medium. When ruminal contents from sheep fed a high or low protein diet were incubated in vitro, the rate of (33)P incorporation into microbial phospholipids was higher for the high protein diet. Since there was a high relationship between phospholipid synthesis a...

Biotechnology has a role on animal feed improvement in three main ways, those are: value-addition to forage used as animal feed, production of
feed additives and the manipulation of rumen microbes to improve feed utilization. Know a day; there is shortage of animal feed in most parts of the
world, and an increasing in the price of feed ingredients, which is an indicative of improving feed utilization. The developing world accounts majority
of the world’s human population. Due to this fact, biotechnology has a key role in livestock feed improvement in order to fulfill the requirements of
animals as well as human beings. Many of the biotechnological techniques can be employed in the area of quality assurance programs, which would
be of great importance to produce livestock products of assured quality and public health safety. Monogastric animals, like pig and poultry, are
unable to digest poor quality feeds unlike ruminant animals. Such animals need biotechnology to improve the nutritive value of poor-quality feed
and its ability to digest fibers. As a result, the productive and reproductive performance of those livestock used biotechnological feeds become higher.
Therefore, the objective of this review is to investigate the role or application of biotechnology on livestock feed improvement

SUMMARY: The macroscopic anatomy of the stomach in four adult dorcas gazelle was described. Four adult, two male and two female dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas) of the Frigya Zoological Park, Enfidha, Tunisie, were used in this study. The ruminal papillae were distributed unequally in the rumen, and were larger and more abundant within the atrium and in the two saccus cecus. The papillae were absent in dorsal part of the dorsal sac. The ruminal pillars had no papillae. The cellulae reticuli were divided and contained secondary and tertiary crests. The curvatura omasi measured 12.1±0.1 cm. A comparison with literature data for sand gazelles (Gazella subgutturosa marica) emphasises that differences between closely related species that fill similar niches cannot be expected to follow a clear pattern, but yield an inhomogenous picture, with some measurements more tending towards a specific feeding type in the one, and some other measurements tending more towards that feeding type in the other species.We concluded that the stomach morphology of the dorcas gazelle indicates the'cattle-type' morphophysiology representative for intermediate feeders.

Ten young rumen-cannulated crossbred steers were randomly divided into two groups: a control group (C; n=4), which was fed a balanced diet for daily weight gain of 900g; and a pronounced energy-deprived group (PED; n=6), receiving 30% less of the required energy for maintenance. After 140 days of these alimentary regimes, rumen fluid and urine samples were collected for biochemical and functional tests, before feeding and at 1, 3, 6, and 9 hours after feeding. The energy-deprivation diet caused a significant reduction in the number of Entodinium, Eodinium, Isotricha, Dasytricha, Eremoplastron, Eudiplodinium, Metadinium, Charonina, Ostracodinium, and Epidinium protozoa. There was no effect of the time of sampling in both groups on the total number of ciliates in rumen fluid. A higher number of protozoan forms in binary division were recorded in the control group, at the 6 th and 9 th hours after feeding (P<0.019). There was a high positive correlation between the total count of protozoans in rumen fluid and glucose fermentation, ammonia, and urinary allantoin excretion index; and a negative correlation between the total count of protozoa and metilene blue reduction, and a medium correlation between the total count of protozoa and total volatile fatty acids concentration. The determination of the protozoa populations does not imply in the use of complex and hard-to-execute techniques, although it is time consuming and needs practice. This exam particularly helps in clinical expected diagnosis.

Rumen protozoa ciliate has been studied and debated for long time, however, their real role as component of biomass in the rumen maintains unclear. Buffaloes have been raised on grazing system in Brazil and almost around the world. The diet is the principal cause that affects direct and indirectly the rumen microbial population and it's the interaction between the microbes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the rumen protozoa population (density and composition) in buffaloes on two feeding systems: grazing an exclusive tropical grass pasture and grazing with concentrate ration. Thus, four buffaloes with rumen cannula were used in a switchback design with two treatments and two periods with 27 days each. Differences were observed in the density of rumen protozoa population, but not in its composition between both treatments. The total number of ciliates was increased by 66% when buffaloes received concentrate ration. In addition, it was observed high level of protozoa belong the subfamily Diplodiniinaeand, the ciliates of genus Entodinium have consisted half of the total protozoa population.

Studies conducted with slaughtered ruminants demonstrate the occurrence of variations in the distribution and concentration of ciliated protozoa among gastric compartments. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of the use of diets containing different concentrate levels on the distribution of ciliated protozoa in the stomach compartments of sheep. We used 22 Morada Nova sheep kept in individual pens and distributed in randomized blocks. The animals were fed with diets based on Tifton 85 hay (Cynodon dactylon) with increasing levels of concentrate (20, 40, 60 and 80%) composed of corn, soybean meal and vegetable oil. Samples of gastric contents of each compartment were obtained the center of mass of the ruminal, the reticular and the omasal at slaughter of animals. The identification and quantification of the ciliate were made in Sedgewick-Rafter chamber. The total average density and generic composition of protozoa were subjected to analysis of variance ANOVA Multi-Way i...

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A container with nylon and stainless steel mesh screens (10 pm and 20 pm pores, respectively), which allowed the passage of bacteria and soluble substrate but restricted the passage of protozoa, was used to investigate the phenomena of sequestration, migration and lysis of protozoa in the rumen of steers. After feeding, the concentration of Isotrichidae in the rumen increased 8-7-fold within 40 min and then decreased 88% by 4 h; however, the concentration of Isotrichidae inside the containers remained almost constant. Fluctuations in concentrations of Isotrichidae were shown to be due to migration and sequestration within the rumen. Ophryoscolecidae did not exhibit the phenomena of sequestration and migration. When steers were fed once a day, about 50% of the decrease in the concentration of Ophryoscolecidae immediately after feeding could be attributed to the dilution effects of feed and water and/or passage out of the rumen. The remaining 50% of the decrease appeared to be from cell lysis, resulting in a wasteful recycling of protozoal protein.

PÉREZ, W. Gross anatomy of the stomach of the cervus Elaphus barbarus. Int. J. Morphol., 31(2):388-391, 2013. SUMMARY: The barbary stag is an intermediate feeder ruminant of the Cervidae family. The macroscopic anatomy of the stomach in one adult barbary stag was described. The stomach of the barbary stag was composed of the four classic compartments of the ruminants. The weight of the full stomach was 10.5 Kg. The ruminal papillae were distributed unevenly in the rumen. The maximum height of the cristae reticuli was 0.2 cm. The cellulae reticuli were mostly undivided. The curvatura omasi measured 15.0 cm and the omasum had 15 primary, 10 secondary, 10 tertiary and 17 cuaternaryLaminae omasi. The abomasum had about 12 plicae spirales abomasi.We concluded that the stomach morphology of the barbary stag had characteristics of other intermediate feeder ruminants.

Digesta retention patterns have been suggested to play a major role in ruminant diversification. Two major digestion types have been proposed, termed 'cattle-type' and 'moose-type', that broadly correspond to the feeding categories of grazers and intermediate feeders on the one, and browsers on the other hand. We measured and calculated the mean retention time (MRT) of a solute and a particle (b 2 mm) marker in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and the reticulorumen (RR) of a small grazer, the Indian blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra, n = 5, body mass of 26 ± 4 kg) and an intermediate feeder, the nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus, n = 5, body mass of 168 ± 21 kg). MRT solute and MRT particle were 29 ± 4.1 h and 60 ± 6.6 h in blackbuck and 28 ± 2.5 h and 54 ± 8.9 h in the nilgai for the GIT, and 14 ± 1.7 h, 45 ± 5.0 h, 19 ± 2.0 h and 45 ± 8.4 h for the RR, respectively. With a selectivity factor (SF, the ratio of MRT particle to MRT solute ) in the RR of 3.2 ± 0.28 for blackbuck and 2.3 ± 0.36 for nilgai, both species are clearly in the category of 'cattle-type' ruminants. In particular, the high SF RR of blackbuck, in spite of its small body size, is remarkable, and leads to specific predictions on the RR anatomy of this species (such as a particularly large omasum), which can be tested in further studies. The adaptive value of a high SF RR is mainly considered as an increase in microbial productivity in the RR.

Digesta flow plays an important role in ruminant digestive physiology. We measured the mean retention time (MRT) of a solute and a particle marker in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and the reticulorumen (RR) of five gazelles and one dikdik species. Species-specific differences were independent from body mass (BM) or food intake. Comparative evaluations (including up to 31 other ruminant species) indicate that MRT GIT relate positively to BM, and are less related to feeding type (the percentage of grass in the natural diet, %grass) than MRT RR. The MRT particle RR is related to BM and (as a trend) %grass, matching a higher RR capacity with increasing BM in grazers compared to browsers. MRT solute RR is neither linked to BM nor to %grass but shows a consistent phylogenetic signal. Selectivity factors (SF; MRT particle /MRT solute , proxies for the degree of digesta washing) are positively related to %grass, with a threshold effect, where species with N 20% grass have higher SF. These findings suggest that in different ruminant taxa, morphophysiological adaptations controlling MRT solute RR evolved to achieve a similar SF RR in relation to a %grass threshold. A high SF could facilitate an increased microbial yield from the forestomach. Reasons for variation in SF above the %grass threshold might represent important drivers of ruminant diversification and await closer investigation.

Fluid and particle retention in the digestive tract of the addax antelope (Addax nasomaculatus)--adaptations of a grazing desert ruminant Hummel, J; Steuer, P; Südekum, K H; Hammer, S; Hammer, C; Streich, W J; Clauss, M Hummel, J; Steuer, P; Südekum, K H; Hammer, S; Hammer, C; Streich, W J; Clauss, M (2008). Fluid and particle retention in the digestive tract of the addax antelope (Addax nasomaculatus)--adaptations of a grazing desert ruminant.

RIASSUNTO -Selezione alimentare e popolazione protozoaria del rumine in caprioli (Capreolus capreolus), daini (Dama dama) e mufloni (Ovis musimon). Sono state studiate la dieta e le caratteristiche della popolazione protozoaria del rumine su un campione di caprioli, daini e mufloni abbattuti nella provincia di Arezzo. L'analisi della dieta è stata realizzata valutando le caratteristiche istologiche dei frammenti vegetali ruminali. La concentrazione dei protozoi e la loro classificazione è stata determinata al microscopio ottico. La dieta dei caprioli è risultata composta principalmente da specie arboreo-arbustive (70%), che hanno costituito invece il 45-50% della dieta di daini e mufloni. La sovrapposizione tra diete è stata massima tra daino e muflone e minima tra muflone e capriolo. La popolazione protozoaria è risultata molto limitata nel capriolo (2,16±0,67 x 10 4 /ml), più consistente nel muflone (89,64±26,56 x 10 4 /ml) e nel daino (170,72±19,95 x 10 4 /ml); il genere Entodinium è stato l'unico rinvenuto nel capriolo ed ha rappresentato la forma dominante nel daino (88%) e nel muflone (99%).

Digesta flow plays an important role in ruminant digestive physiology. We measured the mean retention time (MRT) of a solute and a particle marker in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and the reticulorumen (RR) of five gazelles and one dikdik species. Species-specific differences were independent from body mass (BM) or food intake. Comparative evaluations (including up to 31 other ruminant species) indicate that MRT GIT relate positively to BM, and are less related to feeding type (the percentage of grass in the natural diet, %grass) than MRT RR. The MRT particle RR is related to BM and (as a trend) %grass, matching a higher RR capacity with increasing BM in grazers compared to browsers. MRT solute RR is neither linked to BM nor to %grass but shows a consistent phylogenetic signal. Selectivity factors (SF; MRT particle /MRT solute , proxies for the degree of digesta washing) are positively related to %grass, with a threshold effect, where species with N 20% grass have higher SF. These findings suggest that in different ruminant taxa, morphophysiological adaptations controlling MRT solute RR evolved to achieve a similar SF RR in relation to a %grass threshold. A high SF could facilitate an increased microbial yield from the forestomach. Reasons for variation in SF above the %grass threshold might represent important drivers of ruminant diversification and await closer investigation.

Concentration and composition of ciliate protozoa in the families Ophryoscolecidae and Isotrichidae were determined in rumen contents of domestic sheep (Ovis ummon aries) from Cyprus. A total of five genera of Ophryoscolecidae were identified. Metadinium, Enoploplastron, Polyplastron, Epidinium, and Ophryoscolex, which included six species: Merudiniurn u&e. Enuploplnstron triloricatum, Polyplastron multivesiculatum. Epidinium ecuudatum, Epidinium graini, und Ophrymco fex purkynjei. Eight separate forms of Epidinium were identified (E.

The increasing availability of published evolutionary trees and phylogenetic methods has changed the way we tackle the study of evolution. In this sense, ruminants have become one paradigmatic object of study due to their ecological variety and well-known evolutionary history. The last decades of ruminant research have benefited from diverse phylogenetic approaches, offering new perspectives on classic ideas and, sometimes, allowing to test previously untestable hypotheses. As a result, we now start to understand the complexity of the evolutionary responses of this clade to past global environmental changes. This is a brief review of some of the most outstanding and groundbreaking tree-based contributions to the research on the evolutionary ecology of this fascinating group of herbivorous macromammals.

In the ongoing debate about divergent evolutionary morphophysiological adaptations of grazing and browsing ruminants, the size of the salivary glands has received special attention. Here, we report the most comprehensive dataset on ruminant salivary glands so far, with data on the Glandula parotis (n 5 62 species), Gl. mandibularis (n 5 61), Gl. buccalis ventralis (n 5 44), and Gl. sublingualis (n 5 30). All four salivary gland complexes showed allometric scaling with body mass (BM); in all cases, the 95% confidence interval for the allometric exponent included 0.75 but did not include 1.0 (linearity); therefore, like other parameters linked to the process of food intake, salivary gland mass appears to be correlated to metabolic body weight (BM 0.75 ), and comparisons of relative salivary gland mass between species should rather be made on the basis of BM 0.75 than as a percentage of BM. In the subsequent analyses, the percentage of grass (%grass) in the natural diet was used to characterize the feeding type; the phylogenetic tree used for a controlled statistical evaluation was entirely based on mitochondrial DNA information. Regardless of phylogenetic control in the statistical treatment, there was, for all four gland complexes, a significant positive correlation of BM and gland mass, and a significant negative correlation between %grass in the natural diet and gland mass. If the Gl. parotis was analyzed either for cervid or for bovid species only, the negative correlation of gland mass and %grass was still significant in either case; an inspection of certain ruminant subfamilies, however, suggested that a convergent evolutionary adaptation can only be demonstrated if a sufficient variety of ruminant subfamilies are included in a dataset. The results support the concept that ruminant species that ingest more grass have smaller salivary glands, possibly indicating a reduced requirement for the production of salivary tannin-binding proteins.

The reticulum is the second part of the ruminant forestomach, located between the rumen and the omasum and characterized by honeycomb-like internal mucosa. With its fluid contents, it plays a decisive role in particle separation. Differences among species have been linked to their feeding style. We investigated whether reticulum size (absolute and in relation to rumen size) and size of the crests that form the mucosal honeycomb pattern differ among over 60 ruminant species of various body sizes and feeding type, controlling for phylogeny. Linear dimensions generally scaled allometrically, that is to body mass 0.33 . With or without controlling for phylogeny, species that ingest a higher proportion of grass in their natural diet had both significantly larger (higher) rumens and higher reticular mucosa crests, but neither reticulum height nor reticulum width varied with feeding type. The height of the reticular mucosa crests represents a dietary adaptation in ruminants. We suggest that the reticular honeycomb structures do not separate particles by acting as traps (neither for small nor for large particles), but that the structures reduce the lumen of the reticulum during contractions -at varying degrees of completeness in the different feeding types. In browsing species with rumen contents that may be less fluid and more viscous than those of the reticulum, incomplete closure of the lumen may allow the reticulum to retain the fluid necessary for particle separation. In grazing species, whose rumen contents are more stratified with a larger distinct fluid pool, a more complete closure of the reticular lumen due to higher crests may be beneficial as the reticulum can quickly re-fill with fluid rumen contents that contain pre-sorted particles.

Wild ruminants may differ in their protozoal fauna according to their feeding type, but a comprehensive evaluation of available data is lacking. Here, we evaluate the literature data available on the protozoal fauna (diversity, concentration and proportions of the major groups including Entodiniinae, Diplodiniinae and Isotrichidae) in relation to the natural diet (as percentage of grass in the natural diet, %grass) and body mass (BM) in 55 wild ruminant species. The effects of ruminant phylogeny were controlled for using phylogenies based on molecular data and phylogenetic generalized least-squares. Transferring results from domestic to wild ruminants, we hypothesized (1) a decrease in the proportion of Entodiniinae and an increase in that of Diplodiinae, with %grass in the natural diet; (2) a positive correlation between Diplodiinae and Isotrichidae; (3) no influence of BM on these protozoal groups. Based on the literature statements, we additionally expected that (4) protozoa diversity increased with %grass and BM and that (5) protozoa concentrations were independent of both BM but decreased with %grass. Only hypothesis 1 was confirmed completely. Isotrichidae and Diplodiinae only tended to correlate (P= 0.08), but the proportion of Isotrichidae increased with BM. Protozoa diversity only increased with BM but not with %grass. Protozoa concentrations were very variable across the %grass range but in extreme grazers, only low concentrations were reported. The results indicate that diet determines protozoa concentrations and part of the taxonomic composition of the protozoal fauna, but not protozoal diversity. Yet, conditions determining the protozoal fauna have not been completely understood; in particular, conditions relating to the presence of Diplodiinae and Isotrichidae, which occur in opposing magnitudes in wild and domestic ruminants, respectively, remain to be investigated. The results indicate clear effects of the ecology of host species (BM, natural diet) on the ecology of their protozoal endobionts. 170 Protozoa in wild ruminants M. Clauss et al.

A rapid method has been developed for molecular identification of rumen ciliates without the need for cultivation. Total DNA was isolated from single protozoal cells by the Chelex method and nearly complete protozoal 18S rRNA genes were amplified and subjected to restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. On the basis of restriction patterns generated a molecular key was elaborated allowing identification of protozoa solely by a molecular technique without prior knowledge of morphology. No differences were observed between identical species originating from different animals or geographic locations, or between morphological variants of the same species. The ARDREA analysis described here provides a rapid and convenient way for identification and diversity studies of rumen protozoa.

A rapid method has been developed for molecular identification of rumen ciliates without the need for cultivation. Total DNA was isolated from single protozoal cells by the Chelex method and nearly complete protozoal 18S rRNA genes were amplified and subjected to restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. On the basis of restriction patterns generated a molecular key was elaborated allowing identification of protozoa solely by a molecular technique without prior knowledge of morphology. No differences were observed between identical species originating from different animals or geographic locations, or between morphological variants of the same species. The ARDREA analysis described here provides a rapid and convenient way for identification and diversity studies of rumen protozoa.

SUMMARY: The barbary stag is an intermediate feeder ruminant of the Cervidae family. The macroscopic anatomy of the
stomach in one adult barbary stag was described. The stomach of the barbary stag was composed of the four classic compartments of the
ruminants. The weight of the full stomach was 10.5 Kg. The ruminal papillae were distributed unevenly in the rumen. The maximum
height of the cristae reticuli was 0.2 cm. The cellulae reticuli were mostly undivided. The curvatura omasi measured 15.0 cm and the
omasum had 15 primary, 10 secondary, 10 tertiary and 17 cuaternaryLaminae omasi. The abomasum had about 12 plicae spirales
abomasi.We concluded that the stomach morphology of the barbary stag had characteristics of other intermediate feeder
ruminants.
KEY WORDS: Abomasum; Abdomen; Cervidae; Forestomach; Proventriculus.
INTRODUCTION
The classification of ruminants into three groups
according to their feeding types (browsers, intermediate
feeders, grazers) has been linked to anatomical studies,
mainly of African, European, and North American species
(Hofmann,1973, 1988). Most cervids are considered either
browsers (i.e., natural diet consisting mainly of
dicotyledonous forage, like tree foliage, herbs, or wild fruits)
or intermediate feeders (i.e., consuming monocotyledonous
forage – grasses – to a certain degree, mostly dependent on
seasonal variation in forage availability) (Hofmann, 1985).
The barbary stag (Cervus elaphus barbarus), or atlas
deer is a subspecies of red deer that is the only member
of the deer family that is native to Africa in the countries of
Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco.
Cervus elaphus was considered an intermediate feeder,
with a tendency to include more browse than grass intheir
natural diet (Gebert&Verheyden-Tixier, 2001).
In this work we described the stomach of one male
Cervus elaphus

This research has been done to study the effects of different levels of sodium bentonite (2 and 4%) on ciliate protozoa population in Arabi sheep. Twelve sheep (4 replicates per treatment) were fed with a diet containing 50% concentrate and 50% forage in individual cages for a period of 21 days. In the final day of adaptation period, rumen fluid samples were taken out of them 3 hours after morning feeding, and mixed with formaldehyde (10%). Then stain with logol solution, methylene blue and brilliant green. Finally these samples studied for determining protozoa population by hemocytometer lam. The result showed that, protozoa numbers in the treatment containing bentonite (2 and 4%), were (7.25 × 4 -10 , and 2.26 × 4 -10 per ml respectively) lower than the treatment without bentonite, significantly (p<0.05). Other species of Holotricha, in the diet containing 4% bentonite were generally omitted. Entodinium gender in treatment containing 2% bentonite was more than 4% and control treatment. Therefore, it appears that sodium bentonite can be used as an appropriate feed additive for reduction of protozoa population in sheep.